manpossessesthetheoreticalrightofpassingthebarrierswhichseparatehimfromtheupperclassesbyawholeseriesofcompetitionsandexaminations，hischanceofreachingthemisinrealityextremelyslight。
Thedemocracyoftheletteredclasseshasnootherobjectthantosetupaselectionwhichshallrecruitthedirectingclassesexclusivelyfromthemselves。Ishouldhavenothingtosayagainstthisiftheselectionwerereal。ItwouldthenconstitutetheapplicationofthemaximofNapoleon：``Thetruemethodofgovernmentistoemploythearistocracy，butundertheformsofdemocracy。’’
Unhappilythedemocracyofthe``intellectuals’’wouldsimplyleadtothesubstitutionoftheDivinerightofkingsbytheDivinerightofapettyoligarchy，whichistoooftennarrowandtyrannical。Libertycannotbecreatedbyreplacingatyranny。
Populardemocracybynomeansaimsatmanufacturingrulers。
Dominatedentirelybythespiritofequalityandthedesiretoamelioratethelotoftheworkers，itrejectstheideaoffraternity，andexhibitsnoanxietyinrespectofliberty。Nogovernmentisconceivabletopopulardemocracyexceptintheformofanautocracy。Weseethis，notonlyinhistory，whichshowsusthatsincetheRevolutionalldespoticGovernmentshavebeenvigorouslyacclaimed，butalsointheautocraticfashioninwhichtheworkers’tradesunionsareconducted。
Thisprofounddistinctionbetweenthedemocracyoftheletteredclassesandpopulardemocracyisfarmoreobvioustotheworkersthantotheintellectuals。Intheirmentalitiesthereisnothingincommon；thetwoclassesdonotspeakthesamelanguage。Thesyndicalistsemphaticallyassertto—daythatnoalliancecouldpossiblyexistbetweenthemandthepoliticiansofthebourgeoisie。Thisassertionisstrictlytrue。
Itwasalwaysso，andthis，nodoubt，iswhypopulardemocracy，fromPlato’stoourowntimes，hasneverbeendefendedbythegreatthinkers。
ThisfacthasgreatlystruckEmileFaguet。``Almostallthethinkersofthenineteenthcentury，’’hesays，``werenotdemocrats。WhenIwaswritingmyPolitiquesetmoralistesduXIXesieclethiswasmydespair。Icouldnotfindonewhohadbeenademocrat；yetIwasextremelyanxioustofindonesothatIcouldgivethedemocraticdoctrineasformulatedbyhim。’’
Theeminentwritermightcertainlyhavefoundplentyofprofessionalpoliticians，buttheselatterrarelybelongtothecategoryofthinkers。
2。NaturalInequalitiesandDemocraticEqualisation。
Thedifficultyofreconcilingdemocraticequalisationwithnaturalinequalitiesconstitutesoneofthemostdifficultproblemsofthepresenthour。Weknowwhatarethedesiresofdemocracy。LetusseewhatNaturerepliestothesedemands。
ThedemocraticideaswhichhavesooftenshakentheworldfromtheheroicagesofGreecetomoderntimesarealwaysclashingwithnaturalinequalities。Someobservershaveheld，withHelvetius，thattheinequalitybetweenmeniscreatedbyeducation。
Asamatteroffact，Naturedoesnotknowsuchathingasequality。Shedistributesunevenlygenius，beauty，health，vigour，intelligence，andallthequalitieswhichconferontheirpossessorsasuperiorityovertheirfellows。
Notheorycanalterthesediscrepancies，sothatdemocraticdoctrineswillremainconfinedtowordsuntilthelawsofheredityconsenttounifythecapacitiesofmen。
CanwesupposethatsocietieswilleversucceedinestablishingartificiallytheequalityrefusedbyNature？
Afewtheoristshavebelievedforalongtimethateducationmighteffectagenerallevelling。Manyyearsofexperiencehaveshownthedepthofthisillusion。
Itwouldnot，however，beimpossibleforatriumphantSocialismtoestablishequalityforatimebyrigorouslyeliminatingallsuperiorindividuals。Onecaneasilyforeseewhatwouldbecomeofapeoplethathadsuppresseditsbestindividualswhilesurroundedbyothernationsprogressingbymeansoftheirbestindividuals。
NotonlydoesNaturenotknowequality，butsincethebeginningoftheagesshehasalwaysrealisedprogressbymeansofsuccessivedifferentiations——thatistosay，byincreasinginequalities。Thesealonecouldraisetheobscurecelloftheearlygeologicalperiodstothesuperiorbeingswhoseinventionsweretochangethefaceoftheearth。
Thesamephenomenonistobeobservedinsocieties。Theformsofdemocracywhichselectthebetterelementsofthepopularclassesfinallyresultinthecreationofanintellectualaristocracy，aresultthecontraryofthedreamofthepuretheorists，tobeatdownthesuperiorelementsofsocietytotheleveloftheinferiorelements。
Onthesideofnaturallaw，whichishostiletotheoriesofequality，aretheconditionsofmodernprogress。Scienceandindustrydemandmoreandmoreconsiderableintellectualefforts，sothatmentalinequalitiesandthedifferencesofsocialconditionwhichspringfromthemcannotbutbecomeaccentuated。
Wethereforeobservethisstrikingphenomenon：aslawsandinstitutionsseektolevelindividualstheprogressofcivilisationtendsstillfurthertodifferentiatethem。Fromthepeasanttothefeudalbarontheintellectualdifferencewasnotgreat，butfromtheworking—mantotheengineeritisimmenseandisincreasingdaily。
Capacitybeingtheprincipalfactorofprogress，thecapableofeachclassrisewhilethemediocreremainstationaryorsink。
Whatcouldlawsdointhefaceofsuchinevitablenecessities？
Invaindotheincapablepretendthat，representingnumber，theyalsorepresentforce。Deprivedofthesuperiorbrainsbywhoseresearchesallworkersprofit，theywouldspeedilysinkintopovertyandanarchy。
Thecapitalroleoftheelectinmoderncivilisationseemstooobvioustoneedpointingout。Inthecaseofcivilisednationsandbarbarianpeoples，whichcontainsimilaraveragesofmediocrities，thesuperiorityoftheformerarisessolelyfromthesuperiormindswhichtheycontain。TheUnitedStateshaveunderstoodthissothoroughlythattheyforbidtheimmigrationofChineseworkers，whosecapacityisidenticalwiththatofAmericanworkers，andwho，workingforlowerwages，tendtocreateaformidablecompetitionwiththelatter。Despitetheseevidencesweseetheantagonismbetweenthemultitudeandtheelectincreasingdaybyday。Atnoperiodweretheelectmorenecessary，yetneverweretheysupportedwithsuchdifficulty。
OneofthemostsolidfoundationsofSocialismisanintensehatredoftheelect。Itsadeptsalwaysforgetthatscientific，artistic，andindustrialprogress，whichcreatesthestrengthofacountryandtheprosperityofmillionsofworkers，isduesolelytoasmallnumberofsuperiorbrains。
Iftheworkermakesthreetimesasmuchto—dayashedidahundredyearsago，andenjoyscommoditiesthenunknowntogreatnobles，heowesitentirelytotheelect。
SupposethatbysomemiracleSocialismhadbeenuniversallyacceptedacenturyago。Risk，speculation，initiative——inaword，allthestimulantsofhumanactivity——beingsuppressed，noprogresswouldhavebeenpossible，andtheworkerwouldhaveremainedaspoorashewas。Menwouldmerelyhaveestablishedthatequalityinpovertydesiredbythejealousyandenvyofahostofmediocreminds。Humanitywillneverrenouncetheprogressofcivilisationtosatisfysolowanideal。
CHAPTERII
THERESULTSOFDEMOCRATICEVOLUTION
1。TheInfluenceuponSocialEvolutionofTheoriesofnoRationalValue。
Wehaveseenthatnaturallawsdonotagreewiththeaspirationsofdemocracy。Weknow，also，thatsuchastatementhasneveraffecteddoctrinesalreadyinmen’sminds。Themanledbyabeliefnevertroublesaboutitsrealvalue。
Thephilosopherwhostudiesabeliefmustobviouslydiscussitsrationalcontent，butheismoreconcernedwithitsinfluencesuponthegeneralmind。
Appliedtotheinterpretationofallthegreatbeliefsofhistory，theimportanceofthisdistinctionisatonceevident。
Jupiter，Moloch，Vishnu，Allah，andsomanyotherdivinities，were，nodoubt，fromtherationalpointofview，mereillusions，yettheireffectuponthelifeofthepeopleshasbeenconsiderable。
ThesamedistinctionisapplicabletothebeliefswhichprevailedduringtheMiddleAges。Equallyillusory，theyneverthelessexercisedasprofoundaninfluenceasiftheyhadcorrespondedwithrealities。
Ifanyonedoubtsthis，lethimcomparethedominationoftheRomanEmpireandthatoftheChurchofRome。Thefirstwasperfectlyrealandtangible，andimpliednoillusion。Thesecond，whileitsfoundationswereentirelychimerical，wasfullyaspowerful。Thankstoit，duringthelongnightoftheMiddleAges，semi—barbarouspeoplesacquiredthosesocialbondsandrestraintsandthatnationalsoulwithoutwhichthereisnocivilisation。
ThepowerpossessedbytheChurchproves，again，thatthepowerofcertainillusionsissufficientlygreattocreate，atleastmomentarily，sentimentsascontrarytotheinterestsoftheindividualastheyaretothatofsociety——suchastheloveofthemonasticlife，thedesireformartyrdom，thecrusades，thereligiouswars，&c。
Theapplicationtodemocraticandsocialisticideasoftheprecedingconsiderationsshowsthatitmatterslittlethattheseideashavenodefensiblebasis。Theyimpressandinfluencemen’sminds，andthatissufficient。Theirresultsmaybedisastrousintheextreme，butwecannotpreventthem。
Theapostlesofthenewdoctrinesarequitewrongintakingsomuchtroubletofindarationalbasisfortheiraspirations。
Theywouldbefarmoreconvincingweretheytoconfinethemselvestomakingaffirmationsandawakeninghopes。Theirrealstrengthresidesinthereligiousmentalitywhichisinherentintheheartofman，andwhichduringtheageshasonlychangeditsobject。
Lateronweshallconsiderfromaphilosophicalpointofviewvariousconsequencesofthedemocraticevolutionwhosecourseweseeaccelerating。WemaysayinrespectoftheChurchintheMiddleAgesthatithadthepowerofprofoundlyinfluencingthementalityofmen。Examiningcertainresultsofthedemocraticdoctrines，weshallseethatthepoweroftheseisnolessthanthatoftheChurch。
2。TheJacobinSpiritandtheMentalitycreatedbyDemocraticBeliefs。
Existinggenerationshaveinherited，notonlytherevolutionaryprinciplesbutalsothespecialmentalitywhichachievestheirsuccess。
DescribingthismentalitywhenwewereexaminingtheJacobinspirit，wesawthatitalwaysendeavourstoimposebyforceillusionswhichitregardsasthetruth。TheJacobinspirithasfinallybecomesogeneralinFranceandinotherLatincountriesthatithasaffectedallpoliticalparties，eventhemostconservative。Thebourgeoisieisstronglyaffectedbyit，andthepeoplestillmoreso。
ThisincreaseoftheJacobinspirithasresultedinthefactthatpoliticalconceptions，institutions，andlawstendtoimposethemselvesbyforce。Syndicalism，peacefulenoughinothercountries，immediatelyassumedinFranceanuncompromisingandanarchicalaspect，whichbetrayeditselfintheshapeofriots，sabotage，andincendiarism。
NottoberepressedbytimidGovernments，theJacobinspiritproducesmelancholyravagesinmindsofmediocrecapacity。Atarecentcongressofrailwaymenathirdofthedelegatesvotedapprovalofsabotage，andoneofthesecretariesoftheCongressbeganhisspeechbysaying：``Isendallsaboteursmyfraternalgreetingandallmyadmiration。’’
Thisgeneralmentalityengendersanincreasinganarchy。ThatFranceisnotinapermanentstateofanarchyis，asIhavealreadyremarked，duetothefactthatthepartiesbywhichsheisdividedproducesomethinglikeequilibrium。Theyareanimatedbyamortalhatredforoneanother，butnoneofthemisstrongenoughtoenslaveitsrivals。
ThisJacobinintoleranceisspreadingtosuchanextentthattherulersthemselvesemploywithoutscruplethemostrevolutionarytacticswithregardtotheirenemies，violentlypersecutinganypartythatofferstheleastresistance，andevendespoilingitofitsproperty。Ourrulersto—daybehaveastheancientconquerorsused；thevanquishedhavenothingtohopefromthevictors。
Farfrombeingpeculiartothelowerorders，intoleranceisequallyprominentamongtherulingclasses。Micheletremarkedlongagothattheviolenceofthecultivatedclassesisoftengreaterthanthatofthepeople。Itistruethattheydonotbreakthestreetlamps，buttheyarereadyenoughtocauseheadstobebroken。Theworstviolenceoftherevolutionwastheworkofcultivatedbourgeoisie——professors，lawyers，&c。，possessorsofthatclassicaleducationwhichissupposedtosoftenthemanners。Ithasnotdonesointhesedays，anymorethanitdidofold。Onecanmakesureofthisbyreadingtheadvancedjournals，whosecontributorsandeditorsarerecruitedchieflyfromamongtheprofessorsoftheUniversity。
Theirbooksareasviolentastheirarticles，andonewondershowsuchfavouritesoffortunecanhavesecretedsuchstoresofhatred。
Onewouldfindithardtocreditthemdidtheyassureusthattheywereconsumedbyanintensepassionforaltruism。Onemightmorereadilyadmitthatapartfromanarrowreligiousmentalitythehopeofbeingremarkedbythemightyonesoftheday，orofcreatingaprofitablepopularity，istheonlypossibleexplanationoftheviolencerecommendedintheirwrittenpropaganda。
Ihavealready，inoneofmyprecedingworks，citedsomepassagesfromabookwrittenbyaprofessorattheCollegeofFrance，inwhichtheauthorincitesthepeopletoseizeupontherichesofthebourgeoisie，whomhefuriouslyabuses，andhavearrivedattheconclusionthatanewrevolutionwouldreadilyfindamongtheauthorsofsuchbookstheMarats，Robespierres，andCarrierswhomitmightrequire。
TheJacobinreligion——aboveallinitsSocialistform——hasallthepoweroftheancientfaithsoverfeeblemindsBlindedbytheirfaith，theybelievethatreasonistheirguide，butarereallyactuatedsolelybytheirpassionsandtheirdreams。
Theevolutionofdemocraticideashasthusproducednotonlythepoliticalresultsalreadymentioned，butalsoaconsiderableeffectuponthementalityofmodernmen。
Iftheancientdogmashavelongagoexhaustedtheirpower，thetheoriesofdemocracyarefarfromhavinglosttheirs，andweseetheirconsequencesincreasingdaily。Oneofthechiefresultshasbeenthegeneralhatredofsuperiority。
Thishatredofwhateverpassestheaverageinsocialfortuneorintelligenceisto—daygeneralinallclasses，fromtheworking—
classestotheupperstrataofthebourgeoisie。Theresultsareenvy，detraction，andaloveofattack，ofraillery，ofpersecution，andahabitofattributingallactionstolowmotives，ofrefusingtobelieveinprobity，disinterestedness，andintelligence。
Conversation，amongthepeopleasamongthemostcultivatedFrenchmen，isstampedwiththecrazeforabasingandabusingeverythingandeveryone。Eventhegreatestofthedeaddonotescapethistendency。Neverweresomanybookswrittentodepreciatethemeritoffamousmen，menwhowereformerlyregardedasthemostpreciouspatrimonyoftheircountry。
Envyandhatredseemfromalltimetohavebeeninseparablefromdemocratictheories，butthespreadofthesesentimentshasneverbeensogreatasto—day。Itstrikesallobservers。
``Thereisalowdemagogicinstinct，’’writesM。Bourdeau，``withoutanymoralinspiration，whichdreamsofpullinghumanitydowntothelowestlevel，andforwhichanysuperiority，evenofculture，isanoffencetosociety……itisthesentimentofignobleequalitywhichanimatedtheJacobinbutcherswhentheystruckofftheheadofaLavoisieroraChenier。
Thishatredofsuperiority，themostprominentelementinthemodernprogressofSocialism，isnottheonlycharacteristicofthenewspiritcreatedbydemocraticideas。
Otherconsequences，althoughindirect，arenotlessprofound。
Such，forexample，aretheprogressof``statism，’’thediminutionofthepowerofthebourgeoisie，theincreasingactivityoffinanciers，theconflictoftheclasses，thevanishingoftheoldsocialconstraints，andthedegradationofmorality。
Alltheseeffectsaredisplayedinageneralinsubordinationandanarchy。Thesonrevoltsagainstthefather，theemployeeagainsthispatron，thesoldieragainsthisofficers。
Discontent，hatred，andenvyreignthroughout。
Asocialmovementwhichcontinuesisnecessarilylikeamachineinmovementwhichacceleratesitsmotion。Weshallthereforefindthattheresultsofthismentalitywillbecomeyetmoreimportant。Itisbetrayedfromtimetotimebyincidentswhosegravityisdailyincreasing——railwaystrikes，postmen’sstrikes，explosionsonboardironclads，&c。AproposofthedestructionoftheLiberte，whichcostmorethantwomillionpoundsandslewtwohundredmeninthespaceofaminute，anex—MinisterofMarine，M。deLanessan，expresseshimselfasfollows：——
’’Theevilthatisgnawingatourfleetisthesameasthatwhichisdevouringourarmy，ourpublicadministrations，ourparliamentarysystem，ourgovernmentalsystem，andthewholefabricofoursociety。Thisevilisanarchy——thatistosay，suchadisorderofmindsandthingsthatnothingisdoneasreasonwoulddictate，andnoonebehavesashisprofessionalormoraldutyshouldrequirehimtobehave。’’
OnthesubjectofthecatastropheoftheLiberte，whichfollowedthatoftheIena，M。FelixRousselsaid，inaspeechdeliveredaspresidentofthemunicipalcouncilofParis：——
``Thecausesoftheevilarenotpeculiartoourday。Theevilismoregeneral，andbearsatriplename：irresponsibility，indiscipline，andanarchy。’’
Thesequotations，whichstatefactswithwhicheveryoneisfamiliar，showthatthestaunchestupholdersoftherepublicansystemthemselvesrecognisetheprogressofsocialdisorganisation。[12]Everyoneseesit，whileheisconsciousofhisownimpotencetochangeanything。Itresults，infact，frommentalinfluenceswhosepowerisgreaterthanthatofourwills。
[12]ThisdisorderisthesameinalltheGovernmentdepartmentsInterestingexampleswillbefoundinareportofM。DaussettotheMunicipalCouncil：——
``Theserviceofthepublichighways，whichoughtabovealltobenotedforitsrapidexecution，is，onthecontrary，theverytypeofred—tape，bureaucratic，andink—slingingadministration，possessingmenandmoneyandwastingbothintaskswhichareoftenuseless，forlackoforder，initiative，andmethod——inaword，oforganisation。
Speakingthenofthedirectorsofdepartments，eachofwhomworksashepleases，andafterhisownfashion，headds：——
``Theseimportantpersonscompletelyignoreoneanother；theyprepareandexecutetheirplanswithoutknowinganythingofwhattheirneighboursaredoing；thereisnooneabovethemtogroupandco—ordinatetheirwork。’’Thisiswhyaroadisoftentornup，repaired，andthentornupagainafewdayslater，becausethedepartmentsdealingwiththesupplyofwater，gas，electricity，andthesewersaremutuallyjealous，andneverattempttoworktogether。Thisanarchyandindisciplinenaturallycostenormoussumsofmoney，andaprivatefirmwhichoperatedinthismannerwouldsoonfinditselfbankrupt。
3。UniversalSuffrageanditsRepresentatives。
Amongthedogmasofdemocracyperhapsthemostfundamentalofallandthemostattractiveisthatofuniversalsuffrage。Itgivesthemassestheideaofequality，sinceforamomentatleastrichandpoor，learnedandignorant，areequalbeforetheelectoralurn。Theministerelbowstheleastofhisservants，andduringthisbriefmomentthepowerofoneisasgreatastheothers。
AllGovernments，includingthatoftheRevolution，havefeareduniversalsuffrage。Atafirstglance，indeed，theobjectionswhichsuggeststhemselvesarenumerous。Theideathatthemultitudecouldusefullychoosethemencapableofgoverning，thatindividualsofindifferentmorality，feebleknowledge，andnarrowmindsshouldpossess，bythesolefactofnumber，acertaintalentforjudgingthecandidateproposedforitsselectionissurelyashockingone。
FromarationalpointofviewthesuffrageofnumbersistoacertainextentjustifiedifwethinkwithPascal。
``Pluralityisthebestway，becauseitisvisibleandhasstrengthtomakeitselfobeyed；itis，however，theadviceofthelessable。’’
Asuniversalsuffragecannotinourtimesbereplacedbyanyotherinstitution，wemustacceptitandtrytoadaptit。ItisaccordinglyuselesstoprotestagainstitortorepeatwiththequeenMarieCaroline，atthetimeofherstrugglewithNapoleon：
``Nothingismoredreadfulthantogovernmeninthisenlightenedcentury，wheneverycobblerreasonsandcriticisestheGovernment。’’
Totellthetruth，theobjectionsarenotalwaysasgreatastheyappear。Thelawsofthepsychologyofcrowdsbeingadmitted，itisverydoubtfulwhetheralimitedsuffragewouldgiveamuchbetterchoiceofmenthanthatobtainedbyuniversalsuffrage。
Thesesamepsychologicallawsalsoshowusthatso—calleduniversalsuffrageisinrealityapurefiction。Thecrowd，saveinveryrarecases，hasnoopinionbutthatofitsleaders。
Universalsuffragereallyrepresentsthemostlimitedofsuffrages。
Therejustlyresidesitsrealdanger。UniversalsuffrageismadedangerousbythefactthattheleaderswhoareitsmastersarethecreaturesoflittlelocalcommitteesanalogoustotheclubsoftheRevolution。Theleaderwhocanvassesforamandateischosenbythem。
Oncenominated，heexercisesanabsolutelocalpower，onconditionofsatisfyingtheinterestsofhiscommittees。Beforethisnecessitythegeneralinterestofthecountrydisappearsalmosttotallyfromthemindoftheelectedrepresentative。
Naturallythecommittees，havingneedofdocileservants，donotchooseforthistaskindividualsgiftedwithaloftyintelligencenor，aboveall，withaveryhighmorality。Theymusthavemenwithoutcharacter，withoutsocialposition，andalwaysdocile。
Byreasonofthesenecessitiestheservilityofthedeputyinrespectoftheselittlegroupswhichpatronisehim，andwithoutwhichhewouldbenoone，isabsolute。Hewillspeakandvotejustashiscommitteetellshim。Hispoliticalidealmaybeexpressedinafewwords：itistoobey，thathemayretainhispost。
Sometimes，rarelyindeed，andonlywhenbynameorpositionorwealthhehasagreatprestige，asuperiorcharactermayimposehimselfuponthepopularvotebyovercomingthetyrannyoftheimpudentminoritieswhichconstitutethelocalcommittees。
DemocraticcountrieslikeFranceareonlyapparentlygovernedbyuniversalsuffrage。Forthisreasonisitthatsomanymeasuresarepassedwhichdonotinterestthepeopleandwhichthepeopleneverdemanded。SuchwerethepurchaseoftheWesternrailways，thelawsrespectingcongregations，&c。Theseabsurdmanifestationsmerelytranslatedthedemandsoffanaticallocalcommittees，andwereimposedupondeputieswhomtheyhadchosen。
Wemayjudgeoftheinfluenceofthesecommitteeswhenweseemoderatedeputiesforcedtopatronisetheanarchicaldestroyersofarsenals，toallythemselveswithanti—militarists，and，inaword，toobeythemostatrociousdemandsinordertoensurere—election。Thewillofthelowestelementsofdemocracyhasthuscreatedamongtheelectedrepresentativesmannersandamoralitywhichwecanbutrecogniseareofthelowest。Thepoliticianisthemaninpublicemployment，andasNietzschesays：——
``Wherepublicemploymentbeginstherebeginsalsotheclamourofthegreatcomediansandthebuzzingofvenomousflies……Thecomedianalwaysbelievesinthatwhichmakeshimobtainhisbesteffects，inthatwhichimpelsthepeopletobelieveinhim。To—
morrowhewillhaveanewfaith，andthedayafterto—morrowyetanother……Allthatisgreathasitsbeingfarfrompublicemploymentandglory。’’
4。TheCravingforReforms。
ThecrazeforreformsimposedsuddenlybymeansofdecreesisoneofthemostdisastrousconceptionsoftheJacobinspirit，oneoftheformidablelegaciesleftbytheRevolution。ItisamongtheprincipalfactorsofalltheincessantpoliticalupheavalsofthelastcenturyinFrance。
Oneofthepsychologicalcausesofthisintensethirstforreformsarisesfromthedifficultyofdeterminingtherealcausesoftheevilscomplainedof。Theneedofexplanationcreatesfictitiouscausesofthesimplestnature。Thereforetheremediesalsoappearsimple。
Forfortyyearswehaveincessantlybeenpassingreforms，eachofwhichisalittlerevolutioninitself。Inspiteofallthese，orratherbecauseofthem，theFrenchhaveevolvedalmostaslittleasanyraceinEurope。
Theslownessofouractualevolutionmaybeseenifwecomparetheprincipalelementsofoursociallife——commerce，industry，&c。——withthoseofothernations。Theprogressofothernations——oftheGermansespecially——thenappearsenormous，whileourownhasbeenveryslow。
Ouradministrative，industrial，andcommercialorganisationisconsiderablyoutofdate，andisnolongerequaltoournewneeds。Ourindustryisnotprospering；ourmarineisdeclining。
Eveninourowncolonieswecannotcompetewithforeigncountries，despitetheenormouspecuniarysubventionsaccordedbytheState。M。Cruppi，anex—MinisterofCommerce，hasinsistedonthismelancholydeclineinarecentbook。Fallingintotheusualerrors，hebelievediteasytoremedythisinferioritybynewlaws。