Allpoliticianssharethesameopinion，whichiswhyweprogresssoslowly。Eachpartyispersuadedthatbymeansofreformsallevilscouldberemedied。ThisconvictionresultsinstrugglessuchashavemadeFrancethemostdividedcountryintheworldandthemostsubjecttoanarchy。
Nooneyetseemstounderstandthatindividualsandtheirmethods，notregulations，makethevalueofapeople。Theefficaciousreformsarenottherevolutionaryreformsbutthetriflingameliorationsofeverydayaccumulatedincourseoftime。Thegreatsocialchanges，likethegreatgeologicalchanges，areeffectedbythedailyadditionofminutecauses。
TheeconomichistoryofGermanyduringthelastfortyyearsprovesinastrikingmannerthetruthofthislaw。
Manyimportanteventswhichseemtodependmoreorlessonhazard——asbattles，forexample——arethemselvessubjecttothislawoftheaccumulationofsmallcauses。Nodoubtthedecisivestruggleissometimesterminatedinadayorless，butmanyminuteefforts，slowlyaccumulated，areessentialtovictory。Wehadapainfulexperienceofthisin1870，andtheRussianshavelearneditmorerecently。BarelyhalfanhourdidAdmiralTogoneedtoannihilatetheRussianfleet，atthebattleofTsushima，whichfinallydecidedthefateofJapan，butthousandsoflittlefactors，smallandremote，determinedthatsuccess。CausesnotlessnumerousengenderedthedefeatoftheRussians——abureaucracyascomplicatedasours，andasirresponsible；
lamentablematerial，althoughpaidforbyitsweightingold；asystemofgraftateverydegreeofthesocialhierarchy，andgeneralindifferencetotheinterestsofthecountry。
Unhappilytheprogressinlittlethingswhichbytheirtotalmakeupthegreatnessofanationisrarelyapparent，producesnoimpressiononthepublic，andcannotservetheinterestsofpoliticiansatelections。Theselattercarenothingforsuchmatters，andpermittheaccumulation，inthecountriessubjecttotheirinfluence，ofthelittlesuccessivedisorganisationswhichfinallyresultingreatdownfalls。
5。SocialDistinctionsinDemocraciesandDemocraticIdeasinVariousCountries。
Whenmenweredividedintocastesanddifferentiatedchieflybybirth，socialdistinctionsweregenerallyacceptedastheconsequencesofanunavoidablenaturallaw。
Assoonastheoldsocialdivisionsweredestroyedthedistinctionsoftheclassesappearedartificial，andforthatreasonceasedtobetolerated。
Thenecessityofequalitybeingtheoretical，wehaveseenamongdemocraticpeoplestherapiddevelopmentofartificialinequalities，permittingtheirpossessorstomakeforthemselvesaplainlyvisiblesupremacy。Neverwasthethirstfortitlesanddecorationssogeneralasto—day。
Inreallydemocraticcountries，suchastheUnitedStates，titlesanddecorationsdonotexertmuchinfluence，andfortunealonecreatesdistinctions。ItisonlybyexceptionthatweseewealthyyoungAmericangirlsallyingthemselvestotheoldnamesoftheEuropeanaristocracy。Theyaretheninstinctivelyemployingtheonlymeanswhichwillpermitayoungracetoacquireapastthatwillestablishitsmoralframework。
ButinageneralfashionthearistocracythatweseespringingupinAmericaisbynomeansfoundedontitlesanddecorations。
Purelyfinancial，itdoesnotprovokemuchjealousy，becauseeveryonehopesonedaytoformpartofit。
When，inhisbookondemocracyinAmerica，Toquevillespokeofthegeneralaspirationtowardsequalityhedidnotrealisethattheprophesiedequalitywouldendintheclassificationofmenfoundedexclusivelyonthenumberofdollarspossessedbythem。
NootherexistsintheUnitedStates，anditwilldoubtlessonedaybethesameinEurope。
AtpresentwecannotpossiblyregardFranceasademocraticcountrysaveonpaper，andherewefeelthenecessity，alreadyreferredto，ofexaminingthevariousideaswhichindifferentcountriesareexpressedbytheword``democracy。’’
OftrulydemocraticnationswecanpracticallymentiononlyEnglandandtheUnitedStates。There，democracyoccursindifferentforms，butthesameprinciplesareobserved——notably，aperfecttolerationofallopinions。Religiouspersecutionsareunknown。Realsuperiorityeasilyrevealsitselfinthevariousprofessionswhichanyonecanenteratanyageifhepossessesthenecessarycapacity。Thereisnobarriertoindividualeffort。
Insuchcountriesmenbelievethemselvesequalbecauseallhavetheideathattheyarefreetoattainthesameposition。Theworkmanknowshecanbecomeforeman，andthenengineer。Forcedtobeginonthelowerrungsoftheladderinsteadofhighupthescale，asinFrance，theengineerdoesnotregardhimselfasmadeofdifferentstufftotherestofmankind。Itisthesameinallprofessions。Thisiswhytheclasshatred，sointenseinEurope，issolittledevelopedinEnglandandAmerica。
InFrancethedemocracyispracticallynon—existentsaveinspeeches。Asystemofcompetitionsandexaminations，whichmustbeworkedthroughinyouth，firmlyclosesthedoorupontheliberalprofessions，andcreatesinimicalandseparateclasses。
TheLatindemocraciesarethereforepurelytheoretical。TheabsolutismoftheStatehasreplacedmonarchicalabsolutism，butitisnolesssevere。Thearistocracyoffortunehasreplacedthatofbirth，anditsprivilegesarenolessconsiderable。
Monarchiesanddemocraciesdifferfarmoreinformthaninsubstance。Itisonlythevariablementalityofmenthatvariestheireffects。Allthediscussionsastovarioussystemsofgovernmentarereallyofnointerest，forthesehavenospecialvirtueofthemselves。Theirvaluewillalwaysdependonthatofthepeoplegoverned。Apeopleeffectsgreatandrapidprogresswhenitdiscoversthatitisthesumofthepersonaleffortsofeachindividualandnotthesystemofgovernmentthatdeterminestherankofanationintheworld。
CHAPTERIII
THENEWFORMSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEF
1。TheConflictbetweenCapitalandLabour。
Whileourlegislatorsarereformingandlegislatingathazard，thenaturalevolutionoftheworldisslowlypursuingitscourse。
Newinterestsarise，theeconomiccompetitionbetweennationandnationincreasesinseverity，theworking—classesarebestirringthemselves，andonallsidesweseethebirthofformidableproblemswhichtheharanguesofthepoliticianswillneverresolve。
Amongthesenewproblemsoneofthemostcomplicatedwillbetheproblemoftheconflictbetweenlabourandcapital。ItisbecomingacuteeveninsuchacountryoftraditionasEngland。
Workingmenareceasingtorespectthecollectivecontractswhichformerlyconstitutedtheircharter，strikesaredeclaredforinsignificantmotives，andunemploymentandpauperismareattainingdisquietingproportions。
InAmericathesestrikeswouldfinallyhaveaffectedallindustriesbutthattheveryexcessoftheevilcreatedaremedy。
Duringthelasttenyearstheindustrialleadershaveorganisedgreatemployers’federations，whichhavebecomepowerfulenoughtoforcetheworkerstosubmittoarbitration。
ThelabourquestioniscomplicatedinFrancebytheinterventionofnumerousforeignworkers，whichthestagnationofourpopulationhasrenderednecessary。[13]ThisstagnationwillalsomakeitdifficultforFrancetocontendwithherrivals，whosesoilwillsoonnolongerbeabletonourishitsinhabitants，who，followingoneoftheoldestlawsofhistory，willnecessarilyinvadethelessdenselypeopledcountries。
[13]PopulationoftheGreatPowers：——
1789。1906。
Russia……28，000，000129，000，000
Germany……28，000，00057，000，000
Austria……18，000，00044，000，000
England……12，000，00040，000，000
France……26，000，00039，000，000
TheseconflictsbetweentheworkersandemployersofthesamenationwillberenderedstillmoreacutebytheincreasingeconomicstrugglebetweentheAsiatics，whoseneedsaresmall，andwhocanthereforeproducemanufacturedarticlesatverylowprices，andtheEuropeans，whoseneedsaremany。Fortwenty—fiveyearsIhavelaidstressuponthispoint。GeneralHamilton，ex—
militaryattachetotheJapanesearmy，whoforesawtheJapanesevictorieslongbeforetheoutbreakofhostilities，writesasfollowsinanessaytranslatedbyGeneralLanglois：——
``TheChinaman，suchasIhaveseenhiminManchuria，iscapableofdestroyingthepresenttypeofworkerofthewhiteraces。Hewilldrivehimoffthefaceoftheearth。TheSocialists，whopreachequalitytothelabourer，arefarfromthinkingwhatwouldbethepracticalresultofcarryingouttheirtheories。Isit，then，thedestinyofthewhiteracestodisappearinthelongrun？Inmyhumbleopinionthisdestinydependsupononesinglefactor：Shallweorshallwenothavethegoodsensetocloseourearstospeecheswhichpresentwarandpreparationforwarasauselessevil？
``Ibelievetheworkersmustchoose。Giventhepresentconstitutionoftheworld，theymustcultivateintheirchildrenthemilitaryideal，andacceptgracefullythecostandtroublewhichmilitarismentails，ortheywillbeletinforacruelstruggleforlifewitharivalworkerofwhosesuccessthereisnottheslightestdoubt。ThereisonlyonemeansofrefusingAsiaticstherighttoemigrate，tolowerwagesbycompetition，andtoliveinourmidst，andthatisthesword。IfAmericansandEuropeansforgetthattheirprivilegedpositionisheldonlybyforceofarms，Asiawillsoonhavetakenherrevenge。’’
WeknowthatinAmericatheinvasionofChineseandJapanese，owingtothecompetitionbetweenthemandtheworkersofwhiterace，hasbecomeanationalcalamity。InEuropetheinvasioniscommencing，buthasnotasyetgonefar。ButalreadyChineseemigrantshaveformedimportantcoloniesincertaincentres——
London，Cardiff，Liverpool，&c。Theyhaveprovokedseveralriotsbyworkingforlowwages。Theirappearancehasalwaysloweredsalaries。
Buttheseproblemsbelongtothefuture，andthoseofthepresentaresodisquietingthatitisuselessatthemomenttooccupyourselveswithothers。
2。TheEvolutionoftheWorking—ClassesandtheSyndicalistMovement。
Themostimportantdemocraticproblemofthedaywillperhapsresultfromtherecentdevelopmentoftheworking—classengenderedbytheSyndicalistorTradesUnionmovement。
TheaggregationofsimilarinterestsknownasSyndicalismhasrapidlyassumedsuchenormousdevelopmentsinallcountriesthatitmaybecalledworld—wide。CertaincorporationshavebudgetscomparabletothoseofsmallStates。SomeGermanleagueshavebeencitedashavingsavedoverthreemillionssterlinginsubscriptions。
Theextensionofthelabourmovementinallcountriesshowsthatitisnot，likeSocialism，adreamofUtopiantheorists，buttheresultofeconomicnecessities。Initsaim，itsmeansofaction，anditstendencies，SyndicalismpresentsnokinshipwithSocialism。HavingsufficientlyexplaineditinmyPoliticalPsychology，itwillsufficeheretorecallinafewwordsthedifferencebetweenthetwodoctrines。
Socialismwouldobtainpossessionofallindustries，andhavethemmanagedbytheState，whichwoulddistributetheproductsequallybetweenthecitizens。Syndicalism，ontheotherhand，wouldentirelyeliminatetheactionoftheState，anddividesocietyintosmallprofessionalgroupswhichwouldbeself—governing。
AlthoughdespisedbytheSyndicalistsandviolentlyattackedbythem，theSocialistsaretryingtoignoretheconflict，butitisrapidlybecomingtooobvioustobeconcealed。ThepoliticalinfluencewhichtheSocialistsstillpossesswillsoonescapethem。
IfSyndicalismiseverywhereincreasingattheexpenseofSocialism，itis，Irepeat，becausethiscorporativemovement，althougharenewalofthepast，synthetisescertainneedsbornofthespecialisationofmodernindustry。
Weseeitsmanifestationsunderagreatvarietyofcircumstances。
InFranceitssuccesshasnotasyetbeenasgreataselsewhere。
Havingtakentherevolutionaryformalreadymentioned，ithasfallen，atleastforthetimebeing，intothehandsoftheanarchists，whocareaslittleforSyndicalismasforanysortoforganisation，andaresimplyusingthenewdoctrineinanattempttodestroymodernsociety。Socialists，Syndicalists，andanarchists，althoughdirectedbyentirelydifferentconceptions，arethuscollaboratinginthesameeventualaim——theviolentsuppressionoftherulingclassesandthepillageoftheirwealth。
TheSyndicalistdoctrinedoesnotinanywayderivefromtheprinciplesofRevolution。OnmanypointsitisentirelyincontradictionwiththeRevolution。SyndicalismrepresentsratherareturntocertainformsofcollectiveorganisationsimilartotheguildsorcorporationsproscribedbytheRevolution。ItthusconstitutesoneofthosefederationswhichtheRevolutioncondemned。ItentirelyrejectstheStatecentralisationwhichtheRevolutionestablished。
Syndicalismcaresnothingforthedemocraticprinciplesofliberty，equality，andfraternity。TheSyndicalistsdemandoftheirmembersanabsolutedisciplinewhicheliminatesallliberty。
Notbeingasyetstrongenoughtoexercisemutualtyranny，thesyndicatessofarprofesssentimentsinrespectofoneanotherwhichmightbyastretchbecalledfraternal。Butassoonastheyaresufficientlypowerful，whentheircontraryinterestswillnecessarilyenterintoconflict，asduringtheSyndicalistperiodoftheoldItalianrepublics——FlorenceandSiena，forexample——thepresentfraternitywillspeedilybeforgotten，andequalitywillbereplacedbythedespotismofthemostpowerful。
Suchafutureseemsnearathand。Thenewpowerisincreasingveryrapidly，andfindstheGovernmentspowerlessbeforeit，abletodefendthemselvesonlybyyieldingtoeverydemand——anodiouspolicy，whichmayserveforthemoment，butwhichheavilycompromisesthefuture。
Itwas，however，tothispoorrecoursethattheEnglishGovernmentrecentlyresortedinitsstruggleagainsttheMiners’
Union，whichthreatenedtosuspendtheindustriallifeofEngland。TheUniondemandedaminimumwageforitsmembers，buttheywerenotboundtofurnishaminimumofwork。
Althoughsuchademandwasinadmissible，theGovernmentagreedtoproposetoParliamentalawtosanctionsuchameasure。WemayprofitablyreadtheweightywordspronouncedbyMr。BalfourbeforetheHouseofCommons：——
``Thecountryhasneverinitssolongandvariedhistoryhadtofaceadangerofthisnatureandthisimportance。
``Weareconfrontedwiththestrangeandsinisterspectacleofamereorganisationthreateningtoparalyse——andparalysinginalargemeasure——thecommerceandmanufacturesofacommunitywhichlivesbycommerceandmanufacture。
``Thepowerpossessedbytheminersisinthepresentstateofthelawalmostunlimited。Haveweeverseenthelikeofit？Dideverfeudalbaronexertacomparabletyranny？WasthereeveranAmericantrustwhichservedtherightswhichitholdsfromthelawwithsuchcontemptofthegeneralinterest？Theverydegreeofperfectiontowhichwehavebroughtourlaws，oursocialorganisation，themutualrelationbetweenthevariousprofessionsandindustries，exposesusmorethanourpredecessorsinruderagestothegraveperilwhichatpresentthreatenssociety……Wearewitnessesatthepresentmomentofthefirstmanifestationofthepowerofelementswhich，ifwearenotheedful，willsubmergethewholeofsociety……TheattitudeoftheGovernmentinyieldingtotheinjunctionoftheminersgivessomeappearanceofrealitytothevictoryofthosewhoarepittingthemselvesagainstsociety。’’
3。WhycertainmodernDemocraticGovernmentsaregraduallybeingtransformedintoGovernmentsbyAdministrativeCastes。
Anarchyandthesocialconflictsresultingfromdemocraticideasareto—dayimpellingsomeGovernmentstowardsanunforeseencourseofevolutionwhichwillendbyleavingthemonlyanominalpower。Thisdevelopment，ofwhichIshallbrieflydenotetheeffects，iseffectedspontaneouslyunderthestressofthoseimperiousnecessitieswhicharestillthechiefcontrollingpowerofevents。
TheGovernmentsofdemocraticcountriesto—dayconsistoftherepresentativeselectedbyuniversalsuffrage。Theyvotelaws，andappointanddismissministerschosenfromthemselves，andprovisionallyentrustedwiththeexecutivepower。Theseministersarenaturallyoftenreplaced，sinceavotewilldoit。Thosewhofollowthem，belongingtoadifferentparty，willgovernaccordingtodifferentprinciples。
Itmightatfirstseemthatacountrythuspulledtoandfrobyvariousinfluencescouldhavenocontinuityorstability。ButinspiteofalltheseconditionsofinstabilityademocraticGovernmentlikethatofFranceworkswithfairregularity。Howexplainsuchaphenomenon？
Itsinterpretation，whichisverysimple，resultsfromthefactthattheministerswhohavetheappearanceofgoverningreallygovernthecountryonlytoaverylimitedextent。Strictlylimitedandcircumscribed，theirpowerisexercisedprincipallyinspeecheswhicharehardlynoticedandinafewinorganicmeasures。
Butbehindthesuperficialauthorityofministers，withoutforceorduration，theplaythingsofeverydemandofthepolitician，ananonymouspowerissecretlyatworkwhosemightiscontinuallyincreasingtheadministrations。Possessingtraditions，ahierarchy，andcontinuity，theyareapoweragainstwhich，astheministersquicklyrealise，theyareincapableofstruggling。[14]
Responsibilityissodividedintheadministrativemachinethataministermayneverfindhimselfopposedbyanypersonofimportance。Hismomentaryimpulsesarecheckedbyanetworkofregulations，customs，anddecrees，whicharecontinuallyquotedtohim，andwhichheknowssolittlethathedarenotinfringethem。
[14]Theimpotenceofministersintheirowndepartmentshasbeenwelldescribedbyoneofthem，M。Cruppi，inarecentbook。Themostardentwishesoftheministerbeingimmediatelyparalysedbyhisdepartment，hepromptlyceasestostruggleagainstit。
ThisdiminutionofthepowerofdemocraticGovernmentscanonlydevelop。OneofthemostconstantlawsofhistoryisthatofwhichIhavealreadyspoken：Immediatelyanyoneclassbecomespreponderant——nobles，clergy，army，orthepeople——itspeedilytendstoenslaveothers。SuchweretheRomanarmies，whichfinallyappointedandoverthrewtheemperors；suchweretheclergy，againstwhomthekingsofoldcouldhardlystruggle；suchweretheStatesGeneral，whichatthemomentofRevolutionspeedilyabsorbedallthepowersofgovernment，andsupplantedthemonarchy。
Thecasteoffunctionariesisdestinedtofurnishafreshproofofthetruthofthislaw。Preponderantalready，theyarebeginningtospeakloudly，tomakethreats，andeventoindulgeinstrikes，suchasthatofthepostmen，whichwasquicklyfollowedbythatoftheGovernmentrailwayemployees。TheadministrativepowerthusformsalittleStatewithintheState，andifitspresentrateofrevolutioncontinuesitwillsoonconstitutetheonlypowerintheState。UnderaSocialistGovernmenttherewouldbenootherpower。Allourrevolutionswouldthenhaveresultedinstrippingthekingofhispowersandhisthroneinordertobestowthemupontheirresponsible，anonymousanddespoticclassofGovernmentclerks。
Toforeseetheissueofalltheconflictswhichthreatentocloudthefutureisimpossible。Wemuststeerclearofpessimismasofoptimism；allwecansayisthatnecessitywillalwaysfinallybringthingstoanequilibrium。Theworldpursuesitswaywithoutbotheringitselfwithourspeeches，andsoonerorlaterwemanagetoadaptourselvestothevariationsofourenvironment。Thedifficultyistodosowithouttoomuchfriction，andabovealltoresistthechimericalconceptionsofdreamers。Alwayspowerlesstore—organisetheworld，theyhaveoftencontrivedtoupsetit。
Athens，Rome，Florence，andmanyothercitieswhichformerlyshoneinhistory，werevictimsoftheseterribletheorists。Theresultsoftheirinfluencehasalwaysbeenthesame——anarchy，dictatorship，anddecadence。
ButsuchlessonswillnotaffectthenumerousCatilinesofthepresentday。Theydonotyetseethatthemovementsunchainedbytheirambitionsthreatentosubmergethem。AlltheseUtopianshaveawakenedimpossiblehopesinthemindofthecrowd，excitedtheirappetites，andsappedthedykeswhichhavebeenslowlyerectedduringthecenturiestorestrainthem。
Thestruggleoftheblindmultitudesagainsttheelectisoneofthecontinuousfactsofhistory，andthetriumphofpopularsovereigntieswithoutcounterpoisehasalreadymarkedtheendofmorethanonecivilisation。Theelectcreate，theplebsdestroys。Assoonasthefirstlosetheirholdthelatterbeginsitspreciouswork。
Thegreatcivilisationshaveonlyprosperedbydominatingtheirlowerelements。ItisnotonlyinGreecethatanarchy，dictatorship，invasion，and，finally，thelossofindependencehasresultedfromthedespotismofademocracy。Individualtyrannyisalwaysbornofcollectivetyranny。ItendedthefirstcycleofthegreatnessofRome；theBarbariansachievedthesecond。
CONCLUSIONS
Theprincipalrevolutionsofhistoryhavebeenstudiedinthisvolume。Butwehavedealtmoreespeciallywiththemostimportantofall——thatwhichformorethantwentyyearsoverwhelmedallEurope，andwhoseechoesarestilltobeheard。
TheFrenchRevolutionisaninexhaustiblemineofpsychologicaldocuments。Noperiodofthelifeofhumanityhaspresentedsuchamassofexperience，accumulatedinsoshortatime。
Oneachpageofthisgreatdramawehavefoundnumerousapplicationsoftheprinciplesexpoundedinmyvariousworks，concerningthetransitorymentalityofcrowdsandthepermanentsoulofthepeoples，theactionofbeliefs，theinfluenceofmystic，affective，andcollectiveelements，andtheconflictbetweenthevariousformsoflogic。
TheRevolutionaryAssembliesillustratealltheknownlawsofthepsychologyofcrowds。Impulsiveandtimid，theyaredominatedbyasmallnumberofleaders，andusuallyactinasensecontrarytothewishesoftheirindividualmembers。
TheRoyalistConstituentAssemblydestroyedanancientmonarchy；
thehumanitarianLegislativeAssemblyallowedthemassacresofSeptember。ThesamepacificbodyledFranceintothemostformidablecampaigns。
ThereweresimilarcontradictionsduringtheConvention。Theimmensemajorityofitsmembersabhorredviolence。Sentimentalphilosophers，theyexaltedequality，fraternity，andliberty，yetendedbyexertingthemostterribledespotism。
ThesamecontradictionswerevisibleduringtheDirectory。
Extremelymoderateintheirintentionsattheoutset，theAssemblieswerecontinuallyeffectingbloodthirstycoupsd’etat。Theywishedtore—establishreligiouspeace，andfinallysentthousandsofpriestsintoimprisonment。TheywishedtorepairtheruinswhichcoveredFrance，andonlysucceededinaddingtothem。
ThustherewasalwaysacompletecontradictionbetweentheindividualwillsofthemenoftherevolutionaryperiodandthedeedsoftheAssembliesofwhichtheywereunits。
Thetruthisthattheyobeyedinvisibleforcesofwhichtheywerenotthemasters。Believingthattheyactedinthenameofpurereason，theywerereallysubjecttomystic，affective，andcollectiveinfluences，incomprehensibletothem，andwhichweareonlyto—daybeginningtounderstand。
Intelligencehasprogressedinthecourseoftheages，andhasopenedamarvellousoutlooktoman，althoughhischaracter，therealfoundationofhismind，andthesuremotiveofhisactions，hasscarcelychanged。Overthrownonemoment，itreappearsthenext。Humannaturemustbeacceptedasitis。
ThefoundersoftheRevolutiondidnotresignthemselvestothefactsofhumannature。Forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofhumanitytheyattemptedtotransformmenandsocietyinthenameofreason。
Neverwasanyundertakingcommencedwithsuchchancesofsuccess。
Thetheorists，whoclaimedtoeffectit，hadapowerintheirhandsgreaterthanthatofanydespot。
Yet，despitethispower，despitethesuccessofthearmies，despiteDraconianlawsandrepeatedcoupsd’etat，theRevolutionmerelyheapedruinuponruin，andendedinadictatorship。
Suchanattemptwasnotuseless，sinceexperienceisnecessarytotheeducationofthepeoples。WithouttheRevolutionitwouldhavebeendifficulttoprovethatpurereasondoesnotenableustochangehumannature，and，consequently，thatnosocietycanberebuiltbythewilloflegislators，howeverabsolutetheirpower。