ToestablishsomesortofcompromisebetweentheancienregimeandthenewidealswasthemostdifficultoftheproblemswhichBonapartehadtoresolve。HehadtodiscoverinstitutionswhichwouldsuitthetwomentalitiesintowhichFrancewasdivided。Hesucceeded，aswehaveseen，byconciliatorymeasures，andalsobydressingveryancientthingsinnewnames。
HisreignwasoneofthoserareperiodsofFrenchhistoryduringwhichthementalunityofFrancewascomplete。
Thisunitycouldnotoutlivehim。Onthemorrowofhisfallalltheoldpartiesreappeared，andhavesurviveduntilthepresentday。Someattachthemselvestotraditionalinfluences；othersviolentlyrejectthem。
Ifthislongconflicthadbeenbetweenbelieversandtheindifferent，itcouldnothavelasted，forindifferenceisalwaystolerant；butthestrugglewasreallybetweentwodifferentbeliefs。ThelayChurchverysoonassumedareligiousaspect，anditspretendedrationalismhasbecome，especiallyinrecentyears，abarelyattenuatedformofthenarrowestclericalspirit。Now，wehaveshownthatnoconciliationispossiblebetweendissimilarreligiousbeliefs。Theclericalswheninpowercouldnotthereforeshowthemselvesmoretoleranttowardsfreethinkersthantheselatterareto—daytowardtheclericals。
Thesedivisions，determinedbydifferencesofbelief，werecomplicatedbytheadditionofthepoliticalconceptionsderivedfromthosebeliefs。
ManysimplesoulshaveforlongbelievedthattherealhistoryofFrancebeganwiththeyearI。oftheRepublic。Thisrudimentaryconceptionisatlastdyingout。Eventhemostrigidrevolutionariesrenounceit，[10]andarequitewillingtorecognisethatthepastwassomethingbetterthananepochofblackbarbarismdominatedbylowsuperstitions。
[10]WemayjudgeoftherecentevolutionofideasuponthispointbythefollowingpassagefromaspeechbyM。Jaures，deliveredintheChamberofDeputies：``Thegreatnessofto—dayisbuiltoftheeffortsofpastcenturies。Franceisnotcontainedinadaynorinanepoch，butinthesuccessionofalldays，allperiods，allhertwilightsandallherdawns。’’
ThereligiousoriginofmostofthepoliticalbeliefsheldinFranceinspirestheiradeptswithaninextinguishablehatredwhichalwaysstrikesforeignerswithamazement。
``Nothingismoreobvious，nothingismorecertain，’’writesMr。
Barret—Wendell，inhisbookonFrance，``thanthisfact：thatnotonlyhavetheroyalists，revolutionaries，andBonapartistsalwaysbeenmortallyopposedtooneanother，butthat，owingtothepassionateardouroftheFrenchcharacter，theyhavealwaysentertainedaprofoundintellectualhorrorforoneanother。Menwhobelievethemselvesinpossessionofthetruthcannotrefrainfromaffirmingthatthosewhodonotthinkwiththemareinstrumentsoferror。
``Eachpartywillgravelyinformyouthattheadvocatesoftheadversecauseareafflictedbyadensestupidityorareconsciouslydishonest。Yetwhenyoumeettheselatter，whowillsayexactlythesamethingsastheirdetractors，youcannotbutrecognise，inallgoodfaith，thattheyareneitherstupidnordishonest。’’
ThisreciprocalexecrationofthebelieversofeachpartyhasalwaysfacilitatedtheoverthrowofGovernmentsandministersinFrance。Thepartiesintheminoritywillneverrefusetoallythemselvesagainstthetriumphantparty。WeknowthatagreatnumberofrevolutionarySocialistshavebeenelectedtothepresentChamberonlybytheaidofthemonarchists，whoarestillasunintelligentastheywereatthetimeoftheRevolution。
OurreligiousandpoliticaldifferencesdonotconstitutetheonlycauseofdissensioninFrance。TheyareheldbymenpossessingthatparticularmentalitywhichIhavealreadydescribedunderthenameoftherevolutionarymentality。Wehaveseenthateachperiodalwayspresentsacertainnumberofindividualsreadytorevoltagainsttheestablishedorderofthings，whateverthatmaybe，eventhoughitmayrealisealltheirdesires。
TheintoleranceofthepartiesinFrance，andtheirdesiretoseizeuponpower，arefurtherfavouredbytheconviction，soprevalentundertheRevolution，thatsocietiescanberemadebymeansoflaws。ThemodernState，whateveritsleader，hasinheritedintheeyesofthemultitudesandtheirleadersthemysticpowerattributedtotheancientkings，whentheselatterwereregardedasanincarnationoftheDivinewill。NotonlythepeopleisinspiredbythisconfidenceinthepowerofGovernment；
allourlegislatorsentertainitalso。[11]
[11]Afterthepublicationofanarticleofmineconcerninglegislativeillusions，Ireceivedfromoneofourmosteminentpoliticians，M。Boudenotthesenator，aletterfromwhichI
extractthefollowingpassage：``TwentyyearspassedintheChamberandtheSenatehaveshownmehowrightyouare。HowmanytimesIhaveheardmycolleaguessay：`TheGovernmentoughttopreventthis，orderthat，’&c。Whatwouldyouhave？therearefourteencenturiesofmonarchicalatavisminourblood。’’
Legislatingalways，politiciansneverrealisethatasinstitutionsareeffects，andnotcauses，theyhavenovirtueinthemselves。Heirstothegreatrevolutionaryillusion，theydonotseethatmaniscreatedbyapastwhosefoundationswearepowerlesstoreshape。
TheconflictbetweentheprinciplesdividingFrance，whichhaslastedmorethanacentury，willdoubtlesscontinueforalongtimeyet，andnoonecanforeseewhatfreshupheavalsitmayengender。NodoubtifbeforeoureratheAthenianscouldhavedivinedthattheirsocialdissensionswouldhaveledtotheenslavementofGreece，theywouldhaverenouncedthem；buthowcouldtheyhaveforeseenasmuch？M。Guiraudjustlywrites：``A
generationofmenveryrarelyrealisesthetaskwhichitisaccomplishing。Itispreparingforthefuture；butthisfutureisoftenthecontraryofwhatitwishes。’’
2。SummaryofaCentury’sRevolutionaryMovementinFrance。
ThepsychologicalcausesoftherevolutionarymovementswhichFrancehasseenduringthepastcenturyhavingbeenexplained，itwillnowsufficetopresentasummarypictureofthesesuccessiverevolutions。
ThesovereignsincoalitionhavingdefeatedNapoleon，theyreducedFrancetoherformerlimits，andplacedLouisXVIII。，theonlypossiblesovereign，onthethrone。
Byaspecialcharterthenewkingacceptedthepositionofaconstitutionalmonarchunderarepresentativesystemofgovernment。HerecognisedalltheconquestsoftheRevolution：
thecivilCode，equalitybeforethelaw，libertyofworship，irrevocabilityofthesaleofnationalproperty，&c。Therightofsuffrage，however，waslimitedtothosepayingacertainamountintaxes。
ThisliberalConstitutionwasopposedbytheultra—royalists。
Returnedemigres，theywantedtherestitutionofthenationalproperty，andthere—establishmentoftheirancientprivileges。
Fearingthatsuchareactionmightcauseanewrevolution，LouisXVIII。wasreducedtodissolvingtheChamber。Theelectionhavingreturnedmoderatedeputies，hewasabletocontinuetogovernwiththesameprinciples，understandingverywellthatanyattempttogoverntheFrenchbytheancienregimewouldbeenoughtoprovokeageneralrebellion。
Unfortunately，hisdeath，in1824，placedCharlesX。，formerlyComted’Artois，onthethrone。Extremelynarrow，incapableofunderstandingthenewworldwhichsurroundedhim，andboastingthathehadnotmodifiedhisideassince1789，hepreparedaseriesofreactionarylaws——alawbywhichanindemnityoffortymillionssterlingwastobepaidtoemigres；alawofsacrilege；
andlawsestablishingtherightsofprimogeniture，thepreponderanceoftheclergy，&c。
Themajorityofthedeputiesshowingthemselvesdailymoreopposedtohisprojects，in1830heenactedOrdinancesdissolvingtheChamber，suppressingthelibertyofthePress，andpreparingfortherestorationoftheancienregime。
Theeffectwasimmediate。Thisautocraticactionprovokedacoalitionoftheleadersofallparties。Republicans，Bonapartists，Liberals，Royalists——allunitedinordertoraisetheParisianpopulace。FourdaysafterthepublicationoftheOrdinancestheinsurgentsweremastersofthecapital，andCharlesX。fledtoEngland。
Theleadersofthemovement——Thiers，Casimir—Perier，LaFayette，&c。——summonedtoParisLouis—Philippe，ofwhoseexistencethepeoplewerescarcelyaware，anddeclaredhimkingoftheFrench。
Betweentheindifferenceofthepeopleandthehostilityofthenobles，whohadremainedfaithfultothelegitimatedynasty，thenewkingreliedchieflyuponthebourgeoisie。Anelectorallawhavingreducedtheelectorstolessthan200，000，thisclassplayedanexclusivepartinthegovernment。
Thesituationofthesovereignwasnoteasy。HehadtostrugglesimultaneouslyagainstthelegitimistsupportersofHenryV。thegrandsonofCharlesX。，andtheBonapartists，whorecognisedastheirheadLouis—Napoleon，theEmperor’snephew，andfinallyagainsttherepublicans。
Bymeansoftheirsecretsocieties，analogoustotheclubsoftheRevolution，thelatterprovokednumerousriotsatvariousintervalsbetween1830and1840，butthesewereeasilyrepressed。
Theclericalsandlegitimists，ontheirside，didnotceasetheirintrigues。TheDuchessdeBerry，themotherofHenryV。，triedinvaintoraisetheVendee。Astotheclergy，theirdemandsfinallymadethemsointolerablethataninsurrectionbrokeout，inthecourseofwhichthepalaceofthearchbishopofPariswassacked。
Therepublicansasapartywerenotverydangerous，astheChambersidedwiththekinginthestruggleagainstthem。TheministerGuizot，whoadvocatedastrongcentralpower，declaredthattwothingswereindispensabletogovernment——``reasonandcannon。’’Thefamousstatesmanwassurelysomewhatdeludedastothenecessityorefficacyofreason。
Despitethisstrongcentralpower，whichinrealitywasnotstrong，therepublicans，andabovealltheSocialists，continuedtoagitate。Oneofthemostinfluential，LouisBlanc，claimedthatitwasthedutyoftheGovernmenttoprocureworkforeverycitizen。TheCatholicparty，ledbyLacordaireandMontalembert，unitedwiththeSocialists——asto—dayinBelgium——toopposetheGovernment。
Acampaigninfavourofelectoralreformendedin1848inafreshriot，whichunexpectedlyoverthrewLouis—Philippe。
HisfallwasfarlessjustifiablethanthatofCharlesX。Therewaslittlewithwhichhecouldbereproached。Doubtlesshewassuspiciousofuniversalsuffrage，buttheFrenchRevolutionhadmorethanoncebeenquitesuspiciousofit。Louis—Philippenotbeing，liketheDirectory，anabsoluteruler，couldnot，asthelatterhaddone，annulunfavourableelections。
AprovisionalGovernmentwasinstalledintheHoteldeVille，toreplacethefallenmonarchy。ItproclaimedtheRepublic，establisheduniversalsuffrage，anddecreedthatthepeopleshouldproceedtotheelectionofaNationalAssemblyofninehundredmembers。
FromthefirstdaysofitsexistencethenewGovernmentfounditselfthevictimofsocialisticmanoeuvresandriots。
ThepsychologicalphenomenaobservedduringthefirstRevolutionwerenowtobewitnessedagain。Clubswereformed，whoseleaderssentthepeoplefromtimetotimeagainsttheAssembly，forreasonswhichweregenerallyquitedevoidofcommonsense——forexample，toforcetheGovernmenttosupportaninsurrectioninPoland，&c。
InthehopeofsatisfyingtheSocialists，everydaymorenoisyandexigent，theAssemblyorganisednationalworkshops，inwhichtheworkerswereoccupiedinvariousformsoflabour。Inthese100，000mencosttheStatemorethanL40，000weekly。TheirclaimtoreceivepaywithoutworkingforitforcedtheAssemblytoclosetheworkshops。
Thismeasurewastheoriginofaformidableinsurrection，50，000
workersrevolting。TheAssembly，terrified，confidedalltheexecutivepowerstoGeneralCavaignac。Therewasafour—daysbattlewiththeinsurgents，duringwhichthreegeneralsandtheArchbishopofPariswerekilled；3，000prisonersweredeportedbytheAssemblytoAlgeria，andrevolutionarySocialismwasannihilatedforaspaceoffiftyyears。
TheseeventsbroughtGovernmentstockdownfrom116to50francs。
Businesswasatastandstill。Thepeasants，whothoughtthemselvesthreatenedbytheSocialists，andthebourgeois，whosetaxestheAssemblyhadincreasedbyhalf，turnedagainsttheRepublic，andwhenLouis—Napoleonpromisedtore—establishorderhefoundhimselfwelcomedwithenthusiasm。AcandidateforthepositionofPresidentoftheRepublic，whoaccordingtothenewConstitutionmustbeelectedbythewholebodyofcitizens，hewaschosenby5，500，000votes。
VerysoonatoddswiththeChamber，theprincedecidedonacoupd’etat。TheAssemblywasdissolved；30，000personswerearrested，10，000deported，andahundreddeputieswereexiled。
Thiscoupd’etat，althoughsummary，wasveryfavourablyreceived，forwhensubmittedtoaplebisciteitreceived7，500，000votesoutof8，000，000。
Onthe2ndofNovember，1852，NapoleonhadhimselfnamedEmperorbyanevengreatermajority：ThehorrorwhichthegeneralityofFrenchmenfeltfordemagoguesandSocialistshadrestoredtheEmpire。
InthefirstpartofitsexistenceitconstitutedanabsoluteGovernment，andduringthelatterhalfaliberalGovernment。
AftereighteenyearsofruletheEmperorwasoverthrownbytherevolutionofthe4thofSeptember，1870，afterthecapitulationofSedan。
Sincethattimerevolutionarymovementshavebeenrare；theonlyoneofimportancewastherevolutionofMarch，1871，whichresultedintheburningofmanyofthemonumentsofParisandtheexecutionofabout20，000insurgents。
Afterthewarof1870theelectors，who，amidsomanydisasters，didnotknowwhichwaytoturn，sentagreatnumberofOrleanistandlegitimistdeputiestotheConstituentAssembly。Unabletoagreeupontheestablishmentofamonarchy，theyappointedM。
ThiersPresidentoftheRepublic，laterreplacinghimbyMarshalMacMahon。In1876thenewelections，likeallthosethathavefollowed，sentamajorityofrepublicanstotheChamber。
Thevariousassemblieswhichhavesucceededtothishavealwaysbeendividedintonumerousparties，whichhaveprovokedinnumerablechangesofministry。
However，thankstotheequilibriumresultingfromthisdivisionofparties，wehaveforfortyyearsenjoyedcomparativequiet。
FourPresidentsoftheRepublichavebeenoverthrownwithoutrevolution，andtheriotsthathaveoccurred，suchasthoseofChampagneandtheMidi，havenothadseriousconsequences。
Agreatpopularmovement，in1888，didnearlyoverthrowtheRepublicforthebenefitofGeneralBoulanger，butithassurvivedandtriumphedovertheattacksofallparties。
VariousreasonscontributetothemaintenanceofthepresentRepublic。Inthefirstplace，oftheconflictingfactionsnoneisstrongenoughtocrushtherest。Inthesecondplace，theheadoftheStatebeingpurelydecorative，andpossessingnopower，itisimpossibletoattributetohimtheevilsfromwhichthecountrymaysuffer，andtofeelsurethatmatterswouldbedifferentwereheoverthrown。Finally，asthesupremepowerisdistributedamongthousandsofhands，responsibilitiesaresodisseminatedthatitwouldbedifficulttoknowwheretobegin。
Atyrantcanbeoverthrown，butwhatcanbedoneagainstahostoflittleanonymoustyrannies？
IfwewishedtosumupinawordthegreattransformationswhichhavebeeneffectedinFrancebyacenturyofriotsandrevolutions，wemightsaythatindividualtyranny，whichwasweakandthereforeeasilyoverthrown，hasbeenreplacedbycollectivetyrannies，whichareverystronganddifficulttodestroy。ToapeopleavidofequalityandhabituatedtoholditsGovernmentsresponsibleforeveryeventindividualtyrannyseemedinsupportable，whileacollectivetyrannyisreadilyendured，althoughgenerallymuchmoresevere。
TheextensionofthetyrannyoftheStatehasthereforebeenthefinalresultofallourrevolutions，andthecommoncharacteristicofallsystemsofgovernmentwhichwehaveknowninFrance。Thisformoftyrannymayberegardedasaracialideal，sincesuccessiveupheavalsofFrancehaveonlyfortifiedit。StatismistherealpoliticalsystemoftheLatinpeoples，andtheonlysystemthatreceivesallsuffrages。Theotherformsofgovernment——republic，monarchy，empire——representemptylabels，powerlessshadows。
PARTIII
THERECENTEVOLUTIONOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLES
CHAPTERI
THEPROGRESSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEFSSINCETHEREVOLUTION
1。GradualPropagationofDemocraticIdeasaftertheRevolution。
Ideaswhicharefirmlyestablished，incrusted，asitwere，inmen’sminds，continuetoactforseveralgenerations。ThosewhichresultedfromtheFrenchRevolutionwere，likeothers，subjecttothislaw。
AlthoughthelifeoftheRevolutionasaGovernmentwasshort，theinfluenceofitsprincipleswas，onthecontrary，verylong—
lived。Becomingaformofreligiousbelief，theyprofoundlymodifiedtheorientationofthesentimentsandideasofseveralgenerations。
Despiteafewintervals，theFrenchRevolutionhascontinueduptothepresent，andstillsurvives。TheroleofNapoleonwasnotconfinedtooverturningtheworld，changingthemapofEurope，andremakingtheexploitsofAlexander。Thenewrightsofthepeople，createdbytheRevolutionandestablishedbyitsinstitutions，haveexercisedaprofoundinfluence。Themilitaryworkoftheconquerorwassoondissolved，buttherevolutionaryprincipleswhichhecontributedtopropagatehavesurvivedhim。
ThevariousrestorationswhichfollowedtheEmpirecausedmenatfirsttobecomesomewhatforgetfuloftheprinciplesoftheRevolution。Forfiftyyearsthispropagationwasfarfromrapid。
Onemightalmosthavesupposedthatthepeoplehadforgottenthem。Onlyasmallnumberoftheoristsmaintainedtheirinfluence。Heirstothe``simplicist’’spiritoftheJacobins，believing，likethem，thatsocietiescanberemadefromtoptobottombythelaws，andpersuadedthattheEmpirehadonlyinterruptedthetaskofrevolution，theywishedtoresumeit。
Whilewaitinguntiltheycouldrecommence，theyattemptedtospreadtheprinciplesoftheRevolutionbymeansoftheirwritings。FaithfulimitatorsofthemenoftheRevolution，theyneverstoppedtoaskiftheirschemesforreformwereinconformitywithhumannature。Theytoowereerectingachimericalsocietyforanidealman，andwerepersuadedthattheapplicationoftheirdreamswouldregeneratethehumanspecies。
Deprivedofallconstructivepower，thetheoristsofalltheageshavealwaysbeenveryreadytodestroy。NapoleonatSt。Helenastatedthat``ifthereexistedamonarchyofgranitetheidealistsandtheoristswouldmanagetoreduceittopowder。’’
AmongthegalaxyofdreamerssuchasSaint—Simon，Fourier，PierreLeroux，LouisBlanc，Quinet，&c。，wefindthatonlyAugusteComteunderstoodthatatransformationofmannersandideasmustprecedepoliticalreorganisation。
Farfromfavouringthediffusionofdemocraticideas，theprojectsofreformofthetheoristsofthisperiodmerelyimpededtheirprogress。CommunisticSocialism，whichseveralofthemprofessedwouldrestoretheRevolution，finallyalarmedthebourgeoisieandeventheworking—classes。WehavealreadyseenthatthefearoftheirideaswasoneoftheprincipalcausesoftherestorationoftheEmpire。
Ifnoneofthechimericallucubrationsofthewritersofthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturydeservetobediscussed，itisnonethelessinterestingtoexaminetheminordertoobservethepartplayedbyreligiousandmoralideaswhichto—dayareregardedwithcontempt。Persuadedthatanewsocietycouldnot，anymorethanthesocietiesofold，bebuiltupwithoutreligiousandmoralbeliefs，thereformerswerealwaysendeavouringtofoundsuchbeliefs。
Butonwhatcouldtheybebased？Evidentlyonreason。Bymeansofreasonmencreatecomplicatedmachines：whynotthereforeareligionandamorality，thingswhichareapparentlysosimple？
Notoneofthemsuspectedthefactthatnoreligiousormoralbeliefeverhadrationallogicasitsbasis。AugusteComtesawnomoreclearly。Weknowthathefoundedaso—calledpositivistreligion，whichstillhasafewfollowers。ScientistsweretoformaclergydirectedbyanewPope，whowastoreplacetheCatholicPope。
Alltheseconceptions——political，religious，ormoral——had，I
repeat，nootherresultsforalongtimethantoturnthemultitudeawayfromdemocraticprinciples。
Iftheseprinciplesdidfinallybecomewidespread，itwasnotonaccountofthetheorists，butbecausenewconditionsoflifehadarisen。Thankstothediscoveriesofscience，industrydevelopedandledtotheerectionofimmensefactories。EconomicnecessitiesincreasinglydominatedthewillsofGovernmentsandthepeopleandfinallycreatedafavourablesoilfortheextensionofSocialism，andaboveallofSyndicalism，themodernformsofdemocraticideas。
2。TheUnequalInfluenceoftheThreeFundamentalPrinciplesoftheRevolution。
TheheritageoftheRevolutionissummedupinitsentiretyintheonephrase——Liberty，equality，andFraternity。Theprincipleofequality，aswehaveseen，hasexertedapowerfulinfluence，butthetwoothersdidnotshareitslot。
Althoughthesenseofthesetermsseemsclearenough，theywerecomprehendedinverydifferentfashionsaccordingtomenandtimes。Weknowthatthevariousinterpretationofthesamewordsbypersonsofdifferentmentalityhasbeenoneofthemostfrequentcausesoftheconflictsofhistory。
TothememberoftheConventionlibertysignifiedmerelytheexerciseofitsunlimiteddespotism。Toayoungmodern``intellectual’’thesamewordmeansageneralreleasefromeverythingirksome：tradition，law，superiority，&c。TothemodernJacobinlibertyconsistsespeciallyintherighttopersecutehisadversaries。
Althoughpoliticaloratorsstilloccasionallymentionlibertyintheirspeeches，theyhavegenerallyceasedtoevokefraternity。
Itistheconflictofthedifferentclassesandnottheiralliancethattheyteachto—day。Neverdidamoreprofoundhatreddividethevariousstrataofsocietyandthepoliticalpartieswhichleadthem。
Butwhilelibertyhasbecomeverydoubtfulandfraternityhascompletelyvanished，theprincipleofequalityhasgrownunchecked。IthasbeensupremeinallthepoliticalupheavalsofwhichFrancehasbeenthestageduringthelastcentury，andhasreachedsuchadevelopmentthatourpoliticalandsociallife，ourlaws，manners，andcustomsareatleastintheorybasedonthisprinciple。ItconstitutesthereallegacyoftheRevolution。Thecravingforequality，notonlybeforethelaw，butinpositionandfortune，istheverypivotofthelastproductofdemocracy：Socialism。Thiscravingissopowerfulthatitisspreadinginalldirections，althoughincontradictionwithallbiologicalandeconomiclaws。Itisanewphaseoftheinterruptedstruggleofthesentimentsagainstreason，inwhichreasonsorarelytriumphs。
2。TheDemocracyofthe``Intellectuals’’andPopularDemocracy。
Allideasthathavehithertocausedanupheavaloftheworldofmenhavebeensubjecttotwolaws：theyevolveslowly，andtheycompletelychangetheirsenseaccordingtothementalitiesinwhichtheyfindreception。
Adoctrinemaybecomparedtoalivingbeing。Itsubsistsonlybyprocessoftransformation。Thebooksarenecessarilysilentuponthesevariations，sothatthephaseofthingswhichtheyestablishbelongsonlytothepast。Theydonotreflecttheimageoftheliving，butofthedead。Thewrittenstatementofadoctrineoftenrepresentsthemostnegligiblesideofthatdoctrine。
Ihaveshowninanotherworkhowinstitutions，arts，andlanguagesaremodifiedinpassingfromonepeopletoanother，andhowthelawsofthesetransformationsdifferfromthetruthasstatedinbooks。Ialludetothismatternowmerelytoshowwhy，inexaminingthesubjectofdemocraticideas，weoccupyourselvessolittlewiththetextofdoctrines，andseekonlyforthepsychologicalelementsofwhichtheyconstitutethevestment，andthereactionswhichtheyprovokeinthevariouscategoriesofmenwhohaveacceptedthem。
Modifiedrapidlybymenofdifferentmentalities，theoriginaltheoryissoonnomorethanalabelwhichdenotessomethingquiteunlikeitself。
Applicabletoreligiousbeliefs，theseprinciplesareequallysotopoliticalbeliefs。Whenamanspeaksofdemocracy，forexample，mustweinquirewhatthiswordmeanstovariouspeoples，andalsowhetherinthesamepeoplethereisnotagreatdifferencebetweenthedemocracyofthe``intellectuals’’andpopulardemocracy。
Inconfiningourselvesnowtotheconsiderationofthislatterpointweshallreadilyperceivethatthedemocraticideastobefoundinbooksandjournalsarepurelythetheoriesofliterarypeople，ofwhichthepeopleknownothing，andbytheapplicationofwhichtheywouldhavenothingtogain。Althoughtheworking—