ToassureitselfofdominationintheprovincestheDirectorycausedaso—calledlawofhostagestobepassed，accordingtowhichalistofhostages，responsibleforalloffences，wasdrawnupineachcommune。
Itiseasytounderstandwhathatredsuchasystemprovoked。Attheendof1799fourteendepartmentswereinrevoltandforty—sixwerereadytorise。IftheDirectoryhadlastedthedissolutionofsocietywouldhavebeencomplete。
Forthatmatter，thisdissolutionwasfaradvanced。Finances，administration，everythingwascrumbling。ThereceiptsoftheTreasury，consistingofdepreciatedassignatsfallentoahundredthpartoftheiroriginalvalue，werenegligible。HoldersofGovernmentstockandofficerscouldnolongerobtainpayment。
Franceatthistimegavetravellerstheimpressionofacountryravagedbywarandabandonedbyitsinhabitants。Thebrokenbridgesanddykesandruinedbuildingsmadealltrafficimpossible。Theroads，longdeserted，wereinfestedbybrigands。
Certaindepartmentscouldonlybecrossedatthepriceofbuyingasafe—conductfromtheleadersofthesebands。Industryandcommercewereannihilated。InLyons13，000workshopsandmillsoutof15，000hadbeenforcedtoclose。Lille，Havre，Bordeaux，Lyons，Marseilles，&c。，werelikedeadcities。Povertyandfamineweregeneral。
Themoraldisorganisationwasnolessterrible。Luxuryandthecravingforpleasure，costlydinners，jewels，andextravaganthouseholdsweretheappanageofanewsocietycomposedentirelyofstock—jobbers，armycontractors，andshadyfinanciersenrichedbypillage。TheygaveParisthatsuperficialaspectofluxuryandgaietywhichhasdeludedsomanyhistoriansofthisperiod，becausetheinsolentprodigalitydisplayedcoveredthegeneralmisery。
ThechroniclesoftheDirectoryastoldinbookshelptoshowusofwhatliesthewebofhistoryiswoven。Thetheatrehaslatelygotholdofthisperiod，ofwhichthefashionsarestillimitated。Ithasleftthememoryofajoyousperiodofre—birthafterthegloomydramaoftheTerror。InrealitythedramaoftheDirectorywashardlyanimprovementontheTerrorandwasquiteassanguinary。Finally，itinspiredsuchloathingthattheDirectors，feelingthatitcouldnotlast，soughtthemselvesforthedictatorcapableofreplacingitandalsoofprotectingthem。
3。TheAdventofBonaparte。
WehaveseenthatattheendoftheDirectorytheanarchyanddisorganisationweresuchthateveryonewasdesperatelycallingforthemanofenergycapableofre—establishingorder。Asearlyas1795anumberofdeputieshadthoughtforamomentofre—
establishingroyalty。LouisXVIII。，havingbeentactlessenoughtodeclarethathewouldrestoretheancienregimeinitsentirety，returnallpropertytoitsoriginalowners，andpunishthemenoftheRevolution，wasimmediatelythrownover。
ThesenselessexpeditionofQuiberonfinallyalienatedthesupportersofthefuturesovereign。TheroyalistsgaveaproofduringthewholeoftheRevolutionofanincapacityandanarrownessofmindwhichjustifiedmostofthemeasurestakenagainstthem。
Themonarchybeingimpossible，itwasnecessarytofindageneral。Onlyoneexistedwhosenamecarriedweight——Bonaparte。
ThecampaigninItalyhadjustmadehimfamous。HavingcrossedtheAlps，hehadmarchedfromvictorytovictory，penetratedtoMilanandVenice，andeverywhereobtainedimportantwarcontributions。HethenmadetowardsVienna，andwasonlytwenty—
fiveleaguesfromitsgateswhentheEmperorofAustriadecidedtosueforpeace。
Butgreataswashisrenown，theyounggeneraldidnotconsideritsufficient。ToincreaseithepersuadedtheDirectorythatthepowerofEnglandcouldbeshakenbyaninvasionofEgypt，andinMay，1798，heembarkedatToulon。
ThisneedofincreasinghisprestigearosefromaverysoundpsychologicalconceptionwhichheclearlyexpoundedatSt。
Helena：——
``ThemostinfluentialandenlightenedgeneralshadlongbeenpressingthegeneralofItalytotakestepstoplacehimselfattheheadoftheRepublic。Herefused；hewasnotyetstrongenoughtowalkquitealone。HehadideasupontheartofgoverninganduponwhatwasnecessarytoagreatnationwhichweresodifferentfromthoseofthemenoftheRevolutionandtheassembliesthat，notbeingabletoactalone，hefearedtocompromisehischaracter。HedeterminedtosetoutforEgypt，butresolvedtoreappearifcircumstancesshouldarisetorenderhispresenceusefulornecessary。’’
BonapartedidnotstaylonginEgypt。Recalledbyhisfriends，helandedatFrejus，andtheannouncementofhisreturnprovokeduniversalenthusiasm。Therewereilluminationseverywhere。
Francecollaboratedinadvanceinthecoupd’etatpreparedbytwoDirectorsandtheprincipalministers。Theplotwasorganisedinthreeweeks。Itsexecutiononthe18thofBrumairewasaccomplishedwiththegreatestease。
Allpartiesexperiencedthegreatestdelightatbeingridofthesinistergangswhohadsolongoppressedandexploitedthecountry。TheFrenchweredoubtlessabouttoenteruponadespoticsystemofgovernment，butitcouldnotbesointolerableasthatwhichhadbeenenduredforsomanyyears。
Thehistoryofthecoupd’etatofBrumairejustifiesallthatwehavealreadysaidoftheimpossibilityofformingexactjudgmentsofeventswhichapparentlyarefullyunderstoodandattestedbynomatterhowmanywitnesses。
WeknowwhatideaspeoplehadthirtyyearsagoconcerningthecoupofBrumaire。Itwasregardedasacrimecommittedbytheambitionofamanwhowassupportedbyhisarmy。Asamatteroffactthearmyplayednopartwhateverintheaffair。Thelittlebodyofmenwhoexpelledthefewrecalcitrantdeputieswerenotsoldierseven，butthegendarmesoftheAssemblyitself。Thetrueauthorofthecoupd’etatwastheGovernmentitself，withthecomplicityofallFrance。
4。CausesoftheDurationoftheRevolution。
IfwelimittheRevolutiontothetimenecessaryfortheconquestofitsfundamentalprinciples——equalitybeforethelaw，freeaccesstopublicfunctions，popularsovereignty，controlofexpenditures，&c。——wemaysaythatitlastedonlyafewmonths。
Towardsthemiddleof1789allthiswasaccomplished，andduringtheyearsthatfollowednothingwasaddedtoit，yettheRevolutionlastedmuchlonger。
Confiningthedurationtothedatesadmittedbytheofficialhistorians，weseeitpersistinguntiltheadventofBonaparte，aspaceofsometenyears。
Whydidthisperiodofdisorganisationandviolencefollowtheestablishmentofthenewprinciples？Weneednotseekthecauseintheforeignwar，whichmightonseveraloccasionshavebeenterminated，thankstothedivisionsofthealliesandtheconstantvictoriesoftheFrench；neithermustwelookforitinthesympathyofFrenchmenfortherevolutionaryGovernment。
NeverwasrulemorecordiallyhatedanddespisedthanthatoftheAssemblies。Byitsrevoltsaswellasbyitsrepeatedvotesagreatpartofthenationdisplayedthehorrorwithwhichitregardedthesystem。
Thislastpoint，theaversionofFrancefortherevolutionaryregime，solongmisunderstood，hasbeenwelldisplayedbyrecenthistorians。TheauthorofthelastbookpublishedontheRevolution，M。Madelin，haswellsummarisedtheiropinioninthefollowingwords：——
``Asearlyas1793apartybynomeansnumeroushadseizeduponFrance，theRevolution，andtheRepublic。Now，three—quartersofFrancelongedfortheRevolutiontobechecked，orratherdeliveredfromitsodiousexploiters；buttheseheldtheunhappycountrybyathousandmeans……AstheTerrorwasessentialtothemiftheyweretorule，theystruckatwhomsoeverseemedatanygivenmomenttobeopposedtotheTerror，weretheythebestservantsoftheRevolution。’’
UptotheendoftheDirectorythegovernmentwasexercisedbyJacobins，whomerelydesiredtoretain，alongwiththesupremepower，therichestheyhadaccumulatedbymurderandpillage，andwerereadytosurrenderFrancetoanyonewhowouldguaranteethemfreepossessionofthese。Thattheynegotiatedthecoupd’etatofBrumairewithNapoleonwassimplytothefactthattheyhadnotbeenabletorealisetheirwisheswithregardtoLouisXVIII。
ButhowexplainthefactthataGovernmentsotyrannicalandsodishonouredwasabletosurviveforsomanyyears？
Itwasnotmerelybecausetherevolutionaryreligionstillsurvivedinmen’sminds，norbecauseitwasforcedonthembymeansofpersecutionandbloodshed，butespecially，asIhavealreadystated，onaccountofthegreatinterestwhichalargeportionofthepopulationhadinmaintainingit。
Thispointisfundamental。IftheRevolutionhadremainedatheoreticalreligion，itwouldprobablyhavebeenofshortduration。Butthebeliefwhichhadjustbeenfoundedveryquicklyemergedfromthedomainofpuretheory。
TheRevolutiondidnotconfineitselftodespoilingthemonarchy，thenobility，andtheclergyoftheirpowersofgovernment。Inthrowingintothehandsofthebourgeoisieandthelargenumbersofpeasantrythewealthandtheemploymentsoftheoldprivilegedclassesithadatthesamestroketurnedthemintoobstinatesupportersoftherevolutionarysystem。Allthosewhohadacquiredthepropertyofwhichthenoblesandclergyhadbeendespoiledhadobtainedlandsandchateauxatlowprices，andwereterrifiedlesttherestorationofthemonarchyshouldforcethemtomakegeneralrestitution。
ItwaslargelyforthesereasonsthataGovernmentwhich，atanynormalperiod，wouldneverhavebeenendured，wasabletosurviveuntilamastershouldre—establishorder，whilepromisingtomaintainnotonlythemoralbutalsothematerialconquestsoftheRevolution。Bonaparterealisedtheseanxieties，andwaspromptlyandenthusiasticallywelcomed。Materialconquestswhichwerestillcontestableandtheoreticalprincipleswhichwerestillfragilewerebyhimincorporatedininstitutionsandthelaws。ItisanerrortosaythattheRevolutionterminatedwithhisadvent。Farfromdestroyingit，heratifiedandconsolidatedit。
CHAPTERII
THERESTORATIONOFORDER。THECONSULARREPUBLIC
1。HowtheWorkoftheRevolutionwasConfirmedbytheConsulate。
ThehistoryoftheConsulateisasrichastheprecedingperiodinpsychologicalmaterial。Inthefirstplaceitshowsusthattheworkofapowerfulindividualissuperiortothatofacollectivity。BonaparteimmediatelyreplacedthebloodyanarchyinwhichtheRepublichadfortenyearsbeenwrithingbyaperiodoforder。ThatwhichnoneofthefourAssembliesoftheRevolutionhadbeenabletorealise，despitethemostviolentoppression，asinglemanaccomplishedinaveryshortspaceoftime。
HisauthorityimmediatelyputanendtoalltheParisianinsurrectionsandtheattemptsatmonarchicalresistance，andre—
establishedthemoralunityofFrance，soprofoundlydividedbyintensehatreds。Bonapartereplacedanunorganisedcollectivedespotismbyaperfectlyorganisedindividualdespotism。
Everyonegainedthereby，forhistyrannywasinfinitelylessheavythanthatwhichhadbeenenduredfortenlongyears。Wemustsuppose，moreover，thatitwasunwelcometoveryfew，asitwasverysoonacceptedwithimmenseenthusiasm。
Weknowbetterto—daythantorepeatwiththeoldhistoriansthatBonaparteoverthrewtheRepublic。Onthecontrary，heretainedofitallthatcouldberetained，andneverwouldhavebeenretainedwithouthim，byestablishingallthepracticableworkoftheRevolution——theabolitionofprivileges，equalitybeforethelaw，&c。——ininstitutionsandcodesoflaw。TheConsularGovernmentcontinued，moreover，tocallitselftheRepublic。
ItisinfinitelyprobablethatwithouttheConsulateamonarchicalrestorationwouldhaveterminatedtheDirectory，andwouldhavewipedoutthegreaterpartoftheworkoftheRevolution。LetussupposeBonaparteerasedfromhistory。Noone，Ithink，willimaginethattheDirectorycouldhavesurvivedtheuniversalwearinessofitsrule。Itwouldcertainlyhavebeenoverturnedbytheroyalistconspiracieswhichwerebreakingoutdaily，andLouisXVIII。wouldprobablyhaveascendedthethrone。Certainlyhewastomountitsixteenyearslater，butduringthisintervalBonapartegavesuchforcetotheprinciplesoftheRevolution，byestablishingtheminlawsandcustoms，thattherestoredsovereigndarednottouchthem，norrestorethepropertyofthereturnedemigres。
MatterswouldhavebeenverydifferenthadLouisXVIII。
immediatelyfollowedtheDirectory。Hewouldhavebroughtwithhimalltheabsolutismoftheancienregime，andfreshrevolutionswouldhavebeennecessarytoabolishit。WeknowthatamereattempttoreturntothepastoverthrewCharlesX。
ItwouldbealittleingenuoustocomplainofthetyrannyofBonaparte。UndertheancienregimeFrenchmenhadsupportedeveryspeciesoftyranny，andtheRepublichadcreatedadespotismevenheavierthanthatofthemonarchy。Despotismwasthenanormalcondition，whicharousednoprotestsavewhenitwasaccompaniedbydisorder。
Aconstantlawofthepsychologyofcrowdsshowsthemascreatinganarchy，andthenseekingthemasterwhowillenablethemtoemergetherefrom。Bonapartewasthismaster。
2。TheReorganisationofFrancebytheConsulate。
UponassumingpowerBonaparteundertookacolossaltask。Allwasinruins；allwastoberebuilt。OnthemorrowofthecoupofBrumairehedrafted，almostsingle—handed，theConstitutiondestinedtogivehimtheabsolutepowerwhichwastoenablehimtoreorganisethecountryandtoprevailoverthefactions。Inamonthitwascompleted。
ThisConstitution，knownasthatoftheyearVIII。，survived，withslightmodifications，untiltheendofhisreign。TheexecutivepowerwastheattributeofthreeConsuls，twoofwhompossessedaconsultativevoiceonly。ThefirstConsul，Bonaparte，wasthereforesolemasterofFrance。Heappointedministers，councillorsofstate，ambassadors，magistrates，andotherofficials，anddecideduponpeaceorwar。Thelegislativepowerwashisalso，sinceonlyhecouldinitiatethelaws，whichweresubsequentlysubmittedtothreeAssemblies——theCouncilofState，theTribunate，andtheLegislativeCorps。AfourthAssembly，theSenate，actedeffectuallyastheguardianoftheConstitution。
Despoticashewasandbecame，BonapartealwayscalledtheotherConsulsabouthimbeforeproceedingwiththemosttrivialmeasure。TheLegislativeCorpsdidnotexercisemuchinfluenceduringhisreign，buthesignednodecreesofanykindwithoutfirstdiscussingthemwiththeCouncilofState。ThisCouncil，composedofthemostenlightenedandlearnedmenofFrance，preparedlaws，whichwerethenpresentedtotheLegislativeCorps，whichcouldcriticisethemveryfreely，sincevotingwassecret。PresidedoverbyBonaparte，theCouncilofStatewasakindofsovereigntribunal，judgingeventheactionsofministers。[9]
[9]NapoleonnaturallyoftenoverruledtheCouncilofState，butbynomeansalwaysdidso。Inoneinstance，reportedintheMemorialdeSainte—Helene，hewastheonlyoneofhisownopinion，andacceptedthatofthemajorityinthefollowingterms：``Gentlemen，mattersaredecidedherebymajority，andbeingalone，Imustgiveway；butIdeclarethatinmyconscienceIyieldonlytoform。Youhavereducedmetosilence，butinnowayconvincedme。’’
AnotherdaytheEmperor，interruptedthreetimesintheexpressionofhisopinion，addressedhimselftothespeakerwhohadjustinterruptedhim：``Sir，Ihavenotyetfinished；Ibegyoutoallowmetocontinue。Afterall，itseemstomethateveryonehasaperfectrighttoexpresshisopinionhere。’’
``TheEmperor，contrarytotheacceptedopinion，wassofarfromabsolute，andsoeasywithhisCouncilofState，thatheoftenresumedadiscussion，orevenannulledadecision，becauseoneofthemembersoftheCouncilhadsince，inprivate，givenhimfreshreasons，orhadurgedthattheEmperor’spersonalopinionhadinfluencedthemajority。’’
ThenewmasterhadgreatconfidenceinthisCouncil，asitwascomposedmoreparticularlyofeminentjurists，eachofwhomdealtwithhisownspeciality。Hewastoogoodapsychologistnottoentertainthegreatestsuspicionoflargeandincompetentassembliesofpopularorigin，whosedisastrousresultshadbeenobvioustohimduringthewholeoftheRevolution。
Wishingtogovernforthepeople，butneverwithitsassistance，Bonaparteaccordeditnopartinthegovernment，reservingtoitonlytherightofvoting，onceforall，fororagainsttheadoptionofthenewConstitution。Heonlyinrareinstanceshadrecoursetouniversalsuffrage。ThemembersoftheLegislativeCorpsrecruitedthemselves，andwerenotelectedbythepeople。
IncreatingaConstitutionintendedsolelytofortifyhisownpower，theFirstConsulhadnoillusionthatitwouldservetorestorethecountry。Consequently，whilehewasdraftingithealsoundertooktheenormoustaskoftheadministrative，judicial，andfinancialreorganisationofFrance。ThevariouspowerswerecentralisedinParis。Eachdepartmentwasdirectedbyaprefect，assistedbyaconsul—general；thearrondissementbyasub—
prefect，assistedbyacouncil；thecommunebyamayor，assistedbyamunicipalcouncil。Allwereappointedbytheministers，andnotbyelection，asundertheRepublic。
Thissystem，whichcreatedtheomnipotentStateandapowerfulcentralisation，wasretainedbyallsubsequentGovernmentsandispreservedto—day。Centralisationbeing，inspiteofitsdrawbacks，theonlymeansofavoidinglocaltyranniesinacountryprofoundlydividedwithinitself，hasalwaysbeenmaintained。
Thisorganisation，basedonaprofoundknowledgeofthesouloftheFrenchpeople，immediatelyrestoredthattranquillityandorderwhichhadforsolongbeenunknown。
Tocompletethementalpacificationofthecountry，thepoliticalexileswererecalledandthechurchesrestoredtothefaithful。
Continuingtorebuildthesocialedifice，Bonapartebusiedhimselfalsowiththedraftingofacode，thegreaterpartofwhichconsistedofcustomsborrowedfromtheancienregime。
Itwas，ashasbeensaid，asortoftransitionorcompromisebetweentheoldlawandthenew。
ConsideringtheenormoustaskaccomplishedbytheFirstConsulinsoshortatime，werealisethathehadneed，beforeall，ofaConstitutionaccordinghimabsolutepower。IfallthemeasuresbywhichherestoredFrancehadbeensubmittedtoassembliesofattorneys，hecouldneverhaveextricatedthecountryfromthedisorderintowhichithadfallen。
TheConstitutionoftheyearVIII。obviouslytransformedtheRepublicintoamonarchyatleastasabsoluteasthe``Divineright’’monarchyofLouisXIV。BeingtheonlyConstitutionadaptedtotheneedsofthemoment，itrepresentedapsychologicalnecessity。
3。PsychologicalElementswhichdeterminedtheSuccessoftheWorkoftheConsulate。
Alltheexternalforceswhichactuponmen——economic，historical，geographical，&c。——maybefinallytranslatedintopsychologicalforces。Thesepsychologicalforcesarulermustunderstandinordertogovern。TheRevolutionaryAssemblieswerecompletelyignorantofthem；Bonaparteknewhowtoemploythem。
ThevariousAssemblies，theConventionnotably，werecomposedofconflictingparties。Napoleonunderstoodthattodominatethemhemustnotbelongtoanyoneoftheseparties。Verywellawarethatthevalueofacountryisdisseminatedamongthesuperiorintelligencesofthevariousparties，hetriedtoutilisethemall。Hisagentsofgovernment——ministers，priests，magistrates，&c。——weretakenindifferentlyfromamongtheLiberals，Royalists，Jacobites，&c。，havingregardonlytotheircapacities。
Whileacceptingtheassistanceofmenoftheancienregime，BonapartetookcaretomakeitunderstoodthatheintendedtomaintainthefundamentalprinciplesoftheRevolution。
NeverthelessmanyRoyalistsralliedroundthenewGovernment。
OneofthemostremarkablefeatsoftheConsulate，fromthepsychologicalpointofview，wastherestorationofreligiouspeace。Francewasfarmoredividedbyreligiousdisagreementthanbypoliticaldifferences。ThesystematicdestructionofaportionoftheVendeehadalmostcompletelyterminatedthestrugglebyforceofarms，butwithoutpacifyingmen’sminds。Asonlyoneman，andhetheheadofChristianity，couldassistinthispacification，Bonapartedidnothesitatetotreatwithhim。
Hisconcordatwastheworkofarealpsychologist，whoknewthatmoralforcesdonotuseviolence，andthegreatdangerofpersecutingsuch。Whileconciliatingtheclergyhecontrivedtoplacethemunderhisowndomination。ThebishopsweretobeappointedandremuneratedbytheState，sothathewouldstillbemaster。
ThereligiouspolicyofNapoleonhadabearingwhichescapesourmodernJacobins。Blindedbytheirnarrowfanaticism，theydonotunderstandthattodetachtheChurchfromtheGovernmentistocreateastatewithintheState，sothattheyareliabletofindthemselvesopposedbyaformidablecaste，directedbyamasteroutsideFrance，andnecessarilyhostiletoFrance。Togiveone’senemiesalibertytheydidnotpossessisextremelydangerous。
NeverwouldNapoleon，noranyofthesovereignswhoprecededhim，haveconsentedtomaketheclergyindependentoftheState，astheyhavebecometo—day。
ThedifficultiesofBonapartetheFirstConsulwerefargreaterthanthosehehadtosurmountafterhiscoronation。Onlyaprofoundknowledgeofmenenabledhimtotriumphoverthem。Thefuturemasterwasfarfrombeingthemasterasyet。Manydepartmentswerestillininsurrection。Brigandagepersisted，andtheMidiwasravagedbythestrugglesofpartisans。
Bonaparte，asConsul，hadtoconciliateandhandleTalleyrand，Fouche，andanumberofgeneralswhothoughtthemselveshisequal。Evenhisbrothersconspiredagainsthispower。Napoleon，asEmperor，hadnohostilepartytoface，butasConsulhehadtocombatallthepartiesandtoholdthebalanceequalamongthem。Thismustindeedhavebeenadifficulttask，sinceduringthelastcenturyveryfewGovernmentshavesucceededinaccomplishingit。
Thesuccessofsuchanundertakingdemandedanextremelysubtlemixtureoffinesse，firmness，anddiplomacy。Notfeelinghimselfpowerfulenoughasyet，BonapartetheConsulmadearule，accordingtohisownexpression，``ofgoverningmenasthegreaternumberwishtobegoverned。’’AsEmperorheoftenmanagedtogovernthemaccordingtohisownideal。
Wehavetravelledalongwaysincethetimewhenhistorians，intheirsingularblindness，andgreatpoets，whopossessedmoretalentthanpsychology，wouldholdforthinindignantaccentsagainstthecoupd’etatofBrumaire。Whatprofoundillusionsunderlaytheassertionthat``FrancelayfairinMessidor’sgreatsun’’！AndotherillusionsnolessprofoundunderlaysuchverdictsasthatofVictorHugoconcerningthisperiod。Wehaveseenthatthe``CrimeofBrumaire’’hadasanenthusiasticaccomplice，notonlytheGovernmentitselfbutthewholeofFrance，whichitdeliveredfromanarchy。
Onemaywonderhowintelligentmencouldsomisjudgeaperiodofhistorywhichisneverthelesssoclear。Itwasdoubtlessbecausetheysaweventsthroughtheirownconvictions，andweknowwhattransformationsthetruthmaysufferforthemanwhoisimprisonedinthevalleysofbelief。Themostluminousfactsareobscured，andthehistoryofeventsisthehistoryofhisdreams。
Thepsychologistwhodesirestounderstandtheperiodwhichwehavesobrieflysketchedcanonlydosoif，beingattachedtonoparty，hestandsclearofthepassionswhicharethesoulofparties。Hewillneverdreamofrecriminatingapastwhichwasdictatedbysuchimperiousnecessities。CertainlyNapoleonhascostFrancedear：hisepicwasterminatedbytwoinvasions，andtherewasyettobeathird，whoseconsequencesarefeltevento—day，whentheprestigewhichheexertedevenfromthetombsetuponthethronetheinheritorofhisname。
Alltheseeventsarenarrowlyconnectedintheirorigin。Theyrepresentthepriceofthatcapitalphenomenonintheevolutionofapeople，achangeofideal。Mancannevermaketheattempttobreaksuddenlywithhisancestorswithoutprofoundlyaffectingthecourseofhisownhistory。
CHAPTERIII
POLITICALCONSEQUENCESOFTHECONFLICTBETWEENTRADITIONSAND
REVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLESDURINGTHELASTCENTURY
1。ThePsychologicalCausesofthecontinuedRevolutionaryMovementstowhichFrancehasbeensubject。
Inexamining，inasubsequentchapter，theevolutionofrevolutionaryideasduringthelastcentury，weshallseethatduringmorethanfiftyyearstheyveryslowlyspreadthroughthevariousstrataofsociety。
Duringthewholeofthisperiodthegreatmajorityofthepeopleandthebourgeoisierejectedthem，andtheirdiffusionwaseffectedonlybyaverylimitednumberofapostles。Buttheirinfluence，thanksprincipallytothefaultsofGovernments，wassufficienttoprovokeseveralrevolutions。Weshallexaminethesebrieflywhenwehaveexaminedthepsychologicalinfluenceswhichgavethembirth。
Thehistoryofourpoliticalupheavalsduringthelastcenturyisenoughtoprove，evenifwedidnotyetrealisethefact，thatmenaregovernedbytheirmentalitiesfarmorethanbytheinstitutionswhichtheirrulersendeavourtoforceuponthem。
ThesuccessiverevolutionswhichFrancehassufferedhavebeentheconsequencesofstrugglesbetweentwoportionsofthenationwhosementalitiesaredifferent。Oneisreligiousandmonarchicalandisdominatedbylongancestralinfluences；theotherissubjectedtothesameinfluences，butgivesthemarevolutionaryform。
FromthecommencementoftheRevolutionthestrugglebetweencontrarymentalitieswasplainlymanifested。WehaveseenthatinspiteofthemostfrightfulrepressioninsurrectionsandconspiracieslasteduntiltheendoftheDirectory。Theyprovedthatthetraditionsofthepasthadleftprofoundrootsinthepopularsoul。AtacertainmomentsixtydepartmentswereinrevoltagainstthenewGovernment，andwereonlyrepressedbyrepeatedmassacresonavastscale。