Wemusthopeforthesakeoflibertythatthesegloomyfanaticswillneverfinallybecomeourmasters。
Giventhesilentpowerofreasonovermysticbeliefs，itisquiteuselesstoseektodiscuss，asissooftendone，therationalvalueofrevolutionaryorpoliticalideas。Onlytheirinfluencecaninterestus。Itmatterslittlethatthetheoriesofthesupposedequalityofmen，theoriginalgoodnessofmankind，thepossibilityofre—makingsocietybymeansoflaws，havebeengiventheliebyobservationandexperience。Theseemptyillusionsmustbecountedamongthemostpotentmotivesofactionthathumanityhasknown。
3。TheJacobinMentality。
Althoughtheterm``Jacobinmentality’’doesnotreallybelongtoanytrueclassification，Iemployitherebecauseitsumsupaclearlydefinedcombinationwhichconstitutesaveritablepsychologicalspecies。
ThismentalitydominatesthemenoftheFrenchRevolution，butisnotpeculiartothem，asitstillrepresentsoneofthemostactiveelementsinourpolitics。
ThemysticmentalitywhichwehavealreadyconsideredisanessentialfactoroftheJacobinmind，butitisnotinitselfenoughtoconstitutethatmind。Otherelements，whichweshallnowexamine，mustbeadded。
TheJacobinsdonotintheleastsuspecttheirmysticism。Onthecontrary，theyprofesstobeguidedsolelybypurereason。
DuringtheRevolutiontheyinvokedreasonincessantly，andconsidereditastheironlyguidetoconduct。
ThemajorityofhistorianshaveadoptedthisrationalistconceptionoftheJacobinmind，andTainefellintothesameerror。ItisintheabuseofrationalismthatheseekstheoriginofagreatproportionoftheactsoftheJacobins。Thepagesinwhichhehasdealtwiththesubjectcontainmanytruths，however，andastheyareinotherwaysveryremarkable，I
reproducethemostimportantpassageshere：——
``Neitherexaggeratedself—lovenordogmaticreasoningisrareinthehumanspecies。InallcountriesthesetworootsoftheJacobinspiritsubsist，secretandindestructible……Attwentyyearsofage，whenayoungmanisenteringintotheworld，hisreasonisstimulatedsimultaneouslywithhispride。Inthefirstplace，whateversocietyhemaymovein，itiscontemptibletopurereason，forithasnotbeenconstructedbyaphilosophiclegislatoraccordingtoaprinciple，butsuccessivegenerationshavearrangeditaccordingtotheirmultipleandever—changingneeds。Itisnottheworkoflogic，butofhistory，andtheyoungreasonershrugshisshouldersatthesightofthisoldbuilding，whosesiteisarbitrary，whosearchitectureisincoherent，andwhoseinconveniencesareobvious……Themajorityofyoungpeople，aboveallthosewhohavetheirwaytomake，aremoreorlessJacobinonleavingcollege……
Jacobinismisbornofsocialdecompositionjustasmushroomsarebornofafermentingsoil。Considertheauthenticmonumentsofitsthought——thespeechesofRobespierreandSaint—Just，thedebatesoftheLegislativeAssemblyandtheConvention，theharangues，addresses，andreportsofGirondistsandMontagnards。
Neverdidmenspeaksomuchtosaysolittle；theemptyverbiageandswollenemphasisswampanytruththeremaybebeneaththeirmonotonyandtheirturgidity。TheJacobinisfullofrespectforthephantomsofhisreasoningbrain；inhiseyestheyaremorerealthanlivingmen，andtheirsuffrageistheonlysuffrageherecognises——hewillmarchonwardinallsincerityattheheadofaprocessionofimaginaryfollowers。Themillionsofmetaphysicalwillswhichhehascreatedintheimageofhisownwillsustainhimbytheirunanimousassent，andhewillprojectoutwards，likeachorusoftriumphandacclamation，theinwardechoofhisownvoice。’’
WhileadmiringTaine’sdescription，IthinkhehasnotexactlygraspedthepsychologyoftheJacobin。
ThemindofthetrueJacobin，atthetimeoftheRevolutionasnow，wascomposedofelementswhichwemustanalyseifwearetounderstanditsfunction。
ThisanalysiswillshowinthefirstplacethattheJacobinisnotarationalist，butabeliever。Farfrombuildinghisbeliefonreason，hemouldsreasontohisbelief，andalthoughhisspeechesaresteepedinrationalismheemploysitverylittleinhisthoughtsandhisconduct。
AJacobinwhoreasonedasmuchasheisaccusedofreasoningwouldbesometimesaccessibletothevoiceofreason。Now，observationproves，fromthetimeoftheRevolutiontoourowndays，thattheJacobinisneverinfluencedbyreasoning，howeverjust，anditispreciselyherethathisstrengthresides。
Andwhyishenotaccessibletoreason？Simplybecausehisvisionofthings，alwaysextremelylimited，doesnotpermitofhisresistingthepowerfulandpassionateimpulseswhichguidehim。
Thesetwoelements，feeblereasonandstrongpassions，wouldnotofthemselvesconstitutetheJacobinmind。Thereisanother。
Passionsupportsconvictions，buthardlyevercreatesthem。Now，thetrueJacobinhasforcibleconvictions。Whatistosustainthem？Herethemysticelementswhoseactionwehavealreadystudiedcomeintoplay。TheJacobinisamysticwhohasreplacedtheolddivinitiesbynewgods。Imbuedwiththepowerofwordsandformulae，heattributestotheseamysteriouspower。Toservetheseexigentdivinitieshedoesnotshrinkfromthemostviolentmeasures。ThelawsvotedbyourmodernJacobinsfurnishaproofofthisfact。
TheJacobinmentalityisfoundespeciallyinnarrowandpassionatecharacters。Itimplies，infact，anarrowandrigidmind，inaccessibletoallcriticismandtoallconsiderationsbutthoseoffaith。
ThemysticandaffectiveelementswhichdominatethemindoftheJacobincondemnhimtoanextremesimplicity。Graspingonlythesuperficialrelationsofthings，nothingpreventshimfromtakingforrealitiesthechimericalimageswhicharebornofhisimagination。Thesequenceofphenomenaandtheirresultsescapehim。Heneverraiseshiseyesfromhisdream。
Aswemaysee，itisnotbythedevelopmentofhislogicalreasonthattheJacobinexceeds。Hepossessesverylittlelogicofthiskind，andthereforeheoftenbecomesdangerous。WhereasuperiormanwouldhesitateorhalttheJacobin，whohasplacedhisfeeblereasonattheserviceofhisimpulses，goesforwardwithcertainty。
SothatalthoughtheJacobinisagreatreasoner，thisdoesnotmeanthatheisintheleastguidedbyreason。Whenheimaginesheisbeingledbyreasonitisreallyhispassionsandhismysticismthatleadhim。Likeallthosewhoareconvincedandhemmedinbythewallsoffaith，hecanneverescapetherefrom。
Atrueaggressivetheologian，heisastonishinglylikethedisciplesofCalvindescribedinapreviouschapter。Hypnotisedbytheirfaith，nothingcoulddeterthemfromtheirobject。Allthosewhocontradictedtheirarticlesoffaithwereconsideredworthyofdeath。Theytooseemedtobepowerfulreasoners。
Ignorant，liketheJacobins，ofthesecretforcesthatledthem，theybelievedthatreasonwastheirsoleguide，whileinrealitytheyweretheslavesofmysticismandpassion。
ThetrulyrationalisticJacobinwouldbeincomprehensible，andwouldmerelymakereasondespair。ThepassionateandmysticalJacobinis，onthecontrary，easilyintelligible。
Withthesethreeelements——averyweakreasoningpower，verystrongpassions，andanintensemysticism——wehavethetruepsychologicalcomponentsofthemindoftheJacobin。
CHAPTERIII
THEREVOLUTIONARYANDCRIMINALMENTALITIES
1。TheRevolutionaryMentality。
WehavejustseenthatthemysticelementsareoneofthecomponentsoftheJacobinmentality。Weshallnowseethattheyenterintoanotherformofmentalitywhichisalsoclearlydefined，therevolutionarymentality。
Inallagessocietieshavecontainedacertainnumberofrestlessspirits，unstableanddiscontented，readytorebelagainstanyestablishedorderofaffairs。Theyareactuatedbythemereloveofrevolt，andifsomemagicpowercouldrealisealltheirdesirestheywouldsimplyrevoltagain。
Thisspecialmentalityoftenresultsfromafaultyadaptationoftheindividualtohissurroundings，orfromanexcessofmysticism，butitmayalsobemerelyaquestionoftemperamentorarisefrompathologicaldisturbances。
Theneedofrevoltpresentsverydifferentdegreesofintensity，fromsimplediscontentexpressedinwordsdirectedagainstmenandthingstotheneedofdestroyingthem。Sometimestheindividualturnsuponhimselftherevolutionaryfrenzythathecannototherwiseexercise。Russiaisfullofthesemadmen，who，notcontentwithcommittingarsonorthrowingbombsathazardintothecrowd，finallymutilatethemselves，liketheSkopzisandotheranalogoussects。
Theseperpetualrebelsaregenerallyhighlysuggestiblebeings，whosemysticmentalityisobsessedbyfixedideas。Despitetheapparentenergyindicatedbytheiractionstheyarereallyweakcharacters，andareincapableofmasteringthemselvessufficientlytoresisttheimpulsesthatrulethem。Themysticspiritwhichanimatesthemfurnishespretextsfortheirviolence，andenablesthemtoregardthemselvesasgreatreformers。
Innormaltimestherebelswhicheverysocietycontainsarerestrainedbythelaws，bytheirenvironment——inshort，byalltheusualsocialconstraints，andthereforeremainundetected。
Butassoonasatimeofdisturbancebeginstheseconstraintsgrowweaker，andtherebelcangiveafreereigntohisinstincts。Hethenbecomestheaccreditedleaderofamovement。
Themotiveoftherevolutionmatterslittletohim；hewillgivehislifeindifferentlyfortheredflagorthewhite，orfortheliberationofacountrywhichhehasheardvaguelymentioned。
Therevolutionaryspiritisnotalwayspushedtotheextremeswhichrenderitdangerous。When，insteadofderivingfromaffectiveormysticimpulses，ithasanintellectualorigin，itmaybecomeasourceofprogress。Itisthankstothosespiritswhoaresufficientlyindependenttobeintellectuallyrevolutionarythatacivilisationisabletoescapefromtheyokeoftraditionandhabitwhenthisbecomestooheavy。Thesciences，arts，andindustriesespeciallyhaveprogressedbytheaidofsuchmen。Galileo，Lavoisier，Darwin，andPasteurweresuchrevolutionaries。
Althoughitisnotnecessarythatanationshouldpossessanylargenumberofsuchspirits，itisverynecessarythatitshouldpossesssome。Withoutthemmenwouldstillbelivingincaves。
Therevolutionaryaudacitywhichresultsindiscoveriesimpliesveryrarefaculties。Itnecessitatesnotablyanindependenceofmindsufficienttoescapefromtheinfluenceofcurrentopinions，andajudgementthatcangrasp，undersuperficialanalogies，thehiddenrealities。Thisformofrevolutionaryspiritiscreative，whilethatexaminedaboveisdestructive。
Therevolutionarymentalitymay，therefore，becomparedtocertainphysiologicalstatesinthelifeoftheindividualwhicharenormallyuseful，butwhich，whenexaggerated，takeapathologicalformwhichisalwayshurtful。
2。TheCriminalMentality。
Allthecivilisedsocietiesinevitablydragbehindthemaresidueofdegenerates，oftheunadapted，ofpersonsaffectedbyvarioustaints。Vagabonds，beggars，fugitivesfromjustice，thieves，assassins，andstarvingcreaturesthatlivefromdaytoday，mayconstitutethecriminalpopulationofthegreatcities。Inordinarytimesthesewasteproductsofcivilisationaremoreorlessrestrainedbythepolice。Duringrevolutionnothingrestrainsthem，andtheycaneasilygratifytheirinstinctstomurderandplunder。Inthedregsofsocietytherevolutionariesofalltimesaresureoffindingrecruits。Eageronlytokillandtoplunder，littlematterstothemthecausetheyaresworntodefend。Ifthechancesofmurderandpillagearebetterinthepartyattacked，theywillpromptlychangetheircolours。
Tothesecriminals，properlysocalled，theincurableplagueofallsocieties，wemustaddtheclassofsemi—criminals。
Wrongdoersonoccasion，theyneverrebelsolongasthefearoftheestablishedorderrestrainsthem，butassoonasitweakenstheyenrolthemselvesinthearmyofrevolution。
Thesetwocategories——habitualandoccasionalcriminals——formanarmyofdisorderwhichisfitfornothingbutthecreationofdisorder。Alltherevolutionaries，allthefoundersofreligiousorpoliticalleagues，haveconstantlycountedontheirsupport。
Wehavealreadystatedthatthispopulation，withitscriminalmentality，exercisedaconsiderableinfluenceduringtheFrenchRevolution。Italwaysfiguredinthefrontrankoftheriotswhichoccurredalmostdaily。CertainhistorianshavespokenwithrespectandemotionofthewayinwhichthesovereignpeopleenforceditswillupontheConvention，invadingthehallarmedwithpikes，thepointsofwhichweresometimesdecoratedwithnewlyseveredheads。Ifweanalysetheelementscomposingthepretendeddelegationsofthesovereignpeople，weshallfindthat，apartfromasmallnumberofsimplesoulswhosubmittedtotheimpulsesoftheleaders，themasswasalmostentirelyformedofthebanditsofwhomIhavebeenspeaking。TothemwereduetheinnumerablemurdersofwhichthemassacresofSeptemberandthekillingofthePrincessedeLamballeweremerelytypical。
TheyterrorisedallthegreatAssemblies，fromtheConstituentAssemblytotheConvention，andfortenyearstheyhelpedtoravageFrance。Ifbysomemiraclethisarmyofcriminalscouldhavebeeneliminated，theprogressoftheRevolutionwouldhavebeenverydifferent。Theystaineditwithbloodfromitsdawntoitsdecline。Reasoncoulddonothingwiththembuttheycoulddomuchagainstreason。
CHAPTERIV
THEPSYCHOLOGYOFREVOLUTIONARYCROWDS
1。GeneralCharacteristicsoftheCrowd。
Whatevertheirorigin，revolutionsdonotproducetheirfulleffectsuntiltheyhavepenetratedthesoulofthemultitude。
Theythereforerepresentaconsequenceofthepsychologyofcrowds。
AlthoughIhavestudiedcollectivepsychologyatlengthinanothervolume，Imusthererecallitsprincipallaws。
Man，aspartofamultitude，isaverydifferentbeingfromthesamemanasanisolatedindividual。Hisconsciousindividualityvanishesintheunconsciouspersonalityofthecrowd。
Materialcontactisnotabsolutelynecessarytoproduceintheindividualthementalityofthecrowd。Commonpassionsandsentiments，provokedbycertainevents，areoftensufficienttocreateit。
Thecollectivemind，momentarilyformed，representsaveryspecialkindofaggregate。Itschiefpeculiarityisthatitisentirelydominatedbyunconsciouselements，andissubjecttoapeculiarcollectivelogic。
Amongtheothercharacteristicsofcrowds，wemustnotetheirinfinitecredulityandexaggeratedsensibility，theirshort—
sightedness，andtheirincapacitytorespondtotheinfluencesofreason。Affirmation，contagion，repetition，andprestigeconstitutealmosttheonlymeansofpersuadingthem。Realityandexperiencehavenoeffectuponthem。Themultitudewilladmitanything；nothingisimpossibleintheeyesofthecrowd。
Byreasonoftheextremesensibilityofcrowds，theirsentiments，goodorbad，arealwaysexaggerated。Thisexaggerationincreasesstillfurtherintimesofrevolution。Theleastexcitementwillthenleadthemultitudetoactwiththeutmostfury。Theircredulity，sogreateveninthenormalstate，isstillfurtherincreased；themostimprobablestatementsareaccepted。ArthurYoungrelatesthatwhenhevisitedthespringsnearClermont，atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，hisguidewasstoppedbythepeople，whowerepersuadedthathehadcomebyorderoftheQueentomineandblowupthetown。ThemosthorribletalesconcerningtheRoyalFamilywerecirculated，depictingitasanestofghoulsandvampires。
Thesevariouscharacteristicsshowthatmaninthecrowddescendstoaverylowdegreeinthescaleofcivilisation。Hebecomesasavage，withallasavage’sfaultsandqualities，withallhismomentaryviolence，enthusiasm，andheroism。Intheintellectualdomainacrowdisalwaysinferiortotheisolatedunit。Inthemoralandsentimentaldomainitmaybehissuperior。Acrowdwillcommitacrimeasreadilyasanactofabnegation。
Personalcharacteristicsvanishinthecrowd，whichexertsanextraordinaryinfluenceupontheindividualswhichformit。Themiserbecomesgenerous，thescepticabeliever，thehonestmanacriminal，thecowardahero。ExamplesofsuchtransformationsaboundedduringthegreatRevolution。
Aspartofajuryoraparliament，thecollectivemanrendersverdictsorpasseslawsofwhichhewouldneverhavedreamedinhisisolatedcondition。
Oneofthemostnotableconsequencesoftheinfluenceofacollectivityupontheindividualswhocomposeitistheunificationoftheirsentimentsandwills。Thispsychologicalunityconfersaremarkableforceuponcrowds。
Theformationofsuchamentalunityresultschieflyfromthefactthatinacrowdgesturesandactionsareextremelycontagious。Acclamationsofhatred，fury，orloveareimmediatelyapprovedandrepeated。
Whatistheoriginofthesecommonsentiments，thiscommonwill？
Theyarepropagatedbycontagion，butapointofdepartureisnecessarybeforethiscontagioncantakeeffect。Withoutaleaderthecrowdisanamorphousentityincapableofaction。
AknowledgeofthelawsrelatingtothepsychologyofcrowdsisindispensabletotheinterpretationoftheelementsofourRevolution，andtoacomprehensionoftheconductofrevolutionaryassemblies，andthesingulartransformationsoftheindividualswhoformpartofthem。Pushedbytheunconsciousforcesofthecollectivesoul，theymoreoftenthannotsaywhattheydidnotintend，andvotewhattheywouldnothavewishedtovote。
Althoughthelawsofcollectivepsychologyhavesometimesbeendivinedinstinctivelybysuperiorstatesmen，themajorityofGovernmentshavenotunderstoodanddonotunderstandthem。Itisbecausetheydonotunderstandthemthatsomanyofthemhavefallensoeasily。WhenweseethefacilitywithwhichcertainGovernmentswereoverthrownbyaninsignificantriot——ashappenedinthecaseofthemonarchyofLouis—Philippe——thedangersofanignoranceofcollectivepsychologyareevident。
Themarshalincommandofthetroopsin1848，whichweremorethansufficienttodefendtheking，certainlydidnotunderstandthatthemomentheallowedthecrowdtominglewiththetroopsthelatter，paralysedbysuggestionandcontagion，wouldceasetodotheirduty。Neitherdidheknowthatasthemultitudeisextremelysensibletoprestigeitneedsagreatdisplayofforcetoimpressit，andthatsuchadisplaywillatoncesuppresshostiledemonstrations。Hewasequallyignorantofthefactthatallgatheringsshouldbedispersedimmediately。Allthesethingshavebeentaughtbyexperience，butin1848theselessonshadnotbeengrasped。AtthetimeofthegreatRevolutionthepsychologyofcrowdswasevenlessunderstood。
2。HowtheStabilityoftheRacialMindlimitstheOscillationsoftheMindoftheCrowd。
Apeoplecaninasensebelikenedtoacrowd。Itpossessescertaincharacteristics，buttheoscillationsofthesecharacteristicsarelimitedbythesoulormindoftherace。Themindoftheracehasafixityunknowntothetransitorymindofthecrowd。
Whenapeoplepossessesanancestralsoulestablishedbyalongpastthesoulofthecrowdisalwaysdominatedthereby。
Apeoplediffersfromacrowdalsointhatitiscomposedofacollectionofgroups，eachhavingdifferentinterestsandpassions。Inacrowdproperlyso—called——apopularassembly，forexample——thereareunitieswhichmaybelongtoverydifferentsocialcategories。
Apeoplesometimesseemsasmobileasacrowd，butwemustnotforgetthatbehinditsmobility，itsenthusiasms，itsviolenceanddestructiveness，theextremelytenaciousandconservativeinstinctsoftheracialmindpersist。ThehistoryoftheRevolutionandthecenturywhichhasfollowedshowshowtheconservativespiritfinallyovercomesthespiritofdestruction。
Morethanonesystemofgovernmentwhichthepeoplehasshatteredhasbeenrestoredbythepeople。
Itisnotaseasytoworkuponthemindofthepeople——thatis，themindoftherace——asonthemindofacrowd。Themeansofactionareindirectandslower（journals，conferences，speeches，books，&c。）。Theelementsofpersuasionalwayscomeundertheheadingsalreadygiven：affirmation，repetition，prestige，andcontagion。
Mentalcontagionmayaffectawholepeopleinstantaneously，butmoreoftenitoperatesslowly，creepingfromgrouptogroup。
ThuswastheReformationpropagatedinFrance。
Apeopleisfarlessexcitablethanacrowd；butcertainevents——
nationalinsults，threatsofinvasion，&c。——mayarouseitinstantly。SuchaphenomenonwasobservedonseveraloccasionsduringtheRevolution，notablyatthetimeoftheinsolentmanifestoissuedbytheDukeofBrunswick。TheDukeknewlittleindeedofthepsychologyoftheFrenchracewhenheprofferedhisthreats。NotonlydidheconsiderablyprejudicethecauseofLouisXVI。；buthealsodamagedhisown，sincehisinterventionraisedfromthesoilanarmyeagertofighthim。
Thissuddenexplosionoffeelingthroughoutawholeracehasbeenobservedinallnations。NapoleondidnotunderstandthepowerofsuchexplosionswhenheinvadedSpainandRussia。Onemayeasilydisaggregatethefacilemindofacrowd，butonecandonothingbeforethepermanentsoulofarace。CertainlytheRussianpeasantisaveryindifferentbeing，grossandnarrowbynature，yetatthefirstnewsofinvasionhewastransformed。
OnemayjudgeofthisfactonreadingaletterwrittenbyElizabeth，wifeoftheEmperorAlexanderI。
``FromthemomentwhenNapoleonhadcrossedourfrontiersitwasasthoughanelectricsparkhadspreadthroughallRussia；andiftheimmensityofitsareahadmadeitpossibleforthenewstopenetratesimultaneouslytoeverycorneroftheEmpireacryofindignationwouldhavearisensoterriblethatIbelieveitwouldhaveresoundedtotheendsoftheearth。AsNapoleonadvancesthisfeelingisgrowingyetstronger。Oldmenwhohavelostallornearlyalltheirgoodsaresaying：`Weshallfindawayofliving。Anythingispreferabletoashamefulpeace。’Womenallofwhosekinareinthearmyregardthedangerstheyarerunningassecondary，andfearnothingbutpeace。Happilythispeace，whichwouldbethedeath—warrantofRussia，willnotbenegotiated；theEmperordoesnotconceiveofsuchanidea，andevenifhewouldhecouldnot。Thisistheheroicsideofourposition。’’
TheEmpressdescribestohermotherthetwofollowingtraits，whichgivesomeideaofthedegreeofresistanceofwhichthesouloftheRussianiscapable：——
``TheFrenchmenhadcaughtsomeunhappypeasantsinMoscow，whomtheythoughttoforcetoserveintheirranks，andinorderthattheyshouldnotbeabletoescapetheybrandedtheirhandsasonebrandshorsesinthestud。Oneofthemaskedwhatthismarkmeant；hewastolditsignifiedthathewasaFrenchsoldier。
`What！IamasoldieroftheEmperoroftheFrench！’hesaid。
Andimmediatelyhetookhishatchet，cutoffhishand，andthrewitatthefeetofthosepresent，saying，`Takeit——there’syourmark！’
``AtMoscow，too，theFrenchhadtakenascoreofpeasantsofwhomtheywishedtomakeanexampleinordertofrightenthevillagers，whowerepickingofftheFrenchforagingpartiesandweremakingwaraswellasthedetachmentsofregulartroops。
TheyrangedthemagainstawallandreadtheirsentenceinRussian。Theywaitedforthemtobegformercy：insteadofthattheytookfarewellofoneanotherandmadetheirsignofthecross。TheFrenchfiredonthefirstofthem；theywaitedfortheresttobegforpardonintheirterror，andtopromisetochangetheirconduct。Theyfiredonthesecond，andonthethird，andsoonallthetwenty，withoutasingleonehavingattemptedtoimploretheclemencyoftheenemy。NapoleonhasnotoncehadthepleasureofprofaningthiswordinRussia。’’
Amongthecharacteristicsofthepopularmindwemustmentionthatinallpeoplesandallagesithasbeensaturatedwithmysticism。Thepeoplewillalwaysbeconvincedthatsuperiorbeings——divinities，Governments，orgreatmen——havethepowertochangethingsatwill。Thismysticsideproducesanintenseneedofadoration。Thepeoplemusthaveafetich，eitheramanoradoctrine。Thisiswhy，whenthreatenedwithanarchy，itcallsforaMessiahtosaveit。
Likethecrowd，butmoreslowly，thepeoplereadilypassesfromadorationtohatred。Amanmaybetheheroofthepeopleatoneperiod，andfinallyearnitscurses。Thesevariationsofpopularopinionconcerningpoliticalpersonalitiesmaybeobservedinalltimes。ThehistoryofCromwellfurnishesuswithaverycuriousexample。[5]
[5]Afterhavingoverthrownadynastyandrefusedacrownhewasburiedlikeakingamongkings。Twoyearslaterhisbodywastornfromthetomb，andhishead，cutoffbytheexecutioner，wasexposedabovethegateoftheHouseofParliament。Alittlewhileagoastatuewasraisedtohim。Theoldanarchistturnedautocratnowfiguresinthegalleryofdemigods。
4。TheRoleoftheLeaderinRevolutionaryMovements。
Allthevarietiesofcrowds——homogeneousandheterogeneous，assemblies，peoples，clubs，&c。——are，aswehaveoftenrepeated，aggregatesincapableofunityandactionsolongastheyfindnomastertoleadthem。
Ihaveshownelsewhere，makinguseofcertainphysiologicalexperiments，thattheunconsciouscollectivemindofthecrowdseemsboundupwiththemindoftheleader。Thelattergivesitasinglewillandimposesabsoluteobedience。
Theleaderactsespeciallythroughsuggestion。Hissuccessdependsonhisfashionofprovokingthissuggestion。Manyexperimentshaveshowntowhatpointacollectivitymaybesubjectedtosuggestion。[6]
[6]AmongthenumerousexperimentsmadetoprovethisfactoneofthemostremarkablewasperformedonthepupilsofhisclassbyProfessorGlossonandpublishedintheRevueScientifiqueforOctober28，1899。
``Ipreparedabottlefilledwithdistilledwatercarefullywrappedincottonandpackedinabox。AfterseveralotherexperimentsIstatedthatIwishedtomeasuretherapiditywithwhichanodourwoulddiffuseitselfthroughtheair，andaskedthosepresenttoraisetheirhandsthemomenttheyperceivedtheodour……Itookoutthebottleandpouredthewateronthecotton，turningmyheadawayduringtheoperation，thentookupastop—watchandawaitedtheresult……IexplainedthatIwasabsolutelysurethatnoonepresenthadeversmelttheodourofthechemicalcompositionIhadspilt……Attheendoffifteensecondsthemajorityofthoseinfronthadhelduptheirhands，andinfortysecondstheodourhadreachedthebackofthehallbyfairlyregularwaves。Aboutthree—quartersofthosepresentdeclaredthattheyperceivedtheodour。Alargernumberwoulddoubtlesshavesuccumbedtosuggestion，ifattheendofaminuteIhadnotbeenforcedtostoptheexperiment，someofthoseinthefrontrowsbeingunpleasantlyaffectedbytheodour，andwishingtoleavethehall。’’
Accordingtothesuggestionsoftheleaders，themultitudewillbecalm，furious，criminal，orheroic。Thesevarioussuggestionsmaysometimesappeartopresentarationalaspect，buttheywillonlyappeartobereasonable。Acrowdisinrealityinaccessibletoreason；theonlyideascapableofinfluencingitwillalwaysbesentimentsevokedintheformofimages。
ThehistoryoftheRevolutionshowsoneverypagehoweasilythemultitudefollowsthemostcontradictoryimpulsesgivenbyitsdifferentleaders。WeseeitapplaudjustasvigorouslyatthetriumphoftheGirondists，theHebertists，theDantonists，andtheTerroristsasattheirsuccessivedownfalls。Onemaybequitesure，also，thatthecrowdunderstoodnothingoftheseevents。
Atadistanceonecanonlyconfusedlyperceivethepartplayedbytheleaders，fortheycommonlyworkintheshade。Tograspthisclearlywemuststudythemincontemporaryevents。Weshallthenseehowreadilytheleadercanprovokethemostviolentpopularmovements。Wearenotthinkinghereofthestrikesofthepostmenorrailwaymen，inwhichthediscontentoftheemployeesmightintervene，butofeventsinwhichthecrowdwasnotintheleastinterested。Such，forexample，wasthepopularrisingprovokedbyafewSocialistleadersamidsttheParisianpopulaceonthemorrowoftheexecutionofFerrer，inSpain。TheFrenchcrowdhadneverheardofFerrer。InSpainhisexecutionwasalmostunnoticed。InParistheincitementsofafewleaderssufficedtohurlaregularpopulararmyupontheSpanishEmbassy，withtheintentionofburningit。Partofthegarrisonhadtobeemployedtoprotectit。Energeticallyrepulsed，theassailantscontentedthemselveswithsackingafewshopsandbuildingsomebarricades。
Atthesametime，theleadersgaveanotherproofoftheirinfluence。Finallyunderstandingthattheburningofaforeignembassymightbeextremelydangerous，theyorderedapacificdemonstrationforthefollowingday，andwereasfaithfullyobeyedasiftheyhadorderedthemostviolentriot。NoexamplecouldbettershowtheimportanceofleadersandthesubmissionofthecrowdThehistorianswho，fromMichelettoM。Aulard，haverepresentedtherevolutionarycrowdashavingactedonitsowninitiative，withoutleaders，donotcomprehenditspsychology。