CHAPTERV
THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYASSEMBLIES
1。PsychologicalCharacteristicsofthegreatRevolutionaryAssemblies。
Agreatpoliticalassembly，aparliamentforexample，isacrowd，butacrowdwhichsometimesfailsineffectualactiononaccountofthecontrarysentimentsofthehostilegroupscomposingit。
Thepresenceofthesegroups，actuatedbydifferentinterests，mustmakeusconsideranassemblyasformedofsuperimposedandheterogeneouscrowds，eachobeyingitsparticularleaders。Thelawofthementalunityofcrowdsismanifestedonlyineachgroup，anditisonlyasaresultofexceptionalcircumstancesthatthedifferentgroupsactwithasingleintention。
Eachgroupinanassemblyrepresentsasinglebeing。Theindividualscontributingtotheformationofthisbeingarenolongerthemselves，andwillunhesitatinglyvoteagainsttheirconvictionsandtheirwishes。OntheeveofthedaywhenLouisXVI。wastobecondemnedVergniaudprotestedwithindignationagainstthesuggestionthatheshouldvoteforhisdeath；buthedidsovoteonthefollowingday。
Theactionofagroupconsistschieflyinfortifyinghesitatingopinions。Allfeebleindividualconvictionsbecomeconfirmeduponbecomingcollective。
Leadersofgreatreputeorunusualviolencecansometimes，byactingonallthegroupsofanassembly，makethemasinglecrowd。ThemajorityofthemembersoftheConventionenactedmeasuresentirelycontrarytotheiropinionsundertheinfluenceofaverysmallnumberofsuchleaders。
Collectivitieshavealwaysgivenwaybeforeactivesectaries。
ThehistoryoftherevolutionaryAssembliesshowshowpusillanimoustheywere，despitetheboldnessoftheirlanguagerespectingkings，beforetheleadersofthepopularriots。Theinvasionofabandofenergumenscommandedbyanimperiousleaderwasenoughtomakethemvotethenandtherethemostabsurdandcontradictorymeasures。
Anassembly，havingthecharacteristicsofacrowd，will，likeacrowd，beextremeinitssentiments。Excessiveinitsviolence，itwillbeexcessiveinitscowardice。Ingeneralitwillbeinsolenttotheweakandservilebeforethestrong。
WerememberthefearfulhumilityoftheParliamentwhentheyouthfulLouisXIV。entered，whipinhand，topronouncehisbriefspeech。WeknowwithwhatincreasingimpertinencetheConstituentAssemblytreatedLouisXVI。asitfeltthathewasbecomingdefenceless。Finally，werecalltheterroroftheConventionunderthereignofRobespierre。
Thischaracteristicofassembliesbeingagenerallaw，theconvocationofanassemblybyasovereignwhenhispowerisfailingmustberegardedasagrosserrorinpsychology。TheassemblingoftheStatesGeneralcostthelifeofLouisXVI。ItallbutlostHenryIII。histhrone，when，obligedtoleaveParis，hehadtheunhappyideaofassemblingtheEstatesatBlois。Consciousoftheweaknessoftheking，theEstatesatoncespokeasmastersofthesituation，modifyingtaxes，dismissingofficials，andclaimingthattheirdecisionsshouldhavetheforceoflaw。
ThisprogressiveexaggerationofsentimentswasplainlydemonstratedinalltheassembliesoftheRevolution。TheConstituentAssembly，atfirstextremelyrespectfultowardtheroyalauthorityanditsprerogatives，finallyproclaimeditselfasovereignAssembly，andtreatedLouisXVIasamereofficial。
TheConvention，afterrelativelymoderatebeginnings，endedwithapreliminaryformoftheTerror，whenjudgmentswerestillsurroundedbycertainlegalguarantees：then，quicklyincreasingitspowers，itenactedalawdeprivingallaccusedpersonsoftherightofdefence，permittingtheircondemnationuponthemeresuspicionofbeingsuspect。Yieldingmoreandmoretoitssanguinaryfrenzy，itfinallydecimateditself。Girondists，Hebertists，Dantonists，andRobespierristssuccessivelyendedtheircareersatthehandsoftheexecutioner。
Thisexaggerationofthesentimentsofassembliesexplainswhytheywerealwayssolittleabletocontroltheirowndestiniesandwhytheysooftenarrivedatconclusionsexactlycontrarytotheendsproposed。Catholicandroyalist，theConstituentAssembly，insteadoftheconstitutionalmonarchyitwishedtoestablishandthereligionitwishedtodefend，rapidlyledFrancetoaviolentrepublicandthepersecutionoftheclergy。
Politicalassembliesarecomposed，aswehaveseen，ofheterogeneousgroups，buttheyhavesometimesbeenformedofhomogeneousgroups，as，forinstance，certainoftheclubs，whichplayedsoenormousapartduringtheRevolution，andwhosepsychologydeservesaspecialexamination。
2。ThePsychologyoftheRevolutionaryClubs。
Smallassembliesofmenpossessingthesameopinions，thesamebeliefs，andthesameinterests，whicheliminatealldissentientvoices，differfromthegreatassembliesbytheunityoftheirsentimentsandthereforetheirwills。Suchwerethecommunes，thereligiouscongregations，thecorporations，andtheclubsduringtheRevolution，thesecretsocietiesduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury，andtheFreemasonsandsyndicalistsofto—day。
ThepointsofdifferencebetweenaheterogeneousassemblyandahomogeneousclubmustbethoroughlygraspedifwearetocomprehendtheprogressoftheFrenchRevolution。UntiltheDirectoryandespeciallyduringtheConventiontheRevolutionwasdirectedbytheclubs。
Despitetheunityofwillduetotheabsenceofdissidentpartiestheclubsobeythelawsofthepsychologyofcrowds。Theyareconsequentlysubjugatedbyleaders。ThisweseeespeciallyintheJacobinClub，whichwasdominatedbyRobespierre。
Thefunctionoftheleaderofaclub，ahomogeneouscrowd，isfarmoredifficultthanthatofaleaderofaheterogeneouscrowd。
Thelattermayeasilybeledbyharpingonasmallnumberofstrings，butinahomogeneousgrouplikeaclub，whosesentimentsandinterestsareidentical，theleadermustknowhowtohumourthemandisoftenhimselfled。
Partofthestrengthofhomogeneousagglomerationsresidesintheiranonymity。WeknowthatduringtheCommuneof1871afewanonymousorderssufficedtoeffecttheburningofthefinestmonumentsofParis：theHoteldeVille，theTuileries，theCourdesComptes，thebuildingsoftheLegionofHonour，&c。A
brieforderfromtheanonymouscommittees，``BurnFinances，burnTuileries，’’&c。，wasimmediatelyexecuted。Anunlooked—forchanceonlysavedtheLouvreanditscollections。Weknowtoowhatreligiousattentionisinourdaysaccordedtothemostabsurdinjunctionsoftheanonymousleadersofthetradesunions。
TheclubsofParisandtheinsurrectionaryCommunewerenotlessscrupulouslyobeyedatthetimeoftheRevolution。AnorderemanatingfromthesewassufficienttohurlupontheAssemblyapopulararmywhichdictateditswishes。
SummingupthehistoryoftheConventioninanotherchapter，weshallseehowfrequentweretheseirruptions，andwithwhatservilitytheAssembly，whichaccordingtothelegendswassopowerfulboweditselfbeforethemostimperativeinjunctionsofahandfulofrioters。Instructedbyexperience，theDirectoryclosedtheclubsandputanendtotheinvasionofthepopulacebyenergeticallyshootingthemdown。
TheConventionhadearlygraspedthesuperiorityofhomogeneousgroupsoverheterogeneousassembliesinmattersofgovernment，whichiswhyitsubdivideditselfintocommitteescomposedeachofalimitednumberofindividuals。Thesecommittees——ofPublicSafety，ofFinance，&c。——formedsmallsovereignassembliesinthemidstofthelargerAssembly。Theirpowerwasheldincheckonlybythatoftheclubs。
Theprecedingconsiderationsshowthepowerofgroupsoverthewillsofthememberscomposingthem。Ifthegroupishomogeneous，thisactionisconsiderable；ifitisheterogeneous，itislessconsiderablebutmaystillbecomeimportant，eitherbecausethemorepowerfulgroupsofanassemblywilldominatethosewhosecohesionisweakerorbecausecertaincontagioussentimentswilloftenextendthemselvestoallthemembersofanassembly。
AmemorableexampleofthisinfluenceofgroupsoccurredatthetimeoftheRevolution，when，onthenightofthe4thofAugust，thenoblesvoted，onthepropositionofoneoftheirmembers，theabandonmentoffeudalprivileges。YetweknowthattheRevolutionresultedinpartfromtherefusaloftheclergyandthenoblestorenouncetheirprivileges。Whydidtheyrefusetorenouncethematfirst？Simplybecausemeninacrowddonotactasthesamemensingly。Individuallynomemberofthenobilitywouldeverhaveabandonedhisrights。
OfthisinfluenceofassembliesupontheirmembersNapoleonatSt。Helenacitedsomecuriousexamples：``Nothingwasmorecommonthantomeetwithmenatthisperiodquiteunlikethereputationthattheiractsandwordswouldseemtojustify。Forinstance，onemighthavesupposedMongetobeaterriblefellow；
whenwarwasdecideduponhemountedthetribuneoftheJacobinsanddeclaredthathewouldgivehistwodaughterstothetwofirstsoldierstobewoundedbytheenemy。Hewantedthenoblestobekilled，&c。Now，Mongewasthemostgentleandfeebleofmen，andwouldn’thavehadachickenkilledifhehadhadtodoitwithhisownhands，oreventohaveitdoneinhispresence。’’
3。ASuggestedExplanationoftheProgressiveExaggerationofSentimentsinAssemblies。
Ifcollectivesentimentsweresusceptibleofexactquantitativemeasurement，wemighttranslatethembyacurvewhich，afterafirstgradualascent，runsupwardwithextremerapidityandthenfallsalmostvertically。Theequationofthiscurvemightbecalledtheequationofthevariationsofcollectivesentimentssubjectedtoaconstantexcitation。
Itisnotalwayseasytoexplaintheaccelerationofcertainsentimentsundertheinfluenceofaconstantexcitingcause。
Perhaps，however，onemaysaythatifthelawsofpsychologyarecomparabletothoseofmechanics，acauseofinvariabledimensionsactinginacontinuousfashionwillrapidlyincreasetheintensityofasentiment。Weknow，forexample，thataforcewhichisconstantindimensionanddirection，suchasgravityactinguponamass，willcauseanacceleratedmovement。Thespeedofafreeobjectfallinginspaceundertheinfluenceofgravitywillbeabout32feetduringthefirstsecond，64feetduringthenext，96feetduringthenext，&c。Itwouldbeeasy，werethemovingbodyallowedtofallfromasufficientheight，togiveitavelocitysufficienttoperforateaplateofsteel。
Butalthoughthisexplanationisapplicabletotheaccelerationofasentimentsubjectedtoaconstantexcitingcause，itdoesnottelluswhytheeffectsofaccelerationfinallyandsuddenlycease。Suchafallisonlycomprehensibleifwebringinphysiologicalfactors——thatis，ifwerememberthatpleasure，likepain，cannotexceedcertainlimits，andthatallsensations，whentooviolent，resultintheparalysisofsensation。Ourorganismcanonlysupportacertainmaximumofjoy，pain，oreffort，anditcannotsupportthatmaximumforlongtogether。
Thehandwhichgraspsadynamometersoonexhaustsitseffort，andisobligedsuddenlytoletgo。
Thestudyofthecausesoftherapiddisappearanceofcertaingroupsofsentimentsinassemblieswillremindusofthefactthatbesidethepartywhichispredominantbymeansofitsstrengthorprestigethereareotherswhosesentiments，restrainedbythisforceorprestige，havenotreachedtheirfulldevelopment。Somechancecircumstancemaysomewhatweakentheprevailingparty，whenimmediatelythesuppressedsentimentsoftheadversepartiesmaybecomepreponderant。TheMountainlearnedthislessonafterThermidor。
Allanalogiesthatwemayseektoestablishbetweenthelawsofmaterialphenomenaandthosewhichconditiontheevolutionofaffectiveandmysticfactorsareevidentlyextremelyrough。Theymustbesountilthemechanismofthecerebralfunctionsisbetterunderstoodthanitisto—day。
PARTII
THEFRENCHREVOLUTION
BOOKI
THEORIGINSOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION
CHAPTERI
THEOPINIONSOFHISTORIANSCONCERNINGTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION
1。TheHistoriansoftheRevolution。
ThemostcontradictoryopinionshavebeenexpressedrespectingtheFrenchRevolution，andalthoughonlyacenturyseparatesusfromtheperiodinquestionitseemsimpossibleasyettojudgeitcalmly。FordeMaistreitwas``asatanicpieceofwork，’’
and``neverwastheactionofthespiritofdarknesssoevidentlymanifested。’’ForthemodernJacobinsithasregeneratedthehumanrace。
ForeignerswholiveinFrancestillregarditasasubjecttobeavoidedinconversation。
``Everywhere，’’writesBarrettWendell，``thismemoryandthesetraditionsarestillendowedwithsuchvitalitythatfewpersonsarecapableofconsideringthemdispassionately。Theystillexcitebothenthusiasmandresentment；theyarestillregardedwithaloyalandardentspiritofpartisanship。ThebetteryoucometounderstandFrancethemoreclearlyyouseethatevento—
daynostudyoftheRevolutionstrikesanyFrenchmanashavingbeenimpartial。’’
Thisobservationisperfectlycorrect。Tobeinterpretablewithequity，theeventsofthepastmustnolongerbeproductiveofresultsandmustnottouchthereligiousorpoliticalbeliefswhoseinevitableintoleranceIhavedenoted。
WemustnotthereforebesurprisedthathistoriansexpressverydifferentideasrespectingtheRevolution。Foralongtimetocomesomewillstillseeinitoneofthemostsinistereventsofhistory，whiletoothersitwillremainoneofthemostglorious。
Allwritersonthesubjecthavebelievedthattheyhaverelateditscoursewithimpartiality，butingeneraltheyhavemerelysupportedcontradictorytheoriesofpeculiarsimplicity。Thedocumentsbeinginnumerableandcontradictory，theirconsciousorunconsciouschoicehasreadilyenabledthemtojustifytheirrespectivetheories。
TheolderhistoriansoftheRevolution——Thiers，Quinet，and，despitehistalent，Michelethimself，aresomewhateclipsedto—
day。Theirdoctrineswerebynomeanscomplicated；ahistoricfatalismprevailsgenerallyintheirwork。ThiersregardedtheRevolutionastheresultofseveralcenturiesofabsolutemonarchy，andtheTerrorasthenecessaryconsequenceofforeigninvasion。Quinetdescribedtheexcessesof1793astheresultofalong—continueddespotism，butdeclaredthatthetyrannyoftheConventionwasunnecessary，andhamperedtheworkoftheRevolution。Micheletsawinthislastmerelytheworkofthepeople，whomheblindlyadmired，andcommencedtheglorificationcontinuedbyotherhistorians。
TheformerreputationofallthesehistorianshasbeentoagreatextenteffacedbythatofTaine。Althoughequallyimpassioned，hethrewabrilliantlightupontherevolutionaryperiod，anditwilldoubtlessbelongbeforehisworkissuperseded。
Worksoimportantisboundtoshowfaults。Taineisadmirableintherepresentationoffactsandpersons，butheattemptstojudgebythestandardofrationallogiceventswhichwerenotdictatedbyreason，andwhich，therefore，hecannotinterpret。Hispsychology，excellentwhenitismerelydescriptive，isveryweakassoonasitbecomesexplanatory。ToaffirmthatRobespierrewasapedantic``swotter’’isnottorevealthecausesofhisabsolutepowerovertheConvention，atatimewhenhehadspentseveralmonthsindecimatingitwithperfectimpunity。IthasveryjustlybeensaidofTainethathesawwellandunderstoodlittle。
Despitetheserestrictionshisworkishighlyremarkableandhasnotbeenequalled。WemayjudgeofhisimmenseinfluencebytheexasperationwhichhecausesamongthefaithfuldefendersofJacobinorthodoxy，ofwhichM。Aulard，professorattheSorbonne，isto—daythehighpriest。ThelatterhasdevotedtwoyearstowritingapamphletagainstTaine，everylineofwhichissteepedinpassion。Allthistimespentinrectifyingafewmaterialerrorswhicharenotreallysignificanthasonlyresultedintheperpetrationoftheverysameerrors。
Reviewinghiswork，M。A。CochinshowsthatM。Aulardhasatleastoneveryotheroccasionbeendeceivedbyhisquotations，whereasTaineerredfarmorerarely。ThesamehistorianshowsalsothatwemustnottrustM。Aulard’ssources。
``Thesesources——proceedings，pamphlets，journals，andthespeechesandwritingsofpatriots——arepreciselytheauthenticpublicationsofpatriotism，editedbypatriots，andedited，asarule，forthebenefitofthepublic。Heoughttohaveseeninallthissimplythespecialpleadingofthedefendant：hehad，beforehiseyes，aready—madehistoryoftheRevolution，whichpresents，sidebysidewitheachoftheactsofthe`People，’
fromthemassacresofSeptembertothelawofPrairial，aready—
madeexplanationaccordingtotherepublicansystemofdefence。’’
PerhapsthefairestcriticismthatonecanmakeoftheworkofTaineisthatitwasleftincomplete。Hestudiedmoreespeciallytheroleofthepopulaceanditsleadersduringtherevolutionaryperiod。Thisinspiredhimwithpagesvibratingwithanindignationwhichwecanstilladmire，butseveralimportantaspectsoftheRevolutionescapedhim。
WhateveronemaythinkoftheRevolution，anirreducibledifferencewillalwaysexistbetweenhistoriansoftheschoolofTaineandthoseoftheschoolofM。Aulard。Thelatterregardsthesovereignpeopleasadmirable，whiletheformershowsusthatwhenabandonedtoitsinstinctsandliberatedfromallsocialrestraintitrelapsesintoprimitivesavagery。TheconceptionofM。Aulard，entirelycontrarytothelessonsofthepsychologyofcrowds，isnonethelessareligiousdogmaintheeyesofmodernJacobins。TheywriteoftheRevolutionaccordingtothemethodsofbelievers，andtakeforlearnedworkstheargumentsofvirtualtheologians。
2。TheTheoryofFatalisminrespectoftheRevolution。
AdvocatesanddetractorsoftheRevolutionoftenadmitthefatalityofrevolutionaryevents。ThistheoryiswellsynthetisedinthefollowingpassagefromtheHistoryoftheRevolution，byEmileOlivier：——
``Nomancouldopposeit。Theblamebelongsneithertothosewhoperishednortothosewhosurvived；therewasnoindividualforcecapableofchangingtheelementsandofforeseeingtheeventswhichwerebornofthenatureofthingsandcircumstances。’’
Tainehimselfinclinestothisidea：——
``AtthemomentwhentheStatesGeneralwereopenedthecourseofideasandeventswasnotonlydeterminedbutevenvisible。Eachgenerationunwittinglybearswithinitselfitsfutureanditspast；fromthelatteritsdestiniesmighthavebeenforetoldlongbeforetheissue。’’
Othermodernauthors，whoprofessnomoreindulgencefortheviolenceoftherevolutionariesthandidTaine，areequallyconvincedofthisfatality。M。Sorel，afterrecallingthesayingofBossuetconcerningtherevolutionsofantiquity：``Everythingissurprisingifweonlyconsiderparticularcauses，andyeteverythinggoesforwardinregularsequence，’’expressesanintentionwhichheveryimperfectlyrealises：``toshowintheRevolution，whichseemstosomethesubversionandtootherstheregenerationoftheoldEuropeanworld，thenaturalandnecessaryresultofthehistoryofEurope，andtoshow，moreover，thatthisrevolutionhadnoresult——noteventhemostunexpected——thatdidnotensuefromthishistory，andwasnotexplainedbytheprecedentsoftheancienregime。’’
GuizotalsohadformerlyattemptedtoprovethatourRevolution，whichhequitewronglycomparedtothatofEngland，wasperfectlynaturalandeffectednoinnovations：——
``FarfromhavingbrokenwiththenaturalcourseofeventsinEurope，neithertheEnglishrevolutionnorourowndid，intended，orsaidanythingthathadnotbeensaid，intended，anddoneahundredyearsbeforeitsoutbreak。
``……Whetherweregardthegeneraldoctrinesofthetworevolutionsortheapplicationmadeofthem——whetherwedealwiththegovernmentoftheStateorwiththecivillegislation，withpropertyorwithpersons，withlibertyorwithpower，weshallfindnothingofwhichtheinventioncanbeattributedtothem，nothingthatwillnotbeencounteredelsewhere，orthatwasnotatleastoriginatedintimeswhichwequalifyasnormal。’’
Alltheseassertionsmerelyrecallthebanallawthataphenomenonissimplytheconsequenceofpreviousphenomena。Suchverygeneralpropositionsdonotteachusmuch。
Wemustnottrytoexplaintoomanyeventsbytheprincipleoffatalityadoptedbysomanyhistorians。Ihaveelsewherediscussedthesignificanceofsuchfatalities，andhaveshownthatthewholeeffortofcivilisationconsistsintryingtoescapetherefrom。Certainlyhistoryisfullofnecessities，butitisalsofullofcontingentfactswhichwere，andmightnothavebeen。Napoleonhimself，onSt。Helena，enumeratedsixcircumstanceswhichmighthavecheckedhisprodigiouscareer。Herelated，notably，thatontakingabathatAuxonne，in1786，heonlyescapeddeathbythefortuitouspresenceofasandbank。IfBonapartehaddied，thenwemayadmitthatanothergeneralwouldhavearisen，andmighthavebecomedictator。ButwhatwouldhavebecomeoftheImperialepicanditsconsequenceswithoutthemanofgeniuswholedourvictoriousarmiesintoallthecapitalsofEurope？
ItispermissibletoconsidertheRevolutionasbeingpartlyanecessity，butitwasaboveall——whichiswhatthefatalisticwritersalreadyciteddonotshowus——apermanentstrugglebetweentheoristswhowereimbuedwithanewideal，andtheeconomic，social，andpoliticallawswhichruledmankind，andwhichtheydidnotunderstand。Notunderstandingthem，theysoughtinvaintodirectthecourseofevents，wereexasperatedattheirfailure，andfinallycommittedeveryspeciesofviolence。Theydecreedthatthepapermoneyknownasassignatsshouldbeacceptedastheequivalentofgold，andalltheirthreatscouldnotpreventthefictitiousvalueofsuchmoneyfallingalmosttonothing。Theydecreedthelawofthemaximum，anditmerelyincreasedtheevilsitwasintendedtoremedy。
RobespierredeclaredbeforetheConvention``thatallthesans—
culotteswillbepaidattheexpenseofthepublictreasury，whichwillbefedbytherich，’’andinspiteofrequisitionsandtheguillotinethetreasuryremainedempty。
Havingbrokenallhumanrestraints，themenoftheRevolutionfinallydiscoveredthatasocietycannotlivewithoutthem；butwhentheysoughttocreatethemanewtheysawthateventhestrongestsociety，thoughsupportedbythefearoftheguillotine，couldnotreplacethedisciplinewhichthepasthadslowlybuiltupinthemindsofmen。Asforunderstandingtheevolutionofsociety，orjudgingmen’sheartsandminds，orforeseeingtheconsequencesofthelawstheyenacted，theyscarcelyattemptedtodoso。
TheeventsoftheRevolutiondidnotensuefromirreduciblenecessities。TheywerefarmoretheconsequenceofJacobinprinciplesthanofcircumstances，andmighthavebeenquiteotherthantheywere。WouldtheRevolutionhavefollowedthesamepathifLouisXVI。hadbeenbetteradvised，oriftheConstituentAssemblyhadbeenlesscowardlyintimesofpopularinsurrection？Thetheoryofrevolutionaryfatalityisonlyusefultojustifyviolencebypresentingitasinevitable。
WhetherwearedealingwithscienceorwithhistorywemustbewareoftheignorancewhichtakesshelterundertheshibbolethoffatalismNaturewasformerlyfullofahostoffatalitieswhichscienceisslowlycontrivingtoavoid。Thefunctionofthesuperiormanis，asIhaveshownelsewhere，toavertsuchfatalities。
3。TheHesitationsofrecentHistoriansoftheRevolution。
Thehistorianswhoseideaswehaveexaminedintheprecedingchapterwereextremelypositiveintheirspecialpleading。
Confinedwithinthelimitsofbelief，theydidnotattempttopenetratethedomainofknowledge。AmonarchicalwriterwasviolentlyhostiletotheRevolution，andaliberalwriterwasitsviolentapologist。
AtthepresenttimewecanseethecommencementofamovementwhichwillsurelyleadtothestudyoftheRevolutionasoneofthosescientificphenomenaintowhichtheopinionsandbeliefsofawriterentersolittlethatthereaderdoesnotevensuspectthem。
Thisperiodhasnotyetcomeintobeing；wearestillintheperiodofdoubt。Theliberalwriterswhousedtobesopositivearenowsonolonger。Onemayjudgeofthisnewstateofmindbythefollowingextractsfromrecentauthors：——
M。Hanotaux，havingvauntedtheutilityoftheRevolution，askswhetheritsresultswerenotboughttoodearly，andadds：——
``Historyhesitates，andwill，foralongtimeyet，hesitatetoanswer。’’
M。Madelinisequallydubiousinthebookhehasrecentlypublished：——
``Ihaveneverfeltsufficientauthoritytoform，eveninmyinmostconscience，acategoricaljudgmentonsocomplexaphenomenonastheFrenchRevolution。To—dayIfinditevenmoredifficulttoformabriefjudgement。Causes，facts，andconsequencesseemtometobestillextremelydebatablesubjects。’’
OnemayobtainastillbetterideaofthetransformationoftheoldideasconcerningtheRevolutionbyperusingthelatestwritingsofitsofficialdefenders。Whiletheyprofessedformerlytojustifyeveryactofviolencebyrepresentingitasasimpleactofdefence，theynowconfinethemselvestopleadingextenuatingcircumstances。IfindastrikingproofofthisnewframeofmindinthehistoryofFrancefortheuseofschools，publishedbyMM。AulardandDebidour。ConcerningtheTerrorwereadthefollowinglines：——
``Bloodflowedinwaves；therewereactsofinjusticeandcrimeswhichwereuselessfromthepointofviewofnationaldefence，andodious。Butmenhadlosttheirheadsinthetempest，and，harassedbyathousanddangers，thepatriotsstruckoutintheirrage。’’