HowpreventIslamfromremainingtheStatereligioninacountrywherecivillawandreligiouslawarenotyetplainlyseparated，andwherefaithintheKoranistheonlytiebywhichtheideaofnationalitycanbemaintained？
Itwasdifficulttodestroysuchastateofaffairs，sothatwewereboundtoseethere—establishmentofanautocraticorganisationwithanappearanceofconstitutionalism——thatistosay，practicallytheoldsystemonceagain。Suchattemptsaffordagoodexampleofthefactthatapeoplecannotchooseitsinstitutionsuntilithastransformeditsmind。
4。SocialelementswhichsurvivethechangesofGovernmentafterRevolution。
Whatweshallsaylateronastothestablefoundationofthenationalsoulwillenableustoappreciatetheforceofsystemsofgovernmentthathavebeenlongestablished，suchasancientmonarchies。Amonarchmayeasilybeoverthrownbyconspirators，buttheselatterarepowerlessagainsttheprincipleswhichthemonarchrepresents。Napoleonathisfallwasreplacednotbyhisnaturalheir，butbytheheirofkings。Thelatterincarnatedanancientprinciple，whilethesonoftheEmperorpersonifiedideasthatwereasyetimperfectlyestablishedinmen’sminds。
Forthesamereasonaminister，howeverable，howevergreattheserviceshehasrenderedtohiscountry，canveryrarelyoverthrowhisSovereign。Bismarckhimselfcouldnothavedoneso。Thisgreatministerhadsingle—handedcreatedtheunityofGermany，yethismasterhadonlytotouchhimwithhisfingerandhevanished。Amanisasnothingbeforeaprinciplesupportedbyopinion。
Butevenwhen，forvariousreasons，theprincipleincarnatedbyagovernmentisannihilatedwiththatgovernment，ashappenedatthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，alltheelementsofsocialorganisationdonotperishatthesametime。
IfweknewnothingofFrancebutthedisturbancesofthelasthundredyearsandmorewemightsupposethecountrytoliveinastateofprofoundanarchy。Nowhereconomic，industrial，andevenherpoliticallifemanifests，onthecontrary，acontinuitythatseemstobeindependentofallrevolutionsandgovernments。
Thefactisthatbesidethegreateventsofwhichhistorytreatsarethelittlefactsofdailylifewhichthebooksneglecttotell。Theyareruledbyimperiousnecessitieswhichhaltfornoman。Theirtotalmassformstherealframeworkofthelifeofthepeople。
WhilethestudyofgreateventsshowsusthatthenominalgovernmentofFrancehasbeenfrequentlychangedinthespaceofacentury，anexaminationofthelittledailyeventswillprove，onthecontrary，thatherrealgovernmenthasbeenlittlealtered。
Whointrutharetherealrulersofapeople？Kingsandministers，nodoubt，inthegreatcrisesofnationallife，buttheyplaynopartwhateverinthelittlerealitieswhichmakeupthelifeofeveryday。Therealdirectingforcesofacountryaretheadministrations，composedofimpersonalelementswhichareneveraffectedbythechangesofgovernment。Conservativeoftraditions，theyareanonymousandlasting，andconstituteanoccultpowerbeforewhichallothersmusteventuallybow。Theiractionhasevenincreasedtosuchadegreethat，asweshallpresentlyshow，thereisadangerthattheymayformananonymousStatemorepowerfulthantheofficialState。Francehasthuscometobegovernedbyheadsofdepartmentsandgovernmentclerks。Themorewestudythehistoryofrevolutionsthemorewediscoverthattheychangepracticallynothingbutthelabel。Tocreatearevolutioniseasy，buttochangethesoulofapeopleisdifficultindeed。
CHAPTERIV
THEPARTPLAYEDBYTHEPEOPLEINREVOLUTIONS
1。Thestabilityandmalleabilityofthenationalmind。
Theknowledgeofapeopleatanygivenmomentofitshistoryinvolvesanunderstandingofitsenvironmentandaboveallofitspast。Theoreticallyonemaydenythatpast，asdidthemenoftheRevolution，asmanymenofthepresentdayhavedone，butitsinfluenceremainsindestructible。
Inthepast，builtupbyslowaccumulationsofcenturies，wasformedtheaggregationofthoughts，sentiments，traditions，andprejudicesconstitutingthenationalmindwhichmakesthestrengthofarace。Withoutitnoprogressispossible。Eachgenerationwouldnecessitateafreshbeginning。
Theaggregatecomposingthesoulofapeopleissolidlyestablishedonlyifitpossessesacertainrigidity，butthisrigiditymustnotpassacertainlimit，ortherewouldbenosuchthingasmalleability。
Withoutrigiditytheancestralsoulwouldhavenofixity，andwithoutmalleabilityitcouldnotadaptitselftothechangesofenvironmentresultingfromtheprogressofcivilization。
Excessivemalleabilityofthenationalmindimpelsapeopletoincessantrevolutions。Excessofrigidityleadsittodecadence。Livingspecies，liketheracesofhumanity，disappearwhen，toofixedlyestablishedbyalongpast，theybecomeincapableofadaptingthemselvestonewconditionsofexistence。
Fewpeopleshavesucceededineffectingajustequilibriumbetweenthesetwocontraryqualitiesofstabilityandmalleability。TheRomansinantiquityandtheEnglishinmoderntimesmaybecitedamongthosewhohavebestattainedit。
Thepeopleswhosemindismostfixedandestablishedofteneffectthemostviolentrevolutions。Nothavingsucceededinevolvingprogressively，inadaptingthemselvestochangesofenvironment，theyareforcedtoadaptthemselvesviolentlywhensuchadaptationbecomesindispensable。
Stabilityisonlyacquiredveryslowly。Thehistoryofaraceisaboveallthestoryofitslongeffortstoestablishitsmind。
Solongasithasnotsucceededitformsahordeofbarbarianswithoutcohesionandstrength。AftertheinvasionsoftheendoftheRomanEmpireFrancetookseveralcenturiestoformanationalsoul。
Shefinallyachievedone；butinthecourseofcenturiesthissoulfinallybecametoorigid。Withalittlemoremalleability，theancientmonarchywouldhavebeenslowlytransformedasitwaselsewhere，andweshouldhaveavoided，togetherwiththeRevolutionanditsconsequences，theheavytaskofremakinganationalsoul。
Theprecedingconsiderationsshowusthepartofraceinthegenesisofrevolutions，andexplainwhythesamerevolutionswillproducesuchdifferenteffectsindifferentcountries；why，forexample，theideasoftheFrenchRevolution，welcomedwithsuchenthusiasmbysomepeoples，wererejectedbyothers。
CertainlyEngland，althoughaverystablecountry，hassufferedtworevolutionsandslainaking；butthemouldofhermentalarmourwasatoncestableenoughtoretaintheacquisitionsofthepastandmalleableenoughtomodifythemonlywithinthenecessarylimits。NeverdidEnglanddream，asdidthemenoftheFrenchRevolution，ofdestroyingtheancestralheritageinordertoerectanewsocietyinthenameofreason。
``WhiletheFrenchman，’’writesM。A。Sorel，``despisedhisgovernment，detestedhisclergy，hatedthenobility，andrevoltedagainstthelaws，theEnglishmanwasproudofhisreligion，hisconstitution，hisaristocracy，hisHouseofLords。ThesewerelikesomanytowersoftheformidableBastilleinwhichheentrenchedhimself，undertheBritishstandard，tojudgeEuropeandcoverherwithcontempt。Headmittedthatthecommandwasdisputedinsidethefort，butnostrangermustapproach。’’
TheinfluenceofraceinthedestinyofthepeoplesappearsplainlyinthehistoryoftheperpetualrevolutionsoftheSpanishrepublicsofSouthAmerica。Composedofhalf—castes，thatistosay，ofindividualswhosediversehereditieshavedissociatedtheirancestralcharacteristics，thesepopulationshavenonationalsoulandthereforenostability。Apeopleofhalf—castesisalwaysungovernable。
Ifwewouldlearnmoreofthedifferencesofpoliticalcapacitywhichtheracialfactorcreateswemustexaminethesamenationasgovernedbytworacessuccessively。
Theeventisnotrareinhistory。IthasbeenmanifestedinastrikingmanneroflateinCubaandthePhilippines，whichpassedsuddenlyfromtheruleofSpaintothatoftheUnitedStates。
WeknowinwhatanarchyandpovertyCubaexistedunderSpanishrule；weknow，too，towhatadegreeofprosperitytheislandwasbroughtinafewyearswhenitfellintothehandsoftheUnitedStates。
ThesameexperiencewasrepeatedinthePhilippines，whichforcenturieshadbeengovernedbySpain。Finallythecountrywasnomorethanavastjungle，thehomeofepidemicsofeverykind，whereamiserablepopulationvegetatedwithoutcommerceorindustry。AfterafewyearsofAmericanrulethecountrywasentirelytransformed：malaria，yellowfever，plagueandcholerahadentirelydisappeared。Theswampsweredrained；thecountrywascoveredwithrailways，factoriesandschools。Inthirteenyearsthemortalitywasreducedbytwo—thirds。
Itistosuchexamplesthatwemustreferthetheoristwhohasnotyetgraspedtheprofoundsignificanceofthewordrace，andhowfartheancestralsoulofapeoplerulesoveritsdestiny。
2。HowthepeopleregardsRevolution。
Thepartofthepeoplehasbeenthesameinallrevolutions。Itisneverthepeoplethatconceivesthemnordirectsthem。Itsactivityisreleasedbymeansofleaders。
Onlywhenthedirectinterestsofthepeopleareinvolveddowesee，asrecentlyinChampagne，anyfractionofthepeoplerisingspontaneously。Amovementthuslocalisedconstitutesamereriot。
Revolutioniseasywhentheleadersareveryinfluential。OfthisPortugalandBrazilhaverecentlyfurnishedproofs。Butnewideaspenetratethepeopleveryslowlyindeed。Generallyitacceptsarevolutionwithoutknowingwhy，andwhenbychanceitdoessucceedinunderstandingwhy，therevolutionisoverlongago。
Thepeoplewillcreatearevolutionbecauseitispersuadedtodoso，butitdoesnotunderstandverymuchoftheideasofitsleaders；itinterpretstheminitsownfashion，andthisfashionisbynomeansthatofthetrueauthorsoftherevolution。TheFrenchRevolutionfurnishedastrikingexampleofthisfact。
TheRevolutionof1789hadasitsrealobjectthesubstitutionofthepowerofthenobilitybythatofthebourgeoisie；thatis，anoldelitewhichhadbecomeincapablewastobereplacedbyanewelitewhichdidpossesscapacity。
TherewaslittlequestionofthepeopleinthisfirstphaseoftheRevolution。Thesovereigntyofthepeoplewasproclaimed，butitamountedonlytotherightofelectingitsrepresentatives。
Extremelyilliterate，nothoping，likethemiddleclasses，toascendthesocialscale，notinanywayfeelingitselftheequalofthenobles，andnotaspiringevertobecometheirequal，thepeoplehadviewsandinterestsverydifferenttothoseoftheupperclassesofsociety。
Thestrugglesoftheassemblywiththeroyalpowerledittocallfortheinterventionofthepeopleinthesestruggles。Itintervenedmoreandmore，andthebourgeoisrevolutionrapidlybecameapopularrevolution。
Anideahavingnoforceofitsown，andactingonlybyvirtueofpossessinganaffectiveandmysticsubstratumwhichsupportsit，thetheoreticalideasofthebourgeoisie，beforetheycouldactonthepeople，hadtobetransformedintoanewandverydefinitefaith，springingfromobviouspracticalinterests。
ThistransformationwasrapidlyeffectedwhenthepeopleheardthemenenvisagedbyitastheGovernmentassuringitthatitwastheequalofitsformermasters。Itbegantoregarditselfasavictim，andproceededtopillage，burn，andmassacre，imaginingthatinsodoingitwasexercisingaright。
Thegreatstrengthoftherevolutionaryprincipleswasthattheygaveafreecoursetotheinstinctsofprimitivebarbaritywhichhadbeenrestrainedbythesecularandinhibitoryactionofenvironment，tradition，andlaw。
Allthesocialbondsthatformerlycontainedthemultitudeweredaybydaydissolving，sothatitconceivedanotionofunlimitedpower，andthejoyofseeingitsancientmastersferretedoutanddespoiled。Havingbecomethesovereignpeople，werenotallthingspermissibletoit？
ThemottoofLiberty，Equality，Fraternity，atruemanifestationofhopeandfaithatthebeginningoftheRevolution，soonmerelyservedtocoveralegaljustificationofthesentimentsofjealousy，cupidity，andhatredofsuperiors，thetruemotivesofcrowdsunrestrainedbydiscipline。ThisiswhytheRevolutionsosoonendedindisorder，violence，andanarchy。
FromthemomentwhentheRevolutiondescendedfromthemiddletothelowerclassesofsociety，itceasedtobeadominationoftheinstinctivebytherational，andbecame，onthecontrary，theeffortoftheinstinctivetooverpowertherational。
Thislegaltriumphoftheatavisticinstinctswasterrible。Thewholeeffortofsocietiesaneffortindispensabletotheircontinuedexistence——hadalwaysbeentorestrain，thankstothepoweroftradition，customs，andcodes，certainnaturalinstinctswhichmanhasinheritedfromhisprimitiveanimality。Itispossibletodominatethem——andthemoreapeopledoesovercomethemthemoreciviliseditis——buttheycannotbedestroyed。Theinfluenceofvariousexcitingcauseswillreadilyresultintheirreappearance。
Thisiswhytheliberationofpopularpassionsissodangerous。
Thetorrent，onceescapedfromitsbed，doesnotreturnuntilithasspreaddevastationfarandwide。``Woetohimwhostirsupthedregsofanation，’’saidRivarolatthebeginningoftheRevolution。``Thereisnoageofenlightenmentforthepopulace。’’
3。ThesupposedPartofthePeopleduringRevolution。
Thelawsofthepsychologyofcrowdsshowusthatthepeopleneveractswithoutleaders，andthatalthoughitplaysaconsiderablepartinrevolutionsbyfollowingandexaggeratingtheimpulsesreceived，itneverdirectsitsownmovements。
Inallpoliticalrevolutionswediscovertheactionofleaders。
Theydonotcreatetheideaswhichserveasthebasisofrevolutions，buttheyutilisethemasameansofaction。Ideas，leaders，armies，andcrowdsconstitutefourelementswhichallhavetheirparttoplayinrevolutions。
Thecrowd，rousedbytheleaders，actsespeciallybymeansofitsmass。Itsactioniscomparabletothatoftheshellwhichperforatesanarmour—platebythemomentumofaforceitdidnotcreate。Rarelydoesthecrowdunderstandanythingoftherevolutionsaccomplishedwithitsassistance。Itobedientlyfollowsitsleaderswithouteventryingtofindoutwhattheywant。ItoverthrewCharlesX。becauseofhisOrdinanceswithouthavinganyideaofthecontentsofthelatter，andwouldhavebeengreatlyembarrassedhaditbeenaskedatalaterdatewhyitoverthrewLouis—Philippe。
Deceivedbyappearances，manyauthors，fromMichelettoAulard，havesupposedthatthepeopleeffectedourgreatRevolution。
``Theprincipalactor，’’saidMichelet，``isthepeople。’’
``Itisanerrortosay，’’writesM。Aulard，``thattheFrenchRevolutionwaseffectedbyafewdistinguishedpeopleorafewheroes……Ibelievethatinthewholehistoryoftheperiodincludedbetween1789and1799notasinglepersonstandsoutwholedorshapedevents：neitherLouisXVI。norMirabeaunorDantonnorRobespierre。MustwesaythatitwastheFrenchpeoplethatwastherealherooftheFrenchRevolution？Yes——providedweseetheFrenchpeoplenotasamultitudebutasanumberoforganisedgroups。’’
AndinarecentworkM。A。Cochininsistsonthisconceptionofpopularaction。
``Andhereisthewonder：Micheletisright。Inproportionasweknowthembetterthefactsseemtoconsecratethefiction：
thiscrowd，withoutchiefsandwithoutlaws，theveryimageofchaos，didforfiveyearsgovernandcommand，speakandact，withaprecision，aconsistency，andanentiretythatweremarvellous。Anarchygavelessonsinorderanddisciplinetothedefeatedpartyoforder……twenty—fivemillionsofmen，spreadoveranareaof30，000squareleagues，actedasone。’’
Certainlyifthissimultaneousconductofthepeoplehadbeenspontaneous，astheauthorsupposes，itwouldhavebeenmarvellous。M。Aulardhimselfunderstandsverywelltheimpossibilitiesofsuchaphenomenon，forheiscareful，inspeakingofthepeople，tosaythatheisspeakingofgroups，andthatthesegroupsmayhavebeenguidedbyleaders：——
``Andwhat，then，cementedthenationalunity？Whosavedthisnation，attackedbythekingandrentbycivilwar？WasitDanton？WasitRobespierre？WasitCarnot？Certainlytheseindividualmenwereofservice：butunitywasinfactmaintainedandindependenceassuredbythegroupingoftheFrenchintocommunesandpopularsocieties——people’sclubs。ItwasthemunicipalandJacobinorganisationofFrancethatforcedthecoalitionofEuropetoretreat。Butineachgroup，ifwelookmoreclosely，thereweretwoorthreeindividualsmorecapablethantherest，who，whetherleadersorled，executeddecisionsandhadtheappearanceofleaders，butwho（if，forinstance，wereadtheproceedingsofthepeople’sclubs）seemtoustohavedrawntheirstrengthfarmorefromtheirgroupthanfromthemselves。
M。Aulard’smistakeconsistsinsupposingthatallthesegroupswerederived``fromaspontaneousmovementoffraternityandreason。’’Franceatthattimewascoveredwiththousandsoflittleclubs，receivingasingleimpulsionfromthegreatJacobinClubofParis，andobeyingitwithperfectdocility。
Thisiswhatrealityteachesus，thoughtheillusionsoftheJacobinsdonotpermitthemtoacceptthefact。[3]
[3]InthehistoricalmanualswhichM。AulardhaspreparedfortheuseofclassesincollaborationwithM。Debidourtheroleattributedtothepeopleasanentityisevenmoremarked。Weseeitinterveningcontinuallyandspontaneously；
hereareafewexamples：——
The``Day’’ofJunethe20th：``ThekingdismissedtheGirondistmembers。ThepeopleofParis，indignant，rosespontaneouslyandinvadedtheTuileries。’’
The``Day’’ofAugust10th：``TheLegislativeAssemblydarednotoverthrowit；itwasthepeopleofParis，aidedbytheFederalsoftheDepartments，whoeffectedthisrevolutionatthepriceofitsblood。’’
TheconflictoftheGirondistsandtheMountain：``Thisdiscordinthefaceoftheenemywasdangerous。Thepeopleputanendtoitonthedaysofthe31stofMayandthe2ndofJune，1793，whenitforcedtheConventiontoexpeltheleadersoftheGirondefromitsmidstandtodecreetheirarrest。’’
4。ThePopularEntityanditsConstituentElements。
Inordertoanswertocertaintheoreticalconceptionsthepeoplewaserectedintoamysticentity，endowedwithallthepowersandallthevirtues，incessantlypraisedbythepoliticians，andoverwhelmedwithflattery。WeshallseewhatwearetomakeofthisconceptionofthepartplayedbythepeopleintheFrenchRevolution。
TotheJacobinsofthisepoch，astothoseofourowndays，thispopularentityconstitutesasuperiorpersonalitypossessingtheattributes，peculiartodivinities，ofneverhavingtoanswerforitsactionsandnevermakingamistake。Itswishesmustbehumblyacceded。Thepeoplemaykill，burn，ravage，committhemostfrightfulcruelties，glorifyitsheroto—dayandthrowhimintothegutterto—morrow；itisallone；thepoliticianswillnotceasetovauntitsvirtues，itshighwisdom，andtobowtoitseverydecision。[4]
[4]Thesepretensionsdoatleastseemtobegrowinguntenabletothemoreadvancedrepublicans。
``Theragewiththesocialists’’writesM。Clemenceau，``istoendowwithallthevirtues，asthoughbyasuperhumanreason，thecrowdwhosereasoncannotbemuchtoboastof。’’Thefamousstatesmanmightsaymorecorrectlythatreasonnotonlycannotbeprominentinthecrowdbutispracticallynonexistent。
Nowinwhatdoesthisentityreallyconsist，thismysteriousfetichwhichrevolutionistshavereveredformorethanacentury？
Itmaybedecomposedintotwodistinctcategories。Thefirstincludesthepeasants，traders，andworkersofallsortswhoneedtranquillityandorderthattheymayexercisetheircalling。
Thispeopleformsthemajority，butamajoritywhichnevercausedarevolution。Livinginlaborioussilence，itisignoredbythehistorians。
Thesecondcategory，whichplaysacapitalpartinallnationaldisturbances，consistsofasubversivesocialresiduedominatedbyacriminalmentality。Degeneratesofalcoholismandpoverty，thieves，beggars，destitute``casuals，’’indifferentworkerswithoutemployment——theseconstitutethedangerousbulkofthearmiesofinsurrection。
Thefearofpunishmentpreventsmanyofthemfrombecomingcriminalsatordinarytimes，buttheydobecomecriminalsassoonastheycanexercisetheirevilinstinctswithoutdanger。
Tothissinistersubstratumareduethemassacreswhichstainallrevolutions。
Itwasthisclasswhich，guidedbyitsleaders，continuallyinvadedthegreatrevolutionaryAssemblies。Theseregimentsofdisorderhadnootheridealthanthatofmassacre，pillage，andincendiarism。Theirindifferencetotheoriesandprincipleswascomplete。
Totheelementsrecruitedfromthelowestdregsofthepopulaceareadded，bywayofcontagion，ahostofidleandindifferentpersonswhoaresimplydrawnintothemovement。Theyshoutbecausetherearemenshouting，andrevoltbecausethereisarevolt，withouthavingthevaguestideaofthecauseofshoutingorrevolution。Thesuggestivepoweroftheirenvironmentabsolutelyhypnotisesthem，andimpelsthemtoaction。
Thesenoisyandmaleficentcrowds，thekernelofallinsurrections，fromantiquitytoourowntimes，aretheonlycrowdsknowntotheorator。Totheoratortheyarethesovereignpeople。AsamatteroffactthissovereignpeopleisprincipallycomposedofthelowerpopulaceofwhomThierssaid：——
``SincethetimewhenTacitussawitapplaudthecrimesoftheemperorsthevilepopulacehasnotchanged。Thesebarbarianswhoswarmatthebottomofsocietiesarealwaysreadytostainthepeoplewitheverycrime，atthebeckofeverypower，andtothedishonourofeverycause。’’
AtnoperiodofhistorywastheroleofthelowestelementsofthepopulationexercisedinsuchalastingfashionasintheFrenchRevolution。
Themassacresbeganassoonasthebeastwasunchained——thatis，from1789，longbeforetheConvention。Theywerecarriedoutwithallpossiblerefinementsofcruelty。DuringthekillingofSeptembertheprisonerswereslowlychoppedtobitsbysabre—
cutsinordertoprolongtheiragoniesandamusethespectators，whoexperiencedthegreatestdelightbeforethespectacleoftheconvulsionsofthevictimsandtheirshrieksofagony。
SimilarsceneswereobservedalloverFrance，evenintheearlydaysoftheRevolution，althoughtheforeignwardidnotexcusethemthen，noranyotherpretext。
FromMarchtoSeptemberawholeseriesofburnings，killings，andpillagingsdrenchedallFranceinblood。Tainecitesonehundredandtwentysuchcases。Rouen，Lyons，Strasbourg，&c。，fellintothepowerofthepopulace。
TheMayorofTroyes，hiseyesdestroyedbyblowsofscissors，wasmurderedafterhoursofsuffering。TheColonelofDragoonsBelzucewascuttopieceswhileliving。Inmanyplacestheheartsofthevictimsweretornoutandcarriedaboutthecitiesonthepointofapike。
Suchisthebehaviourofthebasepopulacesosoonasimprudenthandshavebrokenthenetworkofconstraintswhichbindsitsancestralsavagery。Itmeetswitheveryindulgencebecauseitisintheinterestsofthepoliticianstoflatterit。Butletusforamomentsupposethethousandsofbeingswhoconstituteitcondensedintoonesinglebeing。Thepersonalitythusformedwouldappearasacruelandnarrowandabominablemonster，morehorriblethanthebloodiesttyrantsofhistory。
Thisimpulsiveandferociouspeoplehasalwaysbeeneasilydominatedsosoonasastrongpowerhasopposedit。Ifitsviolenceisunlimited，soisitsservility。Allthedespotismshavehaditfortheirservant。TheCaesarsarecertainofbeingacclaimedbyit，whethertheyarenamedCaligula，Nero，Marat，Robespierre，orBoulanger。
Besidethesedestructivehordeswhoseactionduringrevolutioniscapital，thereexists，aswehavealreadyremarked，themassofthetruepeople，whichasksonlytherighttolabour。Itsometimesbenefitsbyrevolutions，butnevercausesthem。Therevolutionarytheoristsknowlittleofitanddistrustit，awareofitstraditionalandconservativebasis。Theresistantnucleusofacountry，itmakesthestrengthandcontinuityofthelatter。
Extremelydocilethroughfear，easilyinfluencedbyitsleaders，itwillmomentarilycommiteveryexcesswhileundertheirinfluence，buttheancestralinertiaoftheracewillsoontakechargeagain，whichisthereasonwhyitsoquicklytiresofrevolution。Itstraditionalsoulquicklyincitesittoopposeitselftoanarchywhenthelattergoestoofar。Atsuchtimesitseekstheleaderwhowillrestoreorder。
Thispeople，resignedandpeaceable，hasevidentlynoveryloftynorcomplicatedpoliticalconceptions。Itsgovernmentalidealisalwaysverysimple，issomethingverylikedictatorship。Thisiswhy，fromthetimesoftheGreekstoourown，dictatorshiphasalwaysfollowedanarchy。ItfolloweditafterthefirstRevolution，whenBonapartewasacclaimed，andagainwhen，despiteopposition，foursuccessiveplebiscitesraisedLouisNapoleontotheheadoftherepublic，ratifiedhiscoupd’etat，re—establishedtheEmpire，andin1870，beforethewar，approvedofhisrule。