Catherinethoughttosucceedbetterin1562bypromulgatinganedictaccordingProtestantstherighttouniteinthepubliccelebrationoftheircult。
Thistolerance，veryadmirablefromaphilosophicalpointofview，butnotatallwisefromthepoliticalstandpoint，hadnootherresultbeyondexasperatingbothparties。IntheMidi，wheretheProtestantswerestrongest，theypersecutedtheCatholics，soughttoconvertthembyviolence，cuttheirthroatsiftheydidnotsucceed，andsackedtheircathedrals。IntheregionswheretheCatholicsweremorenumeroustheReformerssufferedlikepersecutions。
Suchhostilitiesastheseinevitablyengenderedcivilwar。Thusarosetheso—calledreligiouswars，whichsolongspilledthebloodofFrance。Thecitieswereravaged，theinhabitantsmassacred，andthestrugglerapidlyassumedthatspecialqualityofferocitypeculiartoreligiousorpoliticalconflicts，which，atalaterdate，wastoreappearinthewarsofLaVendee。
Oldmen，women，andchildren，allwereexterminated。AcertainBarond’Oppede，firstpresidentoftheParliamentofAix，hadalreadysetanexamplebykilling3，000personsinthespaceoftendays，withrefinementsofcruelty，anddestroyingthreecitiesandtwenty—twovillages。Montluc，aworthyforerunnerofCarrier，hadtheCalviniststhrownlivingintothewellsuntilthesewerefull。TheProtestantswerenomorehumane。TheydidnotspareeventheCatholicchurches，andtreatedthetombsandstatuesjustasthedelegatesoftheConventionweretotreattheroyaltombsofSaintDenis。
UndertheinfluenceoftheseconflictsFrancewasprogressivelydisintegrated，andattheendofthereignofHenriIII。wasparcelledoutintoveritablelittleconfederatedmunicipalrepublics，formingsomanysovereignstates。Theroyalpowerwasvanishing。TheStatesofBloisclaimedtodictatetheirwishestoHenriIII。，whohadfledfromhiscapital。In1577thetravellerLippomano，whotraversedFrance，sawimportantcities——
Orleans，Tours，Blois，Poitiers——entirelydevastated，thecathedralsandchurchesinruins，andthetombsshattered。ThiswasalmostthestateofFranceattheendoftheDirectory。
Amongtheeventsofthisepoch，thatwhichhasleftthedarkestmemory，althoughitwasnotperhapsthemostmurderous，wasthemassacreofSt。Bartholomewin1572，ordered，accordingtothehistorians，byCatherinedeMedicisandCharlesIX。
Onedoesnotrequireaveryprofoundknowledgeofpsychologytorealisethatnosovereigncouldhaveorderedsuchanevent。St。
Bartholomew’sDaywasnotaroyalbutapopularcrime。CatherinedeMedicis，believingherexistenceandthatofthekingthreatenedbyaplotdirectedbyfourorfiveProtestantleaderstheninParis，sentmentokillthemintheirhouses，accordingtothesummaryfashionofthetime。ThemassacrewhichfollowedisverywellexplainedbyM。Battifolinthefollowingterms：——
``AtthereportofwhatwasafoottherumourimmediatelyranthroughParisthattheHuguenotswerebeingmassacred；Catholicgentlemen，soldiersoftheguard，archers，menofthepeople，inshortallParis，rushedintothestreets，armsinhand，inordertoparticipateintheexecution，andthegeneralmassacrecommenced，tothesoundofferociouscriesof`TheHuguenots！Kill，kill！’Theywerestruckdown，theyweredrowned，theywerehanged。Allthatwereknownashereticsweresoserved。TwothousandpersonswerekilledinParis。’’
Bycontagion，thepeopleoftheprovincesimitatedthoseofParis，andsixtoeightthousandProtestantswereslain。
Whentimehadsomewhatcooledreligiouspassions，allthehistorians，eventheCatholics，spokeofSt。Bartholomew’sDaywithindignation。Theythusshowedhowdifficultitisforthementalityofoneepochtounderstandthatofanother。
Farfrombeingcriticised，St。Bartholomew’sDayprovokedanindescribableenthusiasmthroughoutthewholeofCatholicEurope。
PhilipII。wasdeliriouswithjoywhenheheardthenews，andtheKingofFrancereceivedmorecongratulationsthanifhehadwonagreatbattle。
ButitwasPopeGregoryXIII。aboveallwhomanifestedthekeenestsatisfaction。Hehadamedalstrucktocommemoratethehappyevent，[2]orderedjoy—firestobelitandcannonfired，celebratedseveralmasses，andsentforthepainterVasaritodepictonthewallsoftheVaticantheprincipalscenesofcarnage。Further，hesenttotheKingofFranceanambassadorinstructedtofelicitatethatmonarchuponhisfineaction。Itishistoricaldetailsofthiskindthatenableustocomprehendthemindofthebeliever。TheJacobinsoftheTerrorhadamentalityverylikethatofGregoryXIII。
[2]Themedalmusthavebeendistributedprettywidely，forthecabinetofmedalsattheBibliothequeNationalepossessesthreeexamples：oneingold，oneinsilver，andoneincopper。
Thismedal，reproducedbyBonnaniinhisNumism。Pontific。
（vol。i。p。336），representsononesideGregoryXIII。，andontheotheranangelstrikingHuguenotswithasword。TheexergueisUgonotorumstrages，thatis，MassacreoftheHuguenots。
（Thewordstragesmaybetranslatedbycarnageormassacre，asensewhichitpossessesinCiceroandLivy；oragainbydisaster，ruin，asenseattributedtoitinVirgilandTacitus。）
NaturallytheProtestantswerenotindifferenttosuchahecatomb，andtheymadesuchprogressthatin1576HenriIII。wasreducedtograntingthem，bytheEdictofBeaulieu，entirelibertyofworship，eightstrongplaces，and，intheParliaments，ChamberscomposedhalfofCatholicsandhalfofHuguenots。
Theseforcedconcessionsdidnotleadtopeace。ACatholicLeaguewascreated，havingtheDukeofGuiseatitshead，andtheconflictcontinued。Butitcouldnotlastforever。WeknowhowHenriIV。putanendtoit，atleastforatime，byhisabjurationin1593，andbytheEdictofNantes。
Thestrugglewasquietedbutnotterminated。UnderLouisXIII。
theProtestantswerestillrestless，andin1627RichelieuwasobligedtobesiegeLaRochelle，where15，000Protestantsperished。Afterwards，possessingmorepoliticalthanreligiousfeeling，thefamousCardinalprovedextremelytoleranttowardtheReformers。
Thistolerancecouldnotlast。Contrarybeliefscannotcomeintocontactwithoutseekingtoannihilateeachother，assoonasonefeelscapableofdominatingtheother。UnderLouisXIV。theProtestantshadbecomebyfartheweaker，andwereforcedtorenouncethestruggleandliveatpeace。Theirnumberwasthenabout1，200，000，andtheypossessedmorethan600churches，servedbyabout700pastors。ThepresenceofthesehereticsonFrenchsoilwasintolerabletotheCatholicclergy，whoendeavouredtopersecutetheminvariousways。Asthesepersecutionshadlittleresult，LouisXIV。resortedtodragonnadingthemin1685，whenmanyindividualsperished，butwithoutfurtherresult。Underthepressureoftheclergy，notablyofBossuett，theEdictofNanteswasrevoked，andtheProtestantswereforcedtoacceptconversionortoleaveFrance。
Thisdisastrousemigrationlastedalongtime，andissaidtohavecostFrance400，000inhabitants，menofnotableenergy，sincetheyhadthecouragetolistentotheirconscienceratherthantheirinterests。
6。TheresultsofReligiousRevolutions。
IfreligiousrevolutionswerejudgedonlybythegloomystoryoftheReformation，weshouldbeforcedtoregardthemashighlydisastrous。Butallhavenotplayedalikepart，thecivilisinginfluenceofcertainamongthembeingconsiderable。
Bygivingapeoplemoralunitytheygreatlyincreaseitsmaterialpower。Weseethisnotablywhenanewfaith，broughtbyMohammed，transformsthepettyandimpotenttribesofArabiaintoaformidablenation。
Suchanewreligiousbeliefdoesnotmerelyrenderapeoplehomogeneous。Itattainsaresultthatnophilosophy，nocodeeverattained：itsensiblytransformswhatisalmostunchangeable，thesentimentsofarace。
WeseethisattheperiodwhenthemostpowerfulreligiousrevolutionrecordedbyhistoryoverthrewpaganismtosubstituteaGodwhocamefromtheplainsofGalilee。Thenewidealdemandedtherenunciationofallthejoysofexistenceinordertoacquiretheeternalhappinessofheaven。Nodoubtsuchanidealwasreadilyacceptedbythepoor，theenslaved，thedisinheritedwhoweredeprivedofallthejoysoflifeherebelow，towhomanenchantingfuturewasofferedinexchangeforalifewithouthope。Buttheaustereexistencesoeasilyembracedbythepoorwasalsoembracedbytherich。Inthisaboveallwasthepowerofthenewfaithmanifested。
NotonlydidtheChristianrevolutiontransformmanners：italsoexercised，foraspaceoftwothousandyears，apreponderatinginfluenceovercivilisation。Directlyareligiousfaithtriumphsalltheelementsofcivilisationnaturallyadaptthemselvestoit，sothatcivilisationisrapidlytransformed。Writers，artistsandphilosophersmerelysymbolise，intheirworks，theideasofthenewfaith。
Whenanyreligiousorpoliticalfaithwhatsoeverhastriumphed，notonlyisreasonpowerlesstoaffectit，butitevenfindsmotiveswhichimpelittointerpretandsojustifythefaithinquestion，andtostrivetoimposeituponothers。TherewereprobablyasmanytheologiansandoratorsinthetimeofMoloch，toprovetheutilityofhumansacrifices，astherewereatotherperiodstoglorifytheInquisition，themassacreofSt。
Bartholomew，andthehecatombsoftheTerror。
Wemustnothopetoseepeoplespossessedbystrongbeliefsreadilyachievetolerance。Theonlypeoplewhoattainedtotolerationintheancientworldwerethepolytheists。Thenationswhichpractisetolerationatthepresenttimearethosethatmightwellbetermedpolytheistical，since，asinEnglandandAmerica，theyaredividedintoinnumerablesects。
Underidenticalnamestheyreallyadoreverydifferentdeities。
Themultiplicityofbeliefswhichresultsinsuchtolerationfinallyresultsalsoinweakness。Wethereforecometoapsychologicalproblemnothithertoresolved：howtopossessafaithatoncepowerfulandtolerant。
Theforegoingbriefexplanationrevealsthelargepartplayedbyreligiousrevolutionsandthepowerofbeliefs。Despitetheirslightrationalvaluetheyshapehistory，andpreventthepeoplesfromremainingamassofindividualswithoutcohesionorstrength。Manhasneededthematalltimestoorientatehisthoughtandguidehisconduct。Nophilosophyhasasyetsucceededinreplacingthem。
CHAPTERIII
THEACTIONOFGOVERNMENTSINREVOLUTIONS
1。ThefeebleresistanceofGovernmentsintimeofRevolution。
Manymodernnations——France，Spain，Italy，Austria，Poland，Japan，Turkey，Portugal，&c。——haveknownrevolutionswithinthelastcentury。Thesewereusuallycharacterisedbytheirinstantaneousqualityandthefacilitywithwhichthegovernmentsattackedwereoverthrown。
Theinstantaneousnatureoftheserevolutionsisexplainedbytherapidityofmentalcontagionduetomodernmethodsofpublicity。
Theslightresistanceofthegovernmentsattackedismoresurprising。Itimpliesatotalinabilitytocomprehendandforeseecreatedbyablindconfidenceintheirownstrength。
Thefacilitywithwhichgovernmentsfallisnothoweveranewphenomenon。Ithasbeenprovedmorethanonce，notonlyinautocraticsystems，whicharealwaysoverturnedbypalaceconspiracies，butalsoingovernmentsperfectlyinstructedinthestateofpublicopinionbythepressandtheirownagents。
AmongtheseinstantaneousdownfallsoneofthemoststrikingwasthatwhichfollowedtheOrdinancesofCharlesX。Thismonarchwas，asweknow，overthrowninfourdays。HisministerPolignachadtakennomeasuresofdefence，andthekingwassoconfidentofthetranquillityofParisthathehadgonehunting。
Thearmywasnotintheleasthostile，asinthereignofLouisXVI。，butthetroops，badlyofficered，disbandedbeforetheattacksofafewinsurgents。
TheoverthrowofLouis—Philippewasstillmoretypical，sinceitdidnotresultfromanyarbitraryactiononthepartofthesovereign。ThismonarchwasnotsurroundedbythehatredwhichfinallysurroundedCharlesX。，andhisfallwastheresultofaninsignificantriotwhichcouldeasilyhavebeenrepressed。
Historians，whocanhardlycomprehendhowasolidlyconstitutedgovernment，supportedbyanimposingarmy，canbeoverthrownbyafewrioters，naturallyattributedthefallofLouis—Philippetodeep—seatedcauses。Inrealitytheincapacityofthegeneralsentrustedwithhisdefencewastherealcauseofhisfall。
Thiscaseisoneofthemostinstructivethatcouldbecited，andisworthyofamoment’sconsideration。IthasbeenperfectlyinvestigatedbyGeneralBonnal，inthelightofthenotesofaneye—witness，GeneralElchingen。Thirty—sixthousandtroopsweretheninParis，buttheweaknessandincapacityoftheirofficersmadeitimpossibletousethem。Contradictoryordersweregiven，andfinallythetroopswereforbiddentofireonthepeople，who，moreover——andnothingcouldhavebeenmoredangerous——werepermittedtominglewiththetroops。Theriotsucceededwithoutfightingandforcedthekingtoabdicate。
Applyingtotheprecedingcaseourknowledgeofthepsychologyofcrowds，GeneralBonnalshowshoweasilytheriotwhichoverthrewLouis—Philippecouldhavebeencontrolled。Heproves，notably，thatifthecommandingofficershadnotcompletelylosttheirheadsquiteasmallbodyoftroopscouldhavepreventedtheinsurgentsfrominvadingtheChamberofDeputies。Thislast，composedofmonarchists，wouldcertainlyhaveproclaimedtheCountofParisundertheregencyofhismother。
SimilarphenomenawereobservableintherevolutionsofSpainandPortugal。
Thesefactsshowtheroleofpettyaccessorycircumstancesingreatevents，andprovethatonemustnotspeaktooreadilyofthegenerallawsofhistory。WithouttheriotwhichoverthrewLouis—Philippe，weshouldprobablyhaveseenneithertheRepublicof1848，northeSecondEmpire，norSedan，northeinvasion，northelossofAlsace。
IntherevolutionsofwhichIhavejustbeenspeakingthearmywasofnoassistancetothegovernment，butdidnotturnagainstit。Itsometimeshappensotherwise。Itisoftenthearmywhicheffectstherevolution，asinTurkeyandPortugal。TheinnumerablerevolutionsoftheLatinrepublicsofAmericaareeffectedbythearmy。
Whenarevolutioniseffectedbyanarmythenewrulersnaturallyfallunderitsdomination。IhavealreadyrecalledthefactthatthiswasthecaseattheendoftheRomanEmpire，whentheemperorsweremadeandunmadebythesoldiery。
Thesamethinghassometimesbeenwitnessedinmoderntimes。Thefollowingextractfromanewspaper，withreferencetotheGreekrevolution，showswhatbecomesofagovernmentdominatedbyitsarmy：——
``Onedayitwasannouncedthateightyofficersofthenavywouldsendintheirresignationsifthegovernmentdidnotdismisstheleadersofwhomtheycomplained。Anothertimeitwastheagriculturallabourersonafarm（metairie）belongingtotheCrownPrincewhodemandedthepartitionofthesoilamongthem。
ThenavyprotestedagainstthepromotionpromisedtoColonelZorbas。ColonelZorbas，afteraweekofdiscussionwithLieutenantTypaldos，treatedwiththePresidentoftheCouncilasonepowerwithanother。DuringthistimetheFederationofthecorporationsabusedtheofficersofthenavy。Adeputydemandedthattheseofficersandtheirfamiliesshouldbetreatedasbrigands。WhenCommanderMiaoulisfiredontherebels，thesailors，whofirstofallhadobeyedTypaldos，returnedtoduty。
ThisisnolongertheharmoniousGreeceofPericlesandThemistocles。ItisahideouscampofAgramant。’’
Arevolutioncannotbeeffectedwithouttheassistanceoratleasttheneutralityofthearmy，butitoftenhappensthatthemovementcommenceswithoutit。Thiswasthecasewiththerevolutionsof1830and1848，andthatof1870，whichoverthrewtheEmpireafterthehumiliationofFrancebythesurrenderofSedan。
Themajorityofrevolutionstakeplaceinthecapitals，andbymeansofcontagionspreadthroughthecountry；butthisisnotaconstantrule。WeknowthatduringtheFrenchRevolutionLaVendee，Brittany，andtheMidirevoltedspontaneouslyagainstParis。
2。HowtheresistanceofGovernmentsmayovercomeRevolution。
Inthegreaternumberoftherevolutionsenumeratedabove，wehaveseengovernmentsperishbytheirweakness。Assoonastheyweretouchedtheyfell。
TheRussianRevolutionprovedthatagovernmentwhichdefendsitselfenergeticallymayfinallytriumph。
Neverwasrevolutionmoremenacingtothegovernment。AfterthedisasterssufferedintheOrient，andtheseveritiesofatoooppressiveautocraticregime，allclassesofsociety，includingaportionofthearmyandthefleet，hadrevolted。Therailways，posts，andtelegraphserviceshadstruck，sothatcommunicationsbetweenthevariousportionsofthevastempirewereinterrupted。
Theruralclassitself，formingthemajorityofthenation，begantofeeltheinfluenceoftherevolutionarypropaganda。Thelotofthepeasantswaswretched。Theywereobliged，bythesystemofthemir，tocultivatesoilwhichtheycouldnotacquire。Thegovernmentresolvedimmediatelytoconciliatethislargeclassofpeasantsbyturningthemintoproprietors。Speciallawsforcedthelandlordstosellthepeasantsaportionoftheirlands，andbanksintendedtolendthebuyersthenecessarypurchase—moneywerecreated。Thesumslentweretoberepaidbysmallannuitiesdeductedfromtheproductofthesaleofthecrops。
Assuredoftheneutralityofthepeasants，thegovernmentcouldcontendwiththefanaticswhowereburningthetowns，throwingbombsamongthecrowds，andwagingamercilesswarfare。Allthosewhocouldbetakenwerekilled。Suchexterminationistheonlymethoddiscoveredsincethebeginningoftheworldbywhichasocietycanbeprotectedagainsttherebelswhowishtodestroyit。
Thevictoriousgovernmentunderstoodmoreoverthenecessityofsatisfyingthelegitimateclaimsoftheenlightenedportionofthenation。Itcreatedaparliamentinstructedtopreparelawsandcontrolexpenditure。
ThehistoryoftheRussianRevolutionshowsushowagovernment，allofwhosenaturalsupportshavecrumbledinsuccession，can，withwisdomandfirmness，triumphoverthemostformidableobstacles。Ithasbeenveryjustlysaidthatgovernmentsarenotoverthrown，butthattheycommitsuicide。
3。RevolutionseffectedbyGovernments。——Examples：
China，Turkey，&c。
Governmentsalmostinvariablyfightrevolutions；theyhardlyevercreatethem。Representingtheneedsofthemomentandgeneralopinion，theyfollowthereformerstimidly；theydonotprecedethem。Sometimes，however，certaingovernmentshaveattemptedthosesuddenreformswhichweknowasrevolutions。Thestabilityorinstabilityofthenationalminddecreesthesuccessorfailureofsuchattempts。
Theysucceedwhenthepeopleonwhomthegovernmentseekstoimposenewinstitutionsiscomposedofsemi—barbaroustribes，withoutfixedlaws，withoutsolidtraditions；thatistosay，withoutasettlednationalmind。SuchwastheconditionofRussiainthedaysofPetertheGreat。WeknowhowhesoughttoEuropeanisethesemi—Asiaticpopulationsbymeansofforce。
Japanisanotherexampleofarevolutioneffectedbyagovernment，butitwashermachinery，nothermindthatwasreformed。
Itneedsaverypowerfulautocrat，secondedbyamanofgenius，tosucceed，evenpartially，insuchatask。Moreoftenthannotthereformerfindsthatthewholepeoplerisesupagainsthim。
Then，tothecontraryofwhatbefallsinanordinaryrevolution，theautocratisrevolutionaryandthepeopleisconservative。
Butanattentivestudywillsoonshowyouthatthepeoplesarealwaysextremelyconservative。
Failureistherulewiththeseattempts。Whethereffectedbytheupperclassesorthelower，revolutionsdonotchangethesoulsofpeoplesthathavebeenalongtimeestablished。Theyonlychangethosethingsthatarewornbytimeandreadytofall。
Chinaisatthepresenttimemakingaveryinterestingbutimpossibleexperiment，inseeking，bymeansofthegovernment，suddenlytorenewtheinstitutionsofthecountry。TherevolutionwhichoverturnedthedynastyofherancientsovereignswastheindirectconsequenceofthediscontentprovokedbyreformswhichthegovernmenthadsoughttoimposewithaviewtoamelioratingtheconditionofChina。Thesuppressionofopiumandgaming，thereformofthearmy，andthecreationofschools，involvedanincreaseoftaxationwhich，aswellasthereformsthemselves，greatlyindisposedthegeneralopinion。
AfewculturedChineseeducatedintheschoolsofEuropeprofitedbythisdiscontenttoraisethepeopleandproclaimarepublic，aninstitutionofwhichtheChinesecouldhavehadnoconception。
Itsurelycannotlongsurvive，fortheimpulsewhichhasgivenbirthtoitisnotamovementofprogress，butofreaction。Thewordrepublic，totheChinamanintellectualisedbyhisEuropeaneducation，issimplysynonymouswiththerejectionoftheyokeoflaws，rules，andlong—establishedrestraints。Cuttingoffhispigtail，coveringhisheadwithacap，andcallinghimselfaRepublican，theyoungChinamanthinkstogivethereintoallhisinstincts。ThisismoreorlesstheideaofarepublicthatalargepartoftheFrenchpeopleentertainedatthetimeofthegreatRevolution。
Chinawillsoondiscoverthefatethatawaitsasocietydeprivedofthearmourslowlywroughtbythepast。Afterafewyearsofbloodyanarchyitwillbenecessarytoestablishapowerwhosetyrannywillinevitablybefarsevererthanthatwhichwasoverthrown。Sciencehasnotyetdiscoveredthemagicringcapableofsavingasocietywithoutdiscipline。Thereisnoneedtoimposedisciplinewhenithasbecomehereditary，butwhentheprimitiveinstinctshavebeenallowedtodestroythebarrierspainfullyerectedbyslowancestrallabours，theycannotbereconstitutedsavebyanenergetictyranny。
AsaproofoftheseassertionswemayinstanceanexperimentanalogoustothatundertakenbyChina；thatrecentlyattemptedbyTurkey。AfewyearsagoyoungmeninstructedinEuropeanschoolsandfullofgoodintentionssucceeded，withtheaidofanumberofofficers，inoverthrowingaSultanwhosetyrannyseemedinsupportable。HavingacquiredourrobustLatinfaithinthemagicpowerofformulae，theythoughttheycouldestablishtherepresentativesysteminacountryhalf—civilised，profoundlydividedbyreligioushatred，andpeopledbydiversraces。
Theattempthasnotprosperedhitherto。Theauthorsofthereformationhadtolearnthatdespitetheirliberalismtheywereforcedtogovernbymethodsverylikethoseemployedbythegovernmentoverthrown。TheycouldneitherpreventsummaryexecutionsnorwholesalemassacresofChristians，norcouldtheyremedyasingleabuse。
Itwouldbeunjusttoreproachthem。Whatintruthcouldtheyhavedonetochangeapeoplewhosetraditionshavebeenfixedsolong，whosereligiouspassionsaresointense，andwhoseMohammedans，althoughintheminority，legitimatelyclaimtogovernthesacredcityoftheirfaithaccordingtotheircode？