Thesuddenpoliticalrevolutionswhichstrikethehistorianmostforciblyareoftentheleastimportant。Thegreatrevolutionsarethoseofmannersandthought。Changingthenameofagovernmentdoesnottransformthementalityofapeople。Tooverthrowtheinstitutionsofapeopleisnottore—shapeitssoul。
Thetruerevolutions，thosewhichtransformthedestiniesofthepeoples，aremostfrequentlyaccomplishedsoslowlythatthehistorianscanhardlypointtotheirbeginnings。Thetermevolutionis，therefore，farmoreappropriatethanrevolution。
Thevariouselementswehaveenumeratedasenteringintothegenesisofthemajorityofrevolutionswillnotsufficetoclassifythem。Consideringonlythedesignedobject，wewilldividethemintoscientificrevolutions，politicalrevolutions，andreligiousrevolutions。
2。ScientificRevolutions。
Scientificrevolutionsarebyfarthemostimportant。Althoughtheyattractbutlittleattention，theyareoftenfraughtwithremoteconsequences，suchasarenotengenderedbypoliticalrevolutions。Wewillthereforeputthemfirst，althoughwecannotstudythemhere。
Forinstance，ifourconceptionsoftheuniversehaveprofoundlychangedsincethetimeoftheRevolution，itisbecauseastronomicaldiscoveriesandtheapplicationofexperimentalmethodshaverevolutionisedthem，bydemonstratingthatphenomena，insteadofbeingconditionedbythecapricesofthegods，areruledbyinvariablelaws。
Suchrevolutionsarefittinglyspokenofasevolution，onaccountoftheirslowness。Butthereareotherswhich，althoughofthesameorder，deservethenameofrevolutionbyreasonoftheirrapidity：wemayinstancethetheoriesofDarwin，overthrowingthewholescienceofbiologyinafewyears；thediscoveriesofPasteur，whichrevolutionisedmedicineduringthelifetimeoftheirauthor；andthetheoryofthedissociationofmatter，provingthattheatom，formerlysupposedtobeeternal，isnotimmunefromthelawswhichcondemnalltheelementsoftheuniversetodeclineandperish。
Thesescientificrevolutionsinthedomainofideasarepurelyintellectual。Oursentimentsandbeliefsdonotaffectthem。
Mensubmittothemwithoutdiscussingthem。Theirresultsbeingcontrollablebyexperience，theyescapeallcriticism。
3。PoliticalRevolutions。
Beneathandveryremotefromthesescientificrevolutions，whichgeneratetheprogressofcivilisations，arethereligiousandpoliticalrevolutions，whichhavenokinshipwiththem。Whilescientificrevolutionsderivesolelyfromrationalelements，politicalandreligiousbeliefsaresustainedalmostexclusivelybyaffectiveandmysticfactors。Reasonplaysonlyafeeblepartintheirgenesis。
IinsistedatsomelengthinmybookOpinionsandBeliefsontheaffectiveandmysticoriginofbeliefs，showingthatapoliticalorreligiousbeliefconstitutesanactoffaithelaboratedinunconsciousness，overwhich，inspiteofallappearances，reasonhasnohold。Ialsoshowedthatbeliefoftenreachessuchadegreeofintensitythatnothingcanbeopposedtoit。ThemanhypnotisedbyhisfaithbecomesanApostle，readytosacrificehisinterests，hishappiness，andevenhislifeforthetriumphofhisfaith。Theabsurdityofhisbeliefmatterslittle；forhimitisaburningreality。Certitudesofmysticoriginpossessthemarvellouspowerofentiredominationoverthought，andcanonlybeaffectedbytime。
Bytheveryfactthatitisregardedasanabsolutetruthabeliefnecessarilybecomesintolerant。Thisexplainstheviolence，hatred，andpersecutionwhichwerethehabitualaccompanimentsofthegreatpoliticalandreligiousrevolutions，notablyoftheReformationandtheFrenchRevolution。
CertainperiodsofFrenchhistoryremainincomprehensibleifweforgettheaffectiveandmysticoriginofbeliefs，theirnecessaryintolerance，theimpossibilityofreconcilingthemwhentheycomeintomutualcontact，and，finally，thepowerconferredbymysticbeliefsuponthesentimentswhichplacethemselvesattheirservice。
Theforegoingconceptionsaretoonovelasyettohavemodifiedthementalityofthehistorians。Theywillcontinuetoattempttoexplain，bymeansofrationallogic，ahostofphenomenawhichareforeigntoit。
EventssuchastheReformation，whichoverwhelmedFranceforaperiodoffiftyyears，wereinnowisedeterminedbyrationalinfluences。Yetrationalinfluencesarealwaysinvokedinexplanation，eveninthemostrecentworks。Thus，intheGeneralHistoryofMessrs。LavisseandRambaud，wereadthefollowingexplanationoftheReformation：——
``Itwasaspontaneousmovement，bornhereandthereamidstthepeople，fromthereadingoftheGospelsandthefreeindividualreflectionswhichweresuggestedtosimplepersonsbyanextremelypiousconscienceandaveryboldreasoningpower。’’
Contrarytotheassertionofthesehistorians，wemaysaywithcertainty，inthefirstplace，thatsuchmovementsareneverspontaneous，andsecondly，thatreasontakesnopartintheirelaboration。
Theforceofthepoliticalandreligiousbeliefswhichhavemovedtheworldresidespreciselyinthefactthat，beingbornofaffectiveandmysticelements，theyareneithercreatednordirectedbyreason。
Politicalorreligiousbeliefshaveacommonoriginandobeythesamelaws。Theyareformednotwiththeaidofreason，butmoreoftencontrarytoallreason。Buddhism，Islamism，theReformation，Jacobinism，Socialism，&c。，seemverydifferentformsofthought。Yettheyhaveidenticalaffectiveandmysticbases，andobeyalogicthathasnoaffinitywithrationallogic。
Politicalrevolutionsmayresultfrombeliefsestablishedinthemindsofmen，butmanyothercausesproducethem。Theworddiscontentsumsthemup。AssoonasdiscontentisgeneralisedapartyisformedwhichoftenbecomesstrongenoughtostruggleagainsttheGovernment。
Discontentmustgenerallyhavebeenaccumulatingforalongtimeinordertoproduceitseffects。Forthisreasonarevolutiondoesnotalwaysrepresentaphenomenoninprocessofterminationfollowedbyanotherwhichiscommencingbutratheracontinuousphenomenon，havingsomewhataccelerateditsevolution。Allthemodernrevolutions，however，havebeenabruptmovements，entailingtheinstantaneousoverthrowofgovernments。Such，forexample，weretheBrazilian，Portuguese，Turkish，andChineserevolutions。
Tothecontraryofwhatmightbesupposed，theveryconservativepeoplesareaddictedtothemostviolentrevolutions。Beingconservative，theyarenotabletoevolveslowly，ortoadaptthemselvestovariationsofenvironment，sothatwhenthediscrepancybecomestooextremetheyareboundtoadaptthemselvessuddenly。Thissuddenevolutionconstitutesarevolution。
Peoplesabletoadaptthemselvesprogressivelydonotalwaysescaperevolution。ItwasonlybymeansofarevolutionthattheEnglish，in1688，wereabletoterminatethestrugglewhichhaddraggedonforacenturybetweenthemonarchy，whichsoughttomakeitselfabsolute，andthenation，whichclaimedtherighttogovernitselfthroughthemediumofitsrepresentatives。
Thegreatrevolutionshaveusuallycommencedfromthetop，notfromthebottom；butoncethepeopleisunchaineditistothepeoplethatrevolutionowesitsmight。
Itisobviousthatrevolutionshavenevertakenplace，andwillnevertakeplace，savewiththeaidofanimportantfractionofthearmy。RoyaltydidnotdisappearinFranceonthedaywhenLouisXVI。wasguillotined，butattheprecisemomentwhenhismutinoustroopsrefusedtodefendhim。
Itismoreparticularlybymentalcontagionthatarmiesbecomedisaffected，beingindifferentenoughathearttotheestablishedorderofthings。AssoonasthecoalitionofafewofficershadsucceededinoverthrowingtheTurkishGovernmenttheGreekofficersthoughttoimitatethemandtochangetheirgovernment，althoughtherewasnoanalogybetweenthetworegimes。
Amilitarymovementmayoverthrowagovernment——andintheSpanishrepublicstheGovernmentishardlyeverdestroyedbyanyothermeans——butiftherevolutionistobeproductiveofgreatresultsitmustalwaysbebasedupongeneraldiscontentandgeneralhopes。
Unlessitisuniversalandexcessive，discontentaloneisnotsufficienttobringaboutarevolution。Itiseasytoleadahandfulofmentopillage，destroy，andmassacre，buttoraiseawholepeople，oranygreatportionofthatpeople，callsforthecontinuousorrepeatedactionofleaders。Theseexaggeratethediscontent；theypersuadethediscontentedthatthegovernmentisthesolecauseofallthetrouble，especiallyoftheprevailingdearth，andassurementhatthenewsystemproposedbythemwillengenderanageoffelicity。Theseideasgerminate，propagatingthemselvesbysuggestionandcontagion，andthemomentarriveswhentherevolutionisripe。
InthisfashiontheChristianRevolutionandtheFrenchRevolutionwereprepared。Thatthelatterwaseffectedinafewyears，whilethefirstrequiredmany，wasduetothefactthattheFrenchRevolutionpromptlyhadanarmedforceatitsdisposal，whileChristianitywaslonginwinningmaterialpower。
Inthebeginningitsonlyadeptswerethelowly，thepoor，andtheslaves，filledwithenthusiasmbytheprospectofseeingtheirmiserablelifetransformedintoaneternityofdelight。Byaphenomenonofcontagionfrombelow，ofwhichhistoryaffordsusmorethanoneexample，thedoctrinefinallyinvadedtheupperstrataofthenation，butitwasalongtimebeforeanemperorconsideredthenewfaithsufficientlywidespreadtobeadoptedastheofficialreligion。
4。TheResultsofPoliticalRevolutions。
Whenapoliticalpartyistriumphantitnaturallyseekstoorganisesocietyinaccordancewithitsinterests。Theorganisationwilldifferaccordinglyastherevolutionhasbeeneffectedbythesoldiers，theRadicals，ortheConservatives，&c。
Thenewlawsandinstitutionswilldependontheinterestsofthetriumphantpartyandoftheclasseswhichhaveassistedit——theclergyforinstance。
Iftherevolutionhastriumphedonlyafteraviolentstruggle，aswasthecasewiththeFrenchRevolution，thevictorswillrejectatonesweepthewholearsenaloftheoldlaw。Thesupportersofthefallenregimewillbepersecuted，exiled，orexterminated。
Themaximumofviolenceinthesepersecutionsisattainedwhenthetriumphantpartyisdefendingabeliefinadditiontoitsmaterialinterests。Thentheconqueredneedhopefornopity。
ThusmaybeexplainedtheexpulsionoftheMoorsfromSpain，theautodafesoftheInquisition，theexecutionsoftheConvention，andtherecentlawsagainstthereligiouscongregationsinFrance。
Theabsolutepowerwhichisassumedbythevictorsleadsthemsometimestoextrememeasures，suchastheConvention’sdecreethatgoldwastobereplacedbypaper，thatgoodsweretobesoldatdeterminedprices，&c。Verysoonitrunsupagainstawallofunavoidablenecessities，whichturnopinionagainstitstyranny，andfinallyleaveitdefencelessbeforeattack，asbefellattheendoftheFrenchRevolution。ThesamethinghappenedrecentlytoaSocialistAustralianministrycomposedalmostexclusivelyofworking—men。Itenactedlawssoabsurd，andaccordedsuchprivilegestothetradeunions，thatpublicopinionrebelledagainstitsounanimouslythatinthreemonthsitwasoverthrown。
Butthecaseswehaveconsideredareexceptional。Themajorityofrevolutionshavebeenaccomplishedinordertoplaceanewsovereigninpower。Nowthissovereignknowsverywellthatthefirstconditionofmaintaininghispowerconsistsinnottooexclusivelyfavouringasingleclass，butinseekingtoconciliateall。Todothishewillestablishasortofequilibriumbetweenthem，soasnottobedominatedbyanyoneoftheseclasses。Toallowoneclasstobecomepredominantistocondemnhimselfpresentlytoacceptthatclassashismaster。
Thislawisoneofthemostcertainofpoliticalpsychology。ThekingsofFranceunderstooditverywellwhentheystruggledsoenergeticallyagainsttheencroachmentsfirstofthenobilityandthenoftheclergy。IftheyhadnotdonesotheirfatewouldhavebeenthatoftheGermanEmperorsoftheMiddleAges，who，excommunicatedbythePope，werereduced，likeHenryIV。atCanossa，tomakeapilgrimageandhumblytosueforthePope’sforgiveness。
Thissamelawhascontinuallybeenverifiedduringthecourseofhistory。WhenattheendoftheRomanEmpirethemilitarycastebecamepreponderant，theemperorsdependedentirelyupontheirsoldiers，whoappointedanddeposedthematwill。
ItwasthereforeagreatadvantageforFrancethatshewassolonggovernedbyamonarchalmostabsolute，supposedtoholdhispowerbydivineright，andsurroundedthereforebyaconsiderableprestige。Withoutsuchanauthorityhecouldhavecontrolledneitherthefeudalnobility，northeclergy，northeparliaments。IfPoland，towardstheendofthesixteenthcentury，hadalsopossessedanabsoluteandrespectedmonarchy，shewouldnothavedescendedthepathofdecadencewhichledtoherdisappearancefromthemapofEurope。
Wehaveshewninthischapterthatpoliticalrevolutionsmaybeaccompaniedbyimportantsocialtransformations。Weshallsoonseehowslightarethesetransformationscomparedtothoseproducedbyreligiousrevolutions。
CHAPTERII
RELIGIOUSREVOLUTIONS
1。TheimportanceofthestudyofReligiousRevolutionsinrespectofthecomprehensionofthegreatPoliticalRevolutions。
AportionofthisworkwillbedevotedtotheFrenchRevolution。
Itwasfullofactsofviolencewhichnaturallyhadtheirpsychologicalcauses。
Theseexceptionaleventswillalwaysfilluswithastonishment，andweevenfeelthemtobeinexplicable。Theybecomecomprehensible，however，ifweconsiderthattheFrenchRevolution，constitutinganewreligion，wasboundtoobeythelawswhichconditionthepropagationofallbeliefs。Itsfuryanditshecatombswillthenbecomeintelligible。
Instudyingthehistoryofagreatreligiousrevolution，thatoftheReformation，weshallseethatanumberofpsychologicalelementswhichfiguredthereinwereequallyactiveduringtheFrenchRevolution。Inbothweobservetheinsignificantbearingoftherationalvalueofabeliefuponitspropagation，theinefficacyofpersecution，theimpossibilityoftolerancebetweencontrarybeliefs，andtheviolenceandthedesperatestrugglesresultingfromtheconflictofdifferentfaiths。Wealsoobservetheexploitationofabeliefbyinterestsquiteindependentofthatbelief。Finallyweseethatitisimpossibletomodifytheconvictionsofmenwithoutalsomodifyingtheirexistence。
Thesephenomenaverified，weshallseeplainlywhythegospeloftheRevolutionwaspropagatedbythesamemethodsasallthereligiousgospels，notablythatofCalvin。Itcouldnothavebeenpropagatedotherwise。
Butalthoughtherearecloseanalogiesbetweenthegenesisofareligiousrevolution，suchastheReformation，andthatofagreatpoliticalrevolutionlikeourown，theirremoteconsequencesareverydifferent，whichexplainsthedifferenceofdurationwhichtheydisplay。Inreligiousrevolutionsnoexperiencecanrevealtothefaithfulthattheyaredeceived，sincetheywouldhavetogotoheaventomakethediscovery。Inpoliticalrevolutionsexperiencequicklydemonstratestheerrorofafalsedoctrineandforcesmentoabandonit。
ThusattheendoftheDirectorytheapplicationofJacobinbeliefshadledFrancetosuchadegreeofruin，poverty，anddespairthatthewildestJacobinsthemselveshadtorenouncetheirsystem。Nothingsurvivedoftheirtheoriesexceptafewprincipleswhichcannotbeverifiedbyexperience，suchastheuniversalhappinesswhichequalityshouldbestowuponhumanity。
2。ThebeginningsoftheReformationanditsfirstdisciples。
TheReformationwasfinallytoexerciseaprofoundinfluenceuponthesentimentsandmoralideasofagreatproportionofmankind。
Modestinitsbeginnings，itwasatfirstasimplestruggleagainsttheabusesoftheclergy，and，fromapracticalpointofview，areturntotheprescriptionsoftheGospel。Itneverconstituted，ashasbeenclaimed，anaspirationtowardsfreedomofthought。CalvinwasasintolerantasRobespierre，andallthetheoristsoftheageconsideredthatthereligionofsubjectsmustbethatoftheprincewhogovernedthem。IndeedineverycountrywheretheReformationwasestablishedthesovereignreplacedthePopeofRome，withthesamerightsandthesamepowers。
InFrance，indefaultofpublicityandmeansofcommunication，thenewfaithspreadslowlyenoughatfirst。Itwasabout1520
thatLutherrecruitedafewadepts，andonlytowards1535wasthenewbeliefsufficientlywidespreadformentoconsideritnecessarytoburnitsdisciples。
Inconformitywithawell—knownpsychologicallaw，theseexecutionsmerelyfavouredthepropagationoftheReformation。
Itsfirstfollowersincludedpriestsandmagistrates，butwereprincipallyobscureartisans。Theirconversionwaseffectedalmostexclusivelybymentalcontagionandsuggestion。
Assoonasanewbeliefextendsitself，weseegroupedrounditmanypersonswhoareindifferenttothebelief，butwhofindinitapretextoropportunityforgratifyingtheirpassionsortheirgreed。ThisphenomenonwasobservedatthetimeoftheReformationinmanycountries，notablyinGermanyandinEngland。
Lutherhavingtaughtthattheclergyhadnoneedofwealth，theGermanlordsfoundmanymeritsinafaithwhichenabledthemtoseizeuponthegoodsoftheChurch。HenryVIII。enrichedhimselfbyasimilaroperation。SovereignswhowereoftenmolestedbythePopecouldasaruleonlylookfavourablyuponadoctrinewhichaddedreligiouspowerstotheirpoliticalpowersandmadeeachofthemaPope。Farfromdiminishingtheabsolutismofrulers，theReformationonlyexaggeratedit。
3。RationalvalueofthedoctrinesoftheReformation。
TheReformationoverturnedallEurope，andcameneartoruiningFrance，ofwhichitmadeabattle—fieldforaperiodoffiftyyears。Neverdidacausesoinsignificantfromtherationalpointofviewproducesuchgreatresults。
Hereisoneoftheinnumerableproofsofthefactthatbeliefsarepropagatedindependentlyofallreason。Thetheologicaldoctrineswhicharousedmen’spassionssoviolently，andnotablythoseofCalvin，arenotevenworthyofexaminationinthelightofrationallogic。
Greatlyconcernedabouthissalvation，havinganexcessivefearofthedevil，whichhisconfessorwasunabletoallay，LuthersoughtthesurestmeansofpleasingGodthathemightavoidHell。
HavingcommencedbydenyingthePopetherighttosellindulgences，hepresentlyentirelydeniedhisauthority，andthatoftheChurch，condemnedreligiousceremonies，confession，andtheworshipofthesaints，anddeclaredthatChristiansshouldhavenorulesofconductotherthantheBible。HealsoconsideredthatnoonecouldbesavedwithoutthegraceofGod。
Thislasttheory，knownasthatofpredestination，wasinLutherratheruncertain，butwasstatedpreciselybyCalvin，whomadeittheveryfoundationofadoctrinetowhichthemajorityofProtestantsarestillsubservient。Accordingtohim：``FromalleternityGodhaspredestinedcertainmentobeburnedandotherstobesaved。’’Whythismonstrousiniquity？Simplybecause``itisthewillofGod。’’
ThusaccordingtoCalvin，whoforthatmattermerelydevelopedcertainassertionsofSt。Augustine，anall—powerfulGodwouldamuseHimselfbycreatinglivingbeingssimplyinordertoburnthemduringalleternity，withoutpayinganyheedtotheiractsormerits。Itismarvellousthatsuchrevoltinginsanitycouldforsuchalengthoftimesubjugatesomanyminds——marvellousthatitdoessostill。[1]
[1]ThedoctrineofpredestinationisstilltaughtinProtestantcatechisms，asisprovedbythefollowingpassageextractedfromthelasteditionofanofficialcatechismforwhichIsenttoEdinburgh：
``BythedecreeofGod，forthemanifestationofHisglory，somemenandangelsarepredestinateduntoeverlastinglife，andothersforeordainedtoeverlastingdeath。
``Theseangelsandmen，thuspredestinatedandforeordained，areparticularlyandunchangeablydesigned；andtheirnumberissocertainanddefinitethatitcannotbeeitherincreasedordiminished。
``Thoseofmankindthatarepredestinateduntolife，God，beforethefoundationoftheworldwaslaid，accordingtoHiseternalandimmutablepurpose，andthesecretcounselandgoodpleasureofHiswill，hathchoseninChristuntoeverlastingglory，outofHismerefreegraceandlove，withoutanyforesightoffaithorgoodworks，orperseveranceineitherofthem，oranyotherthinginthecreature，asconditions，orcausesmovinghimthereunto；
andalltothepraiseofhisgloriousgrace。
``AsGodhathappointedtheelectuntoglory，sohathHe，bytheeternalandmostfreepurposeofHiswill，foreordainedallthemeansthereunto。WhereforetheywhoareelectedbeingfalleninAdam，areredeemedbyChrist；areeffectuallycalleduntofaithinChristbyHisspiritworkingindueseason；arejustified，adopted，sanctified，andkeptbyHispowerthroughfaithuntosalvation。NeitherareanyotherredeemedbyChrist，effectuallycalled，justified，adopted，sanctified，andsaved，buttheelectonly。’’
ThepsychologyofCalvinisnotwithoutaffinitywiththatofRobespierre。Likethelatter，themasterofthepuretruth，hesenttodeaththosewhowouldnotaccepthisdoctrines。God，hestated，wishes``thatoneshouldputasideallhumanitywhenitisaquestionofstrivingforhisglory。’’
ThecaseofCalvinandhisdisciplesshowsthatmatterswhichrationallyarethemostcontradictorybecomeperfectlyreconciledinmindswhicharehypnotisedbyabelief。Intheeyesofrationallogic，itseemsimpossibletobaseamoralityuponthetheoryofpredestination，sincewhatevertheydomenaresureofbeingeithersavedordamned。However，Calvinhadnodifficultyinerectingamostseveremoralityuponthistotallyillogicalbasis。ConsideringthemselvestheelectofGod，hisdisciplesweresoswollenbyprideandthesenseoftheirowndignitythattheyfeltobligedtoserveasmodelsintheirconduct。
4。PropagationoftheReformation。
Thenewfaithwaspropagatednotbyspeech，stilllessbyprocessofreasoning，butbythemechanismdescribedinourprecedingwork：thatis，bytheinfluenceofaffirmation，repetition，mentalcontagion，andprestige。AtamuchlaterdaterevolutionaryideaswerespreadoverFranceinthesamefashion。
Persecution，aswehavealreadyremarked，onlyfavouredthispropagation。Eachexecutionledtofreshconversions，aswasseenintheearlyyearsoftheChristianChurch。AnneDubourg，Parliamentarycouncillor，condemnedtobeburnedalive，marchedtothestakeexhortingthecrowdtobeconverted。``Hisconstancy，’’saysawitness，``mademoreProtestantsamongtheyoungmenofthecollegesthanthebooksofCalvin。’’
Topreventthecondemnedfromspeakingtothepeopletheirtongueswerecutoutbeforetheywereburned。Thehorroroftheirsufferingswasincreasedbyattachingthevictimstoanironchain，whichenabledtheexecutionerstoplungethemintothefireandwithdrawthemseveraltimesinsuccession。
ButnothinginducedtheProtestantstoretract，eventheofferofanamnestyaftertheyhadfeltthefire。
In1535FrancisI。，forsakinghisprevioustolerance，orderedsixfirestobelightedsimultaneouslyinParis。TheConvention，asweknow，limiteditselftoasingleguillotineinthesamecity。
Itisprobablethatthesufferingsofthevictimswerenotveryexcruciating；theinsensibilityoftheChristianmartyrshadalreadybeenremarked。Believersarehypnotisedbytheirfaith，andweknowto—daythatcertainformsofhypnotismengendercompleteinsensibility。
Thenewfaithprogressedrapidly。In1560thereweretwothousandreformedchurchesinFrance，andmanygreatlords，atfirstindifferentenough，adheredtothenewdoctrine。
5。Conflictbetweendifferentreligiousbeliefs——ImpossibilityofTolerance。
Ihavealreadystatedthatintoleranceisalwaysanaccompanimentofpowerfulreligiousbeliefs。Politicalandreligiousrevolutionsfurnishuswithnumerousproofsofthisfact，andshowusalsothatthemutualintoleranceofsectariesofthesamereligionisalwaysmuchgreaterthanthatofthedefendersofremoteandalienfaiths，suchasIslamismandChristianity。
Infact，ifweconsiderthefaithsforwhosesakeFrancewassolongrentasunder，weshallfindthattheydidnotdifferonanybutaccessorypoints。CatholicsandProtestantsadoredexactlythesameGod，andonlydifferedintheirmannerofadoringHim。
Ifreasonhadplayedthesmallestpartintheelaborationoftheirbelief，itcouldeasilyhaveprovedtothemthatitmustbequiteindifferenttoGodwhetherHeseesmenadoreHiminthisfashionorinthat。
Reasonbeingpowerlesstoaffectthebrainoftheconvinced，ProtestantsandCatholicscontinuedtheirferociousconflicts。
Alltheeffortsoftheirsovereignstoreconcilethemwereinvain。CatherinedeMedicis，seeingthepartyoftheReformedChurchincreasingdaybydayinspiteofpersecution，andattractingaconsiderablenumberofnoblesandmagistrates，thoughttodisarmthembyconvokingatPoissy，in1561，anassemblyofbishopsandpastorswiththeobjectoffusingthetwodoctrines。Suchanenterpriseindicatedthatthequeen，despitehersubtlety，knewnothingofthelawsofmysticlogic。Notinallhistorycanoneciteanexampleofabeliefdestroyedorreducedbymeansofrefutation。Catherinedidnotevenknowthatalthoughtolerationiswithdifficultypossiblebetweenindividuals，itisimpossiblebetweencollectivities。Herattemptfailedcompletely。Theassembledtheologianshurledtextsandinsultsatoneanother’sheads，butnoonewasmoved。