andmakeitaruletoearnestlyandpatientlyandcarefullyswallowafewofthesmallestgnatsIcanfindseveraltimesaday,asthebestastringentforthethroatIknowof。
ThethirteenthchapelistheMarriageFeastatCanaofGalilee。
Thisisthebestchapelasaworkofart;indeed,itistheonlyonewhichcanclaimtobetakenquiteseriously。Notthatallthefiguresareverygood;thosetotheleftofthecompositionarecommonplaceenough;noraretheChristandthegiverofthefeastatallremarkable;butthetenordozenfiguresofguestsandattendantsattheright-handendoftheworkareasgoodasanythingoftheirkindcanbe,andremindmesostronglyofTabachettithatI
cannotdoubttheyweredonebysomeonewhowasindirectlyinfluencedbythatgreatsculptor’swork。ItisnotlikelythatTabachettiwasalivelongafter1640,bywhichtimehewouldhavebeenabouteightyyearsold;andthefoundationsofthischapelwerenotlaidtillabout1690;thestatuesareprobablyafewyearslater;theycanhardly,therefore,bebyonewhohadevenstudiedunderTabachetti;butuntilIfoundoutthedates,andwentinsidethechapeltoseethewayinwhichthefigureshadbeenconstructed,IwasinclinedtothinktheymightbebyTabachettihimself,ofwhom,indeed,theyarenotunworthy。OnexaminingthefiguresI
foundthemmoreheavilyconstructedthanTabachetti’sare,withsmallerholesfortakingoutsuperfluousclay,andmorefinishedontheoff-sides。Maroccosaysthesculptorisnotknown。Ilookedinvainforanydateorsignature。Possiblytheright-handfigures(fortheleft-handonescanhardlybebythesamehand)maybebysomesculptorfromCrea,whichisatnoverygreatdistancefromOropa,whowaspenetratedbyTabachetti’sinfluence;butwhetherasregardsactionandconcertwithoneanother,orasregardsexcellenceindetail,Idonotseehowanythingcanbemorerealistic,andyetmoreharmoniouslycomposed。Theplacingofthemusiciansinaminstrels’galleryhelpstheeffect;thesemusiciansaresixinnumber,andtheotherfiguresaretwenty-three。Underthetable,betweenChristandthegiverofthefeast,thereisacat。
Thefourteenthchapel,theAssumptionoftheVirginMary,iswithoutinterest。
Thefifteenth,theCoronationoftheVirgin,containsforty-sixangels,twenty-sixcherubs,fifty-sixsaints,theHolyTrinity,theMadonnaherself,andtwenty-fourinnocents,making156statuesinall。OftheseIamafraidthereisnotoneofmorethanordinarymerit;themostinterestingisahalf-lengthnudelife-studyofDisma——thegoodthief。Afterwhathadbeenpromisedhimitwasimpossibletoexcludehim,butitwasfeltthatahalf-lengthnudefigurewouldbeasmuchashecouldreasonablyexpect。
Behindthesanctuarythereisasemi-ruinousandwhollyvaluelesswork,whichshowsthefindingoftheblackimage,whichisnowinthechurch,butisonlyshownongreatfestivals。
ThisleadsustoaconsiderationthatIhavedelayedtillnow。TheblackimageisthecentralfeatureofOropa;itistheraisond’etreofthewholeplace,andallelseisamereincrustation,sotospeak,aroundit。Accordingtothisimage,then,whichwascarvedbySt。Lukehimself,andthanwhichnothingcanbebetterauthenticated,boththeMadonnaandtheinfantChristwereasblackasanythingcanbeconceived。Itisnotlikelythattheywereasblackastheyhavebeenpainted;nooneyeteverwassoblackasthat;yet,evenallowingforsomeexaggerationonSt。Luke’spart,theymusthavebeenexceedinglyblackiftheportraitistobeaccepted;anduncompromisinglyblacktheyaccordinglyareonmostofthewaysidechapelsformanyamilearoundOropa。Yetinthechapelswehavebeenhithertoconsidering——worksinwhich,asweknow,themostpunctiliousregardhasbeenshowntoaccuracy——boththeVirginandChristareuncompromisinglywhite。AsintheshopsundertheColonnadewheredevotionalknick-knacksaresold,youcanbuyablackchinaimageorawhiteone,whicheveryoulike;sowiththepictures——theblackandwhiteareplacedsidebyside——pagandoildanarosipuoscegliere。ItrestsnotwithhistoryorwiththeChurchtosaywhethertheMadonnaandChildwereblackorwhite,butyoumaysettleitforyourself,whicheverwayyouplease,orratheryouarerequired,withtheacquiescenceoftheChurch,toholdthattheywerebothblackandwhiteatoneandthesametime。
ItcannotbemaintainedthattheChurchleavesthematterundecided,andbytoleratingbothtypesproclaimsthequestionanopenone,forsheacquiescesintheportraitbySt。Lukeasgenuine。How,then,justifythewhitenessoftheHolyFamilyinthechapels?Iftheportraitisnotknownasgenuine,whysetsuchastumbling-blockinourpathsastoshowusablackMadonnaandawhiteone,bothashistoricallyaccurate,withinafewyardsofoneanother?
Iaskthisnotinmockery,butasknowingthattheChurchmusthaveanexplanationtogive,ifshewouldonlygiveit,andasmyselfunabletofindany,eventhemostfarfetched,thatcanbringwhatweseeatOropa,Loretoandelsewhereintoharmonywithmodernconscience,eitherintellectualorethical。
Isee,indeed,fromaninterestingarticleintheAtlanticMonthlyforSeptember1889,entitled\"TheBlackMadonnaofLoreto,\"thatblackMadonnasweresofrequentinancientChristianartthat\"someoftheearlywritersoftheChurchfeltobligedtoaccountforitbyexplainingthattheVirginwasofaverydarkcomplexion,asmightbeprovedbytheverseofCanticleswhichsays,’Iamblack,butcomely,OyedaughtersofJerusalem。’OthersmaintainedthatshebecameblackduringhersojourninEgypt……Priests,ofto-day,saythatextremeageandexposuretothesmokeofcountlessaltar-
candleshavecausedthatchangeincomplexionwhichthemorenaivefathersoftheChurchattributedtothepowerofanEgyptiansun\";
butthewriterruthlesslydisposesofthissuppositionbypointingoutthatinnearlyalltheinstancesofblackMadonnasitisthefleshalonethatisentirelyblack,thecrimsonofthelips,thewhiteoftheeyes,andthedraperieshavingpreservedtheiroriginalcolour。Theauthoressofthearticle(Mrs。Hilliard)goesontotellusthatPausaniasmentionstwostatuesoftheblackVenus,andsaysthattheoldeststatueofCeresamongthePhigalenseswasblack。SheaddsthatMinervaAglaurus,thedaughterofCecrops,atAthens,wasblack;thatCorinthhadablackVenus,asalsotheThespians;thattheoraclesofDodonaandDelphiwerefoundedbyblackdoves,theemissariesofVenus,andthattheIsisMultimammiaintheCapitolatRomeisblack。
SometimesIhaveaskedmyselfwhethertheChurchdoesnotintendtosuggestthatthewholestoryfallsoutsidethedomainofhistory,andistobeheldastheonegreatepos,ormyth,commontoallmankind;adaptablebyeachnationaccordingtoitsownseveralneeds;translatable,sotospeak,intothefactsofeachindividualnation,asthewrittenwordistranslatableintoitslanguage,butappertainingtotherealmoftheimaginationratherthantothatoftheunderstanding,andpreciousforspiritualratherthanliteraltruths。Morebriefly,IhavewonderedwhethershemaynotintendthatsuchdetailsaswhethertheVirginwaswhiteorblackareofverylittleimportanceincomparisonwiththebasingofethicsonastorythatshallappealtoblackracesaswellastowhiteones。
Ifso,itistimeweweremadetounderstandthismoreclearly。IftheChurch,whetherofRomeorEngland,wouldleantosomesuchviewasthis——taintedthoughitbewithmysticism——ifwecouldseeeithergreatbranchoftheChurchmakeafrank,authoritativeattempttobringitsteachingintogreaterharmonywiththeeducatedunderstandingandconscienceofthetime,insteadoftryingtofetterthatunderstandingwithbondsthatgallitdailymoreandmoreprofoundly;thenI,forone,inviewofthedifficultyandgraciousnessofthetask,andinviewofthegreatimportanceofhistoricalcontinuity,wouldgladlysinkmuchofmyownprivateopinionastothevalueoftheChristianideal,andwouldgratefullyhelpeitherChurchorboth,accordingtothebestofmyveryfeebleability。Ontheseterms,indeed,Icouldswallownotafewcamelsmyselfcheerfullyenough。
Canwe,however,seeanysignsasthougheitherRomeorEnglandwillstirhandorfoottomeetus?CananystepbepointedtoasthougheitherChurchwishedtomakethingseasierformenholdingtheopinionsheldbythelateMr。Darwin,orbyMr。HerbertSpencerandProfessorHuxley?HowcanthosewhoacceptevolutionwithanythoroughnessacceptsuchdoctrinesastheIncarnationortheRedemptionwithanybutaquasi-allegoricalandpoeticalinterpretation?CanweconceivablyacceptthesedoctrinesintheliteralsenseinwhichtheChurchadvancesthem?AndcantheleadersoftheChurchbeblindtotheresistlessnessofthecurrentthathassetagainstthoseliteralinterpretationswhichsheseemstohugmoreandmorecloselythemorereligiouslifeisawakenedatall?Theclergymaniswantedassupplementingthedoctorandthelawyerinallcivilisedcommunities;thesethreekeepwatchononeanother,andpreventoneanotherfrombecomingtoopowerful。I,whodistrustthedoctrinaireinscienceevenmorethanthedoctrinaireinreligion,shouldviewwithdismaytheabolitionoftheChurchofEngland,asknowingthatablatantbastardsciencewouldinstantlystepintohershoes;butifsomesuchdeplorableconsummationistobeavoidedinEngland,itcanonlybethroughmoreevidentleaningonthepartofourclergytosuchaninterpretationoftheSacredHistoryasthepresenceofablackandwhiteMadonnaalmostsidebysideatOropaappearstosuggest。
IfearthatintheselastparagraphsImayhavetrenchedondangerousground,butitisnotpossibletogotosuchplacesasOropawithoutaskingoneselfwhattheymeanandinvolve。AsfortheaverageItalianpilgrims,theydonotappeartogivethemattersomuchasathought。TheyloveOropa,andflocktoitinthousandsduringthesummer;thePresidentoftheAdministrationassuredmethattheylodged,afterafashion,asmanyastenthousandpilgrimsonthe15thoflastAugust。Itisastonishinghowlivingthestatuesaretothesepeople,andhowthewickedareupbraidedandthegoodapplauded。AtVarallo,sinceItookthephotographsI
publishedinmybook\"ExVoto,\"anangrypilgrimhassmashedthenoseofthedwarfinTabachetti’sJourneytoCalvary,fornootherreasonthaninabilitytorestrainhisindignationagainstonewhowashelpingtoinflictpainonChrist。Itistherealhairandthepaintinguptonaturethatdoesthis。HereatOropaIfoundapaperontheflooroftheSposalizioChapel,whichranasfollows:-
\"BythegraceofGodandthewilloftheadministrativechapterofthissanctuary,therehavecomeheretowork————,mason————,carpenter,and————plumber,allofChiavazza,onthetwenty-firstdayofJanuary1886,fullofcold(pienidifreddo)。
\"Theywritethesetwolinestorecordtheirvisit。TheypraytheBlessedVirginthatshewillmaintainthemsafeandsoundfromeverythingequivocalthatmaybefallthem(sempresaniesalvidaogniequivocolipossaaccadere)。Oh,farewell!Wereverentlysaluteallthepresentstatues,andespeciallytheBlessedVirgin,andthereader。\"
ThroughtheUniversalReview,Isuppose,allitsreadersaretoconsiderthemselvessaluted;atanyrate,thesegoodfellows,intheeffusivenessoftheirhearts,actuallywrotetheaboveinpencil。I
wassorelytemptedtostealit,but,aftercopyingit,leftitintheChiefPriest’shandsinstead。
ARTINTHEVALLEYOFSAAS{11}
HavingbeentoldbyMr。Fortescue,oftheBritishMuseum,thatthereweresomechapelsatSaas-FeewhichboreanalogytothoseatVarallo,describedinmybook\"ExVoto,\"{12}IwenttoSaasduringthislastsummer,andventurenowtolaymyconclusionsbeforethereader。
Thechapelsarefifteeninnumber,andleaduptoalargerandsingularlygracefulone,rathermorethanhalf-waybetweenSaasandSaas-Fee。ThisiscommonlybutwronglycalledthechapelofSt。
Joseph,foritisdedicatedtotheVirgin,anditssituationisofsuchextremebeauty——thegreatFeeglaciersshowingthroughtheopenportico——thatitisinitselfworthapilgrimage。Itissurroundedbynoblelarchesandoverhungbyrock;infrontoftheporticothereisasmallopenspacecoveredwithgrass,andahugelarch,thestemofwhichisgirtbyarudestoneseat。Theporticoitselfcontainsseatsforworshippers,andapulpitfromwhichthepreacher’svoicecanreachthemanywhomuststandoutside。Thewallsoftheinnerchapelarehungwithvotivepictures,someofthemveryquaintandpleasing,andnotoverweightedbythosequalitiesthatareusuallydubbedbythenameofartisticmerit。Innumerablewoodenandwaxenrepresentationsofarms,legs,eyes,earsandbabiestellofthecuresthathavebeeneffectedduringtwocenturiesofdevotion,andcanhardlyfailtoawakenakindlysympathywiththelongdeadandforgottenfolkswhoplacedthemwheretheyare。
Themaininterest,however,despitetheextremelovelinessoftheSt。Mary’sChapel,centresratherinthesmallandoutwardlyunimportantoratories(iftheyshouldbesocalled)thatleaduptoit。ThesebeginimmediatelywiththeascentfromthelevelgroundonwhichthevillageofSaas-im-Grundisplaced,andcontainscenesinthehistoryoftheRedemption,representedbyrudebutspiritedwoodenfigures,eachabouttwofeethigh,painted,gilt,andrenderedaslife-likeinallrespectsascircumstanceswouldpermit。
Thefigureshavesufferedagooddealfromneglect,andarestillnotalittlemisplaced。Withtheassistance,however,oftheRev。
E。J。Selwyn,EnglishChaplainatSaas-im-Grund,Ihavebeenabletoreplacemanyofthemintheiroriginalpositions,asindicatedbythepartsofthefiguresthatareleftrough-hewnandunpainted。
Theyvaryagooddealininterest,andcanbeeasilysneeredatbythosewhomakeatradeofsneering。Those,ontheotherhand,whoremainunsophisticatedbyovermuchart-culturewillfindthemfullofcharacterinspiteofnotalittlerudenessofexecution,andwillbesurprisedatcomingacrosssuchworksinaplacesoremotefromanyart-centreasSaasmusthavebeenatthetimethesechapelsweremade。ItwillbemybusinessthereforetothrowwhatlightI
canuponthequestionshowtheycametobemadeatall,andwhowastheartistwhodesignedthem。
TheonlydocumentaryevidenceconsistsinachronicleofthevalleyofSaaswrittenintheearlyyearsofthiscenturybytheRev。PeterJos。Ruppen,andpublishedatSionin1851。ThisworkmakesfrequentreferencetoamanuscriptbytheRev。PeterJosephClemensLommatter,cureofSaas-Feefrom1738to1751,whichhasunfortunatelybeenlost,sothatwehavenomeansofknowinghowcloselyitwasadheredto。TheRev。Jos。Ant。Ruppen,thepresentexcellentcureofSaas-im-Grund,assuresmethatthereisnoreferencetotheSaas-Feeoratoriesinthe\"Actesdel’Eglise\"atSaas,whichIunderstandgoalongwayback;butIhavenotseenthesemyself。Practically,then,wehavenomoredocumentaryevidencethanistobefoundinthepublishedchronicleabovereferredto。
Wetherefinditstatedthatthelargechapel,commonly,butasaboveexplained,wronglycalledSt。Joseph’s,wasbuiltin1687,andenlargedbysubscriptionin1747。Thesedatesappearonthebuildingitself,andarenodoubtaccurate。Thewriteraddsthattherewasnoactualedificeonthissitebeforetheonenowexistingwasbuilt,buttherewasamiraculouspictureoftheVirginplacedinamuralniche,beforewhichthepiousherdsmenanddevoutinhabitantsofthevalleyworshippedunderthevaultofheaven。{13}
Amiraculous(ormiracle-working)picturewasalwaysmoreorlessrareandimportant;thepresentsite,therefore,seemstohavebeenlongoneofpeculiarsanctity。PossiblythenameFeemaypointtostillearlierPaganmysteriesonthesamesite。
Asregardsthefifteensmallchapels,thewritersaystheyillustratethefifteenmysteriesofthePsalter,andwerebuiltin1709,eachhouseholderoftheSaas-Feecontributingonechapel。HeaddsthatHeinrichAndenmatten,afterwardsabrotheroftheSocietyofJesus,wasanespecialbenefactororpromoteroftheundertaking。
Oneofthechapels,theAscension(No。12oftheseries),hasthedate1709paintedonit;butthereisnodateonanyotherchapel,andthereseemsnoreasonwhythisshouldbetakenasgoverningthewholeseries。
Overandabovethis,thereexistsinSaasatradition,asIwastoldimmediatelyonmyarrival,byanEnglishvisitor,thatthechapelswerebuiltinconsequenceofaflood,butIhavevainlyendeavouredtotracethisstorytoanindigenoussource。
Theinternalevidenceofthewoodenfiguresthemselves——nothinganalogoustowhich,itshouldberemembered,canbefoundinthechapelof1687——pointstoamuchearlierdate。Ihavemetwithnoschoolofsculpturebelongingtotheearlypartoftheeighteenthcenturytowhichtheycanbeplausiblyassigned;andthesuppositionthattheyaretheworkofsomeunknownlocalgeniuswhowasnotleduptoandleftnosuccessorsmaybedismissed,fortheworkistooscholarlytohavecomefromanyonebutatrainedsculptor。Ireferofcoursetothosefigureswhichtheartistmustbesupposedtohaveexecutedwithhisownhand,as,forexample,thecentralfigureoftheCrucifixiongroupandthoseoftheMagdaleneandSt。John。Thegreaternumberofthefigureswereprobably,aswassuggestedtomebyMr。Ranshaw,ofLowth,executedbyalocalwoodcarverfrommodelsinclayandwaxfurnishedbytheartisthimself。Thosewhoexaminetheplayoflineinthehair,mantle,andsleeveoftheMagdaleneintheCrucifixiongroup,andcontrastitwiththegreaterpartoftheremainingdraperies,willfindlittlehesitationinconcludingthatthiswasthecase,andwillerelongreadilydistinguishthetwohandsfromwhichthefigureshavemainlycome。Isay\"mainly,\"
becausethereisatleastoneothersculptorwhomaywellhavebelongedtotheyear1709,butwhofortunatelyhasleftuslittle。
ExamplesofhisworkmayperhapsbeseeninthenearestvillainwithabighatintheFlagellationchapel,andintwocherubsintheAssumptionoftheVirgin。
Wemaysay,then,withsomecertainty,thatthedesignerwasacultivatedandpractisedartist。WemayalsonotlesscertainlyconcludethathewasofFlemishorigin,forthehorsesintheJourneytoCalvaryandCrucifixionchapels,wherealonethereareanyhorsesatall,areofFlemishbreed,withnotraceoftheArabbloodadoptedbyGaudenzioatVarallo。Thecharacter,moreover,ofthevillainsisNorthern——oftheQuentinMatsys,MartinSchongauertype,ratherthanItalian;thesamesub-RubensesquefeelingwhichisapparentinmorethanonechapelatVaralloisnotlessevidenthere——especiallyintheJourneytoCalvaryandCrucifixionchapels。
Therecanhardly,therefore,beadoubtthattheartistwasaFlemingwhohadworkedforseveralyearsinItaly。
ItisalsoevidentthathehadTabachetti’sworkatVarallowellinhismind。Fornotonlydoesheadoptcertaindetailsofcostume(I
referparticularlytothetreatmentofsoldiers’tunics)whicharepeculiartoTabachettiatVarallo,butwheneverhetreatsasubjectwhichTabachettihadtreatedatVarallo,asintheFlagellation,CrowningwithThorns,andJourneytoCalvarychapels,theworkatSaasisevidentlynothingbutasomewhatmodifiedabridgementofthatatVarallo。When,however,asintheAnnunciation,theNativity,theCrucifixion,andotherchapels,theworkatVaralloisbyanotherthanTabachetti,noallusionismadetoit。TheSaasartisthasTabachetti’sVaralloworkathisfinger-ends,butbetraysnoacquaintancewhateverwithGaudenzioFerrari,Gio。Ant。Paracca,orGiovanniD’Enrico。
Even,moreover,whenTabachetti’sworkatVaralloisbeingmostobviouslydrawnfrom,asintheJourneytoCalvarychapel,theSaasversiondiffersmateriallyfromthatatVarallo,andisinsomerespectsanimprovementonit。Theideaofshowingotherhorsemenandfollowerscomingupfrombehind,whoseheadscanbeseenoverthecrownoftheinterposinghill,issingularlyeffectiveassuggestinganumberofothersthatareunseen,norcanIconceivethatanyonebuttheoriginaldesignerwouldfollowTabachetti’sVarallodesignwithasmuchclosenessasithasbeenfollowedhere,andyetmakesuchabrilliantlysuccessfulmodification。Thestumbling,again,ofonehorse(adetailalmosthidden,accordingtoTabachetti’swont)isatouchwhichTabachettihimselfmightadd,butwhichnoSaaswoodcarverwhowasmerelyadaptingfromareminiscenceofTabachetti’sVarallochapelwouldbelikelytointroduce。TheseconsiderationshaveconvincedmethatthedesignerofthechapelsatSaasisnoneotherthanTabachettihimself,who,ashasbeennowconclusivelyshown,wasanativeofDinant,inBelgium。
TheSaaschronicler,indeed,aversthatthechapelswerenotbuilttill1709——astatementapparentlycorroboratedbyadatenowvisibleononechapel;butwemustrememberthatthechroniclerdidnotwriteuntilacenturyorsolaterthan1709,andthough,indeed,hisstatementmayhavebeentakenfromthelostearliermanuscriptof1738,weknownothingaboutthiseitheronewayortheother。Thewritermayhavegonebythestillexisting1709ontheAscensionchapel,whereasthisdatemayinfacthavereferredtoarestoration,andnottoanoriginalconstruction。Thereisnothing,asIhavesaid,inthechoiceofthechapelonwhichthedateappears,tosuggestthatitwasintendedtogoverntheothers。I
haveexplainedthattheworkisisolatedandexotic。ItisbyoneinwhomFlemishandItalianinfluencesarealikeequallypredominant;byonewhowassaturatedwithTabachetti’sVarallowork,andwhocanimproveuponit,butoverwhomtheotherVarallosculptorshavenopower。Thestyleoftheworkisofthesixteenthandnotoftheeighteenthcentury——withafewobviousexceptionsthatsuittheyear1709exceedinglywell。Againstsuchconsiderationsasthese,astatementmadeatthebeginningofthiscenturyreferringtoacenturyearlier,andapromiscuousdateupononechapel,cancarrybutlittleweight。Ishallassume,therefore,henceforward,thatwehaveheregroupsdesignedinaplasticmaterialbyTabachetti,andreproducedinwoodbythebestlocalwood-sculptoravailable,withtheexceptionofafewfigurescutbytheartisthimself。
Weask,then,atwhatperiodinhislifedidTabachettidesignthesechapels,andwhatledtohiscomingtosuchanout-of-the-wayplaceasSaasatall?Weshouldrememberthat,accordingbothtoFassolaandTorrotti(writingin1671and1686respectively),Tabachetti{14}becameinsaneabouttheyear1586orearlyin1587,afterhavingjustbeguntheSalutationchapel。Ihaveexplainedin\"ExVoto\"thatIdonotbelievethisstory。IhavenodoubtthatTabachettiwasdeclaredtobemad,butIbelievethistohavebeenduetoanintrigue,setonfootinordertogetaforeignartistoutoftheway,andtosecuretheMassacreoftheInnocentschapel,atthatprecisetimeundertaken,forGio。Ant。Paracca,whowasanItalian。
OrhemayhavebeensacrificedinordertofacilitatethereturnoftheworkersinstuccowhomhehadsupersededontheSacroMonte。Hemayhavebeengoadedintosomeimprudencewhichwasseizeduponasapretextforshuttinghimup;atanyrate,thefactthatwhenin1587
heinheritedhisfather’spropertyatDinant,histrustee(hebeingexpresslystatedtobe\"expatrie\")was\"datif,\"\"dativus,\"appointednotbyhimselfbutbythecourt,lendscolourtothestatementthathewasnothisownmasteratthetime;forinlaterkindreddeeds,nowatNamur,heappointshisowntrustee。Isuppose,then,thatTabachettiwasshutupinamadhouseatVaralloforaconsiderabletime,duringwhichIcanfindnotraceofhim,butthateventuallyheescapedorwasreleased。
Whetherhewasafugitive,orwhetherhewasletoutfromprison,hewouldineithercase,inallreasonableprobability,turnhisfacehomeward。Ifhewasescaping,hewouldmakeimmediatelyfortheSavoyfrontier,withinwhichSaasthenlay。HewouldcrosstheBarancaaboveFobello,comingdownontoPonteGrandeintheValAnzasca。HewouldgouptheValAnzascatoMacugnaga,andovertheMonteMoro,whichwouldbringhimimmediatelytoSaas。Saas,therefore,isthenearestandmostnaturalplaceforhimtomakefor,ifhewereflyingfromVarallo,andhereIsupposehimtohavehalted。
Itsohappenedthatonthe9thofSeptember,1589,therewasoneofthethreegreatoutbreaksoftheMattmarkSeethathavefromtimetotimedevastatedthevalleyofSaas。{15}ItisprobablethatthechapelsweredecideduponinconsequenceofsomegraceshownbythemiraculouspictureoftheVirgin,whichhadmitigatedadisasteroccurringsosoonaftertheanniversaryofherownNativity。
Tabachetti,arrivingatthisjuncture,mayhaveofferedtoundertakethemiftheSaaspeoplewouldgivehimanasylum。Here,atanyrate,Isupposehimtohavestayedtillsometimein1590,probablythesecondhalfofit,hisdesignofeventuallyreturninghome,ifheeverentertainedit,beingtheninterruptedbyasummonstoCreanearCasale,whereIbelievehimtohaveworkedwithafewbriefinterruptionsthenceforwardforlittleifatallshortofhalfacentury,oruntilabouttheyear1640。Iadmit,however,thattheevidenceforassigninghimsolongaliferestssolelyonthesupposedidentityofthefigureknownas\"IlVecchietto,\"intheVaralloDescentfromtheCrosschapel,withtheportraitofTabachettihimselfintheEcceHomochapel,alsoatVarallo。
IfindadditionalreasonforthinkingthechapelsowetheirorigintotheinundationofSeptember9,1589,inthefactthatthe8thofSeptemberismadeadayofpilgrimagetotheSaas-FeechapelsthroughoutthewholevalleyofSaas。Itistruethe8thofSeptemberisthefestivaloftheNativityoftheVirginMary,sothatunderanycircumstancesthiswouldbeagreatday,butthefactthatnotonlythepeopleofSaas,butthewholevalleydowntoVisp,flocktothischapelonthe8thofSeptember,pointstothebeliefthatsomespecialactofgraceonthepartoftheVirginwasvouchsafedonthisdayinconnectionwiththischapel。AbeliefthatitwasowingtotheinterventionofSt。MaryofFeethattheinundationwasnotattendedwithlossoflifewouldbeverylikelytoleadtothefoundationofaseriesofchapelsleadinguptotheplacewherehermiraculouspicturewasplaced,andtothemorespecialcelebrationofherNativityinconnectionwiththisspotthroughoutthevalleyofSaas。IhavediscussedthesubjectwiththeRev。Jos。Ant。Ruppen,andhetoldmehethoughtthefactthatthegreatfeteoftheyearinconnectionwiththeSaas-Feechapelswasonthe8thofSeptemberpointedratherstronglytothesuppositionthattherewasaconnectionbetweentheseandtherecordedfloodofSeptember9,1589。
Turningtotheindividualchapelstheyareasfollows:-
1。TheAnnunciation。ThetreatmentherepresentsnomoreanalogytothatofthesamesubjectatVarallothanisinevitableinthenatureofthesubject。TheAnnunciationfiguresatVarallohaveprovedtobemeredrapeddummieswithwoodenheads;Tabachetti,eventhoughhedidtheheads,whichheverylikelydid,wouldtakenointerestintheVaralloworkwiththesamesubject。TheAnnunciation,fromitsverysimplicityaswellasfromthetranscendentalnatureofthesubject,issingularlyhardtotreat,andtheworkhere,whateveritmayoncehavebeen,isnownolongerremarkable。
2。TheSalutationofMarybyElizabeth。Thisgroup,again,bearsnoanalogytotheSalutationchapelatVarallo,inwhichTabachetti’ssharewassosmallthatitcannotbeconsideredasinanywayhis。Itisnottobeexpected,therefore,thattheSaaschapelshouldfollowtheVaralloone。Thefigures,fourinnumber,arepleasingandwellarranged。St。Joseph,St。Elizabeth,andSt。
Zachariasarealltalkingatonce。TheVirginisalonesilent。
3。TheNativityismuchdamagedandhardtosee。ThetreatmentbearsnoanalogytothatadoptedbyGaudenzioFerrariatVarallo。
Thereisonepleasingyoungshepherdstandingagainstthewall,butsomefigureshavenodoubt(asinothersofthechapels)
disappeared,andthosethatremainhavebeensoshiftedfromtheiroriginalpositionsthatverylittleideacanbeformedofwhatthegroupwaslikewhenTabachettileftit。
4。ThePurification。Icanhardlysaywhythischapelshouldremindme,asitdoes,oftheCircumcisionchapelatVarallo,fortherearemorefiguresherethanspaceatVarallowillallow。Itcannotbepretendedthatanysinglefigureisofextraordinarymerit,butamongstthemtheytelltheirstorywithexcellenteffect。
Two,thoseofSt。JosephandSt。Anna(?),thatdoubtlesswereoncemoreimportantfactorsinthedrama,arenowsomuchincornersnearthewindowthattheycanhardlybeseen。
5。TheDisputeintheTemple。ThissubjectisnottreatedatVarallo。HereatSaasthereareonlysixdoctorsnow;whetherornotherewereoriginallymorecannotbedetermined。
6。TheAgonyintheGarden。TabachettihadnochapelwiththissubjectatVarallo,andthereisnoresemblancebetweentheSaaschapelandthatbyD’Enrico。Thefiguresarenodoubtapproximatelyintheiroriginalpositions,butIhavenoconfidencethatIhaverearrangedthemcorrectly。TheywereinsuchconfusionwhenIfirstsawthemthattheRev。E。J。Selwynandmyselfdeterminedtorearrangethem。TheyhavedoubtlessbeenshiftedmorethanoncesinceTabachettileftthem。Thesleepingfiguresareallgood。St。
Jamesisperhapsalittleprosaic。OneRomansoldierwhoiscomingintothegardenwithalantern,andmotioningsilencewithhishand,doesdutyfortheothersthataretofollowhim。IshouldthinkmorethanoneofthesefiguresisactuallycarvedinwoodbyTabachetti,allowancebeingmadeforthefactthathewasworkinginamaterialwithwhichhewasnotfamiliar,andwhichnosculptorofthehighestrankhaseverfoundcongenial。
7。TheFlagellation。TabachettihasachapelwiththissubjectatVarallo,andtheSaasgroupisobviouslyadescentwithmodificationfromhisworkthere。ThefigureofChristissoliketheoneatVarallothatIthinkitmusthavebeencarvedbyTabachettihimself。
Themanwiththehookednose,whoatVaralloisstoopingtobindhisrods,ishereupright:itwasprobablytheintentiontoemphasisehiminthesucceedingscenesaswellasthis,inthesamewayashehasbeenemphasisedatVarallo,buthisnosegotpareddowninthecuttingoflaterscenes,andcouldnoteasilybeaddedto。ThemanbindingChristtothecolumnatVaralloisrepeated(longointervallo)here,andthewholeworkisoneinspiredbythatatVarallo,thoughnosinglefigureexceptthatoftheChristisadheredtowithanyverygreatcloseness。Ithinkthenearermalefactor,withagoitre,andwearingalargeblackhat,iseitheranadditionoftheyear1709,orwasdonebythejourneymanofthelocalsculptorwhocarvedthegreaternumberofthefigures。Themanstoopingdowntobindhisrodscanhardlybebythesamehandaseitherofthetwoblack-hattedmalefactors,butitisimpossibletospeakwithcertainty。Thegeneraleffectofthechapelisexcellent,ifweconsiderthematerialinwhichitisexecuted,andtherudenessoftheaudiencetowhomitaddressesitself。
8。TheCrowningwithThorns。HereagaintheinspirationisderivedfromTabachetti’sCrowningwithThornsatVarallo。TheChristsinthetwochapelsarestrikinglyalike,andthegeneraleffectisthatofaresiduaryimpressionleftinthemindofonewhohadknowntheVaralloFlagellationexceedinglywell。
9。Sta。Veronica。Thisandthenextsucceedingchapelsarethemostimportantoftheseries。Tabachetti’sJourneytoCalvaryatVaralloisagainthesourcefromwhichthepresentworkwastaken,but,asIhavealreadysaid,ithasbeenmodifiedinreproduction。
MountCalvaryisstillshown,asatVarallo,towardstheleft-handcornerofthework,butatSaasitismoretowardsthemiddlethanatVarallo,sothathorsemenandsoldiersmaybeseencomingupbehindit——astrokethatdeservesthenameofgeniusnonethelessforthemanifestimperfectionwithwhichithasbeencarriedintoexecution。Thereareonlythreehorsesfullyshown,andonepartlyshown。TheyarealloftheheavyFlemishtypeadoptedbyTabachettiatVarallo。ThemankickingthefallenChristandthegoitredman(withthesameteethmissing),whoaresoconspicuousintheVaralloJourneytoCalvary,reappearhere,onlythekickingmanhasmuchlessnosethanatVarallo,probablybecause(asexplained)thenosegotwhittledawayandcouldnotbewhittledbackagain。IobservethatthekindoflapelledtunicwhichTabachetti,andonlyTabachetti,adoptsatVarallo,isadoptedforthecenturioninthischapel,andindeedthroughouttheSaaschapelsthisparticularformoftunicisthemostusualforaRomansoldier。Theworkisstillaverystrikingone,notwithstandingitstranslationintowoodandthedecayintowhichithasbeenallowedtofall;norcanitfailtoimpressthevisitorwhoisfamiliarwiththisclassofartascomingfromamanofextraordinarydramaticpowerandcommandoverthealmostimpossibleartofcomposingmanyfigurestogethereffectivelyinall-roundsculpture。WhetherallthefiguresareevennowasTabachettileftthemIcannotdetermine,butMr。SelwynhasrestoredSimontheCyreniantothepositioninwhichheobviouslyoughttostand,andbetweenuswehavegotthechapelintosomethingmorelikeorder。
10。TheCrucifixion。ThissubjectwastreatedatVarallonotbyTabachettibutbyGaudenzioFerrari。ItconfirmsthereforemyopinionastothedesigneroftheSaaschapelstofindinthemnotraceoftheVaralloCrucifixion,whilethekindoftunicwhichatVaralloisonlyfoundinchapelswhereinTabachettiworkedagainappearshere。Theworkisinadeplorablestateofdecay。Mr。
Selwynhasgreatlyimprovedthearrangementofthefigures,butevennowtheyarenot,Iimagine,quiteasTabachettileftthem。ThefigureofChristisgreatlybetterintechnicalexecutionthanthatofeitherofthetwothieves;thefoldsofthedraperyalonewillshowthiseventoanunpractisedeye。IdonotthinktherecanbeadoubtbutthatTabachetticutthisfigurehimself,asalsothoseoftheMagdaleneandSt。John,whostandatthefootofthecross。Thethievesarecoarselyexecuted,withnoveryobviousdistinctionbetweenthepenitentandtheimpenitentone,exceptthatthereisafiendpaintedontheceilingovertheimpenitentthief。TheonehorseintroducedintothecompositionisagainoftheheavyFlemishtypeadoptedbyTabachettiatVarallo。Thereisgreatdifferenceinthecarewithwhichthefoldsontheseveraldraperieshavebeencut,somebeingstiffandpoorenough,whileothersaredoneverysufficiently。Inspiteofsmallnessofscale,ignoblematerial,disarrangementanddecay,theworkisstillstriking。
11。TheResurrection。TherebeingnochapelatVarallowithanyoftheremainingsubjectstreatedatSaas,thesculptorhasstruckoutalineforhimself。TheChristintheResurrectionChapelisacarefullymodelledfigure,andifbetterpaintedmightnotbeineffective。Threesoldiers,onesleeping,aloneremain。Therewereprobablyotherfiguresthathavebeenlost。Thesleepingsoldierisverypleasing。
12。TheAscensionisnotremarkablyinteresting;theChristappearstobe,butperhapsisnot,amuchmoremodernfigurethantherest。
18。TheDescentoftheHolyGhost。Someofthefiguresalongtheendwallareverygood,andwere,Ishouldimagine,cutbyTabachettihimself。Thoseagainstthetwosidewallsarenotsowellcut。
14。TheAssumptionoftheVirginMary。Thetwolargecherubshereareobviouslybyalaterhand,andthesmallonesarenotgood。ThefigureoftheVirginherselfisunexceptionable。ThereweredoubtlessonceotherfiguresoftheApostleswhichhavedisappeared;
oftheseasingleSt。Peter(?),sohiddenawayinacornernearthewindowthatitcanonlybeseenwithdifficulty,isthesolesurvivor。
15。TheCoronationoftheVirginisoflaterdate,andhasprobablysupersededanearlierwork。Itcanhardlybebythedesigneroftheotherchapelsoftheseries。PerhapsTabachettihadtoleaveforCreabeforeallthechapelsatSaaswerefinished。
Lastly,wehavethelargerchapeldedicatedtoSt。Mary,whichcrownstheseries。Herethereisnothingofmorethancommonartisticinterest,unlessweexceptthestonealtarmentionedinRuppen’schronicle。Thisisofcourseclassicalinstyle,andis,I
shouldthink,verygood。
OncemoreImustcautionthereaderagainstexpectingtofindhighly-finishedgemsofartinthechapelsIhavebeendescribing。
Awoodenfigurenotmorethantwofeethighcloggedwithmanycoatsofpaintcanhardlyclaimtobetakenveryseriously,andeventhosefewthatwerecutbyTabachettihimselfwerenotmeanttohaveattentionconcentratedonthemselvesalone。Asmerewood-carvingtheSaas-Feechapelswillnotstandcomparison,forexample,withthetriptychofunknownauthorshipintheChurchofSt。AnneatGliss,closetoBrieg。But,inthefirstplace,theworkatGlissisworthyofHolbeinhimself:Iknownowood-carvingthatcansorivettheattention;moreoveritiscolouredwithwater-colourandnotoil,sothatitistinted,notpainted;and,inthesecondplace,theGlisstriptychbelongstoadate(1519)whenartistsheldneithertimenorimpressionismasobjects,andhence,thoughgreatlybetterthantheSaas-FeechapelsasregardsacertainJapanesecuriousnessoffinishandnaiveteofliteraltranscription,itcannotevenenterthelistswiththeSaasworkasregardselananddramaticeffectiveness。Thedifferencebetweenthetwoclassesofworkismuchthatbetween,say,JohnVanEyckorMemlingandRubensorRembrandt,or,again,betweenGiovanniBelliniandTintoretto;
theaimsoftheoneclassofworkareincompatiblewiththoseoftheother。Moreover,intheGlisstriptychtheintentionofthedesigneriscarriedout(whetherbyhimselforno)withadmirableskill;whereasatSaasthewisdomoftheworkmanisratherofOber-
AmmergauthanoftheEgyptians,andthevoiceofthepoetisnotalittledrownedinthatofhismouthpiece。If,however,thereaderwillbearinmindthesesomewhatobviousconsiderations,andwillalsorememberthepatheticcircumstancesunderwhichthechapelsweredesigned——forTabachettiwhenhereachedSaaswasnodoubtshatteredinbodyandmindbyhisfouryears’imprisonment——hewillprobablybenotlessattractedtothemthanIobservedweremanyofthevisitorsbothatSaas-GrundandSaas-FeewithwhomIhadthepleasureofexaminingthem。
IwillnowrunbrieflythroughtheotherprincipalworksintheneighbourhoodtowhichIthinkthereaderwouldbegladtohavehisattentiondirected。
AtSaas-Feeitselfthemainaltar-pieceiswithoutinterest,asalsoonewithafigureofSt。Sebastian。TheVirginandChildabovetheremainingaltarare,sofarasIrememberthem,verygood,andgreatlysuperiortothesmallerfiguresofthesamealtar-piece。
AtAlmagel,anhour’swalkorsoaboveSaas-Grund——avillage,thenameofwhich,likethoseoftheAlphubel,theMonteMoro,andmorethanoneotherneighbouringsite,issupposedtobeofSaracenicorigin——themainaltar-piecerepresentsafemalesaintwithfoldedarmsbeingbeheadedbyavigorousmantotheleft。Thesetwofiguresareverygood。Therearetwosomewhatinferiorelderstotheright,andthecompositioniscrownedbytheAssumptionoftheVirgin。Ilikethework,buthavenoideawhodidit。Twobishopsflankingthecompositionarenotsogood。Therearetwootheraltarsinthechurch:theright-handonehassomepleasingfigures,notsotheleft-hand。
InSt。Joseph’sChapel,onthemule-roadbetweenSaas-GrundandSaas-Fee,theSt。Josephandthetwochildrenarerathernice。InthechurchesandchapelswhichIlookedintobetweenSaasandStalden,Isawmanyfloridextravagantaltar-pieces,butnothingthatimpressedmefavourably。
IntheparishchurchatSaas-Grundtherearetwoaltar-pieceswhichdeserveattention。IntheoneoverthemainaltarthearrangementoftheLastSupperinadeeprecesshalf-wayupthecompositionisverypleasingandeffective;inthatabovetheright-handaltarofthetwothatstandinthebodyofthechurchthereareanumberofroundlunettes,abouteightinchesindiameter,eachcontainingasmallbutspiritedgroupofwoodenfigures。Ihavelostmynotesonthesealtar-piecesandcanonlyrememberthatthemainonehasbeenrestored,andnowbelongstotwodifferentdates,theearlierdatebeing,Ishouldimagine,about1670。AsimilartreatmentoftheLastSuppermaybefoundnearBrieginthechurchofNaters,andnodoubtthetwoaltar-piecesarebythesameman。Thereare,bytheway,twoveryambitiousaltarsoneithersidethemainarchleadingtothechanceinthechurchatNaters,ofwhichtheoneonthesouthsidecontainsobviousreminiscencesofGaudenzioFerrari’sSta。
MariafrescoesatVarallo;butnoneofthefouraltar-piecesinthetwotranseptstemptedmetogivethemmuchattention。Asregardsthesmalleraltar-pieceatSaas-Grund,analogousworkmaybefoundatCravagliana,half-waybetweenVaralloandFobello,butthislasthassufferedthroughtheinveteratehabitwhichItalianshaveofshowingtheirhatredtowardstheenemiesofChristbymutilatingthefiguresthatrepresentthem。WhethertheSaasworkisbyaValsesianartistwhocameovertoSwitzerland,orwhethertheCravaglianaworkisbyaSwisswhohadcometoItaly,IcannotsaywithoutfurtherconsiderationandcloserexaminationthanIhavebeenabletogive。Thealtar-piecesofMairengo,Chiggiogna,and,I
amtold,Lavertezzo,allintheCantonTicino,arebyaSwissorGermanartistwhohasmigratedsouthward;butthereversemigrationwasequallycommon。
Beingintheneighbourhood,andwishingtoassuremyselfwhetherthesculptoroftheSaas-Feechapelshadorhadnotcomelowerdownthevalley,IexaminedeverychurchandvillagewhichIcouldhearofascontaininganythingthatmightthrowlightonthispoint。IwasthusledtoVispertimenen,avillagesomethreehoursaboveeitherVisporStalden。Itstandsveryhigh,andisanalmostuntouchedexampleofamedievalvillage。Thealtar-pieceofthemainchurchisevenmorefloridlyambitiousinitsabundanceofcarvingandgildingthanthemanyotherambitiousaltar-pieceswithwhichtheCantonValaisabounds。TheApostlesarereceivingtheHolyGhostonthefirststoreyofthecomposition,andtheycertainlyarereceivingitwithanoverjoyedalacrityandhilariousecstasyofallegriaspiritualewhichitwouldnotbeeasytosurpass。Abovethevillage,reachingalmosttothelimitsbeyondwhichthereisnocultivation,therestandsaseriesofchapelslikethoseIhavebeendescribingatSaas-Fee,onlymuchlargerandmoreambitious。Theyaretwelveinnumber,includingthechurchthatcrownstheseries。
Thefigurestheycontainareofwood(soIwasassured,butIdidnotgoinsidethechapels):theyarelife-size,andinsomechapelsthereareasmanyasadozenfigures。Ishouldthinktheybelongedtothelaterhalfofthelastcentury,andhere,onewouldsay,sculpturetouchestheground;atleast,itisnoteasytoseehowcheapexaggerationcansinkanartmoredeeply。TheonlythingsthatatallpleasedmewereasmilingdonkeyandanecstaticcowintheNativitychapel。Thosewhoarenotalluredbytheprospectofseeingperhapstheveryworstthatcanbedoneinitsownline,neednotbeatthepainsofclimbinguptoVispertimenen。Those,ontheotherhand,whomayfindthissufficientinducementwillnotbedisappointed,andtheywillenjoymagnificentviewsoftheWeisshornandthemountainsneartheDom。
IhavealreadyreferredtothetriptychatGliss。ThisisfiguredinWolf’sworkonChamonixandtheCantonValais,butalargerandclearerreproductionofsuchanextraordinaryworkisgreatlytobedesired。Thesmallwoodenstatuesabovethetriptych,asalsothoseaboveitsmoderncompanioninthesouthtransept,arenotlessadmirablethanthetriptychitself。Iknowofnootherlikeworkinwood,andhavenocluewhateverastowhotheauthorcanhavebeenbeyondthefactthattheworkispurelyGermanandeminentlyHolbeinesqueincharacter。
IwastoldofsomechapelsatRarogne,fiveorsixmileslowerdownthevalleythanVisp。Iexaminedthem,andfoundtheyhadbeenstrippedoftheirfigures。Thefewthatremainedsatisfiedmethatwehavehadnoloss。AboveBriegtherearetwootherlikeseriesofchapels。Iexaminedthehigherandmorepromisingofthetwo,butfoundnotonesinglefigureleft。Iwastoldbymydriverthattheotherseries,closetothePontNapoleonontheSimplonroad,hadbeenalsostrippedofitsfigures,and,therebeingaheavystormatthetime,havetakenhiswordforitthatthiswasso。
THOUGHTANDLANGUAGE{16}
Threewell-knownwriters,ProfessorMaxMuller,ProfessorMivart,andMr。AlfredRusselWallacehavelatelymaintainedthatthoughthetheoryofdescentwithmodificationaccountsforthedevelopmentofallvegetablelife,andofallanimalslowerthanman,yetthatmancannot——notatleastinrespectofthewholeofhisnature——beheldtohavedescendedfromanyanimallowerthanhimself,inasmuchasnonelowerthanmanpossesseseventhegermsoflanguage。Reason,itiscontended——moreespeciallybyProfessorMaxMullerinhis\"ScienceofThought,\"towhichIproposeconfiningourattentionthisevening——issoinseparablyconnectedwithlanguage,thatthetwoareinpointoffactidentical;henceitisarguedthat,astheloweranimalshavenogermsoflanguage,theycanhavenogermsofreason,andtheinferenceisdrawnthatmancannotbeconceivedashavingderivedhisownreasoningpowersandcommandoflanguagethroughdescentfrombeingsinwhichnogermofeithercanbefound。
Therelationsthereforebetweenthoughtandlanguage,interestinginthemselves,acquireadditionalimportancefromthefactoftheirhavingbecomethebattle-groundbetweenthosewhosaythatthetheoryofdescentbreaksdownwithman,andthosewhomaintainthatwearedescendedfromsomeape-likeancestorlongsinceextinct。
Thecontentionofthosewhorefusetoadmitmanunreservedlyintotheschemeofevolutioniscomparativelyrecent。Thegreatpropoundersofevolution,Buffon,ErasmusDarwinandLamarck——nottomentionascoreofotherswhowroteatthecloseofthelastandearlypartofthispresentcentury——hadnoqualmsaboutadmittingmanintotheirsystem。TheyhavebeenfollowedinthisrespectbythelateMr。CharlesDarwin,andbythegreatlymoreinfluentialpartofourmodernbiologists,whoholdthatwhateverlossofdignitywemayincurthroughbeingprovedtobeofhumbleorigin,iscompensatedbythecreditwemayclaimforhavingadvancedourselvestosuchahighpitchofcivilisation;thisbidsusexpectstillfurtherprogress,andglorifiesourdescendantsmorethanitabasesourancestors。Buttowhicheverviewwemayinclineonsentimentalgroundsthefactremainsthat,whileCharlesDarwindeclaredlanguagetoformnoimpassablebarrierbetweenmanandtheloweranimals,ProfessorMaxMullercallsittheRubiconwhichnobrutedarecross,anddeduceshencetheconclusionthatmancannothavedescendedfromanunknownbutcertainlyspeechlessape。