andmakeitaruletoearnestlyandpatientlyandcarefullyswallowafewofthesmallestgnatsIcanfindseveraltimesaday，asthebestastringentforthethroatIknowof。
ThethirteenthchapelistheMarriageFeastatCanaofGalilee。
Thisisthebestchapelasaworkofart；indeed，itistheonlyonewhichcanclaimtobetakenquiteseriously。Notthatallthefiguresareverygood；thosetotheleftofthecompositionarecommonplaceenough；noraretheChristandthegiverofthefeastatallremarkable；butthetenordozenfiguresofguestsandattendantsattheright-handendoftheworkareasgoodasanythingoftheirkindcanbe，andremindmesostronglyofTabachettithatI
cannotdoubttheyweredonebysomeonewhowasindirectlyinfluencedbythatgreatsculptor’swork。ItisnotlikelythatTabachettiwasalivelongafter1640，bywhichtimehewouldhavebeenabouteightyyearsold；andthefoundationsofthischapelwerenotlaidtillabout1690；thestatuesareprobablyafewyearslater；theycanhardly，therefore，bebyonewhohadevenstudiedunderTabachetti；butuntilIfoundoutthedates，andwentinsidethechapeltoseethewayinwhichthefigureshadbeenconstructed，IwasinclinedtothinktheymightbebyTabachettihimself，ofwhom，indeed，theyarenotunworthy。OnexaminingthefiguresI
foundthemmoreheavilyconstructedthanTabachetti’sare，withsmallerholesfortakingoutsuperfluousclay，andmorefinishedontheoff-sides。Maroccosaysthesculptorisnotknown。Ilookedinvainforanydateorsignature。Possiblytheright-handfigures（fortheleft-handonescanhardlybebythesamehand）maybebysomesculptorfromCrea，whichisatnoverygreatdistancefromOropa，whowaspenetratedbyTabachetti’sinfluence；butwhetherasregardsactionandconcertwithoneanother，orasregardsexcellenceindetail，Idonotseehowanythingcanbemorerealistic，andyetmoreharmoniouslycomposed。Theplacingofthemusiciansinaminstrels’galleryhelpstheeffect；thesemusiciansaresixinnumber，andtheotherfiguresaretwenty-three。Underthetable，betweenChristandthegiverofthefeast，thereisacat。
Thefourteenthchapel，theAssumptionoftheVirginMary，iswithoutinterest。
Thefifteenth，theCoronationoftheVirgin，containsforty-sixangels，twenty-sixcherubs，fifty-sixsaints，theHolyTrinity，theMadonnaherself，andtwenty-fourinnocents，making156statuesinall。OftheseIamafraidthereisnotoneofmorethanordinarymerit；themostinterestingisahalf-lengthnudelife-studyofDisma——thegoodthief。Afterwhathadbeenpromisedhimitwasimpossibletoexcludehim，butitwasfeltthatahalf-lengthnudefigurewouldbeasmuchashecouldreasonablyexpect。
Behindthesanctuarythereisasemi-ruinousandwhollyvaluelesswork，whichshowsthefindingoftheblackimage，whichisnowinthechurch，butisonlyshownongreatfestivals。
ThisleadsustoaconsiderationthatIhavedelayedtillnow。TheblackimageisthecentralfeatureofOropa；itistheraisond’etreofthewholeplace，andallelseisamereincrustation，sotospeak，aroundit。Accordingtothisimage，then，whichwascarvedbySt。Lukehimself，andthanwhichnothingcanbebetterauthenticated，boththeMadonnaandtheinfantChristwereasblackasanythingcanbeconceived。Itisnotlikelythattheywereasblackastheyhavebeenpainted；nooneyeteverwassoblackasthat；yet，evenallowingforsomeexaggerationonSt。Luke’spart，theymusthavebeenexceedinglyblackiftheportraitistobeaccepted；anduncompromisinglyblacktheyaccordinglyareonmostofthewaysidechapelsformanyamilearoundOropa。Yetinthechapelswehavebeenhithertoconsidering——worksinwhich，asweknow，themostpunctiliousregardhasbeenshowntoaccuracy——boththeVirginandChristareuncompromisinglywhite。AsintheshopsundertheColonnadewheredevotionalknick-knacksaresold，youcanbuyablackchinaimageorawhiteone，whicheveryoulike；sowiththepictures——theblackandwhiteareplacedsidebyside——pagandoildanarosipuoscegliere。ItrestsnotwithhistoryorwiththeChurchtosaywhethertheMadonnaandChildwereblackorwhite，butyoumaysettleitforyourself，whicheverwayyouplease，orratheryouarerequired，withtheacquiescenceoftheChurch，toholdthattheywerebothblackandwhiteatoneandthesametime。
ItcannotbemaintainedthattheChurchleavesthematterundecided，andbytoleratingbothtypesproclaimsthequestionanopenone，forsheacquiescesintheportraitbySt。Lukeasgenuine。How，then，justifythewhitenessoftheHolyFamilyinthechapels？Iftheportraitisnotknownasgenuine，whysetsuchastumbling-blockinourpathsastoshowusablackMadonnaandawhiteone，bothashistoricallyaccurate，withinafewyardsofoneanother？
Iaskthisnotinmockery，butasknowingthattheChurchmusthaveanexplanationtogive，ifshewouldonlygiveit，andasmyselfunabletofindany，eventhemostfarfetched，thatcanbringwhatweseeatOropa，Loretoandelsewhereintoharmonywithmodernconscience，eitherintellectualorethical。
Isee，indeed，fromaninterestingarticleintheAtlanticMonthlyforSeptember1889，entitled\"TheBlackMadonnaofLoreto，\"thatblackMadonnasweresofrequentinancientChristianartthat\"someoftheearlywritersoftheChurchfeltobligedtoaccountforitbyexplainingthattheVirginwasofaverydarkcomplexion，asmightbeprovedbytheverseofCanticleswhichsays，’Iamblack，butcomely，OyedaughtersofJerusalem。’OthersmaintainedthatshebecameblackduringhersojourninEgypt……Priests，ofto-day，saythatextremeageandexposuretothesmokeofcountlessaltar-
candleshavecausedthatchangeincomplexionwhichthemorenaivefathersoftheChurchattributedtothepowerofanEgyptiansun\"；
butthewriterruthlesslydisposesofthissuppositionbypointingoutthatinnearlyalltheinstancesofblackMadonnasitisthefleshalonethatisentirelyblack，thecrimsonofthelips，thewhiteoftheeyes，andthedraperieshavingpreservedtheiroriginalcolour。Theauthoressofthearticle（Mrs。Hilliard）goesontotellusthatPausaniasmentionstwostatuesoftheblackVenus，andsaysthattheoldeststatueofCeresamongthePhigalenseswasblack。SheaddsthatMinervaAglaurus，thedaughterofCecrops，atAthens，wasblack；thatCorinthhadablackVenus，asalsotheThespians；thattheoraclesofDodonaandDelphiwerefoundedbyblackdoves，theemissariesofVenus，andthattheIsisMultimammiaintheCapitolatRomeisblack。
SometimesIhaveaskedmyselfwhethertheChurchdoesnotintendtosuggestthatthewholestoryfallsoutsidethedomainofhistory，andistobeheldastheonegreatepos，ormyth，commontoallmankind；adaptablebyeachnationaccordingtoitsownseveralneeds；translatable，sotospeak，intothefactsofeachindividualnation，asthewrittenwordistranslatableintoitslanguage，butappertainingtotherealmoftheimaginationratherthantothatoftheunderstanding，andpreciousforspiritualratherthanliteraltruths。Morebriefly，IhavewonderedwhethershemaynotintendthatsuchdetailsaswhethertheVirginwaswhiteorblackareofverylittleimportanceincomparisonwiththebasingofethicsonastorythatshallappealtoblackracesaswellastowhiteones。
Ifso，itistimeweweremadetounderstandthismoreclearly。IftheChurch，whetherofRomeorEngland，wouldleantosomesuchviewasthis——taintedthoughitbewithmysticism——ifwecouldseeeithergreatbranchoftheChurchmakeafrank，authoritativeattempttobringitsteachingintogreaterharmonywiththeeducatedunderstandingandconscienceofthetime，insteadoftryingtofetterthatunderstandingwithbondsthatgallitdailymoreandmoreprofoundly；thenI，forone，inviewofthedifficultyandgraciousnessofthetask，andinviewofthegreatimportanceofhistoricalcontinuity，wouldgladlysinkmuchofmyownprivateopinionastothevalueoftheChristianideal，andwouldgratefullyhelpeitherChurchorboth，accordingtothebestofmyveryfeebleability。Ontheseterms，indeed，Icouldswallownotafewcamelsmyselfcheerfullyenough。
Canwe，however，seeanysignsasthougheitherRomeorEnglandwillstirhandorfoottomeetus？CananystepbepointedtoasthougheitherChurchwishedtomakethingseasierformenholdingtheopinionsheldbythelateMr。Darwin，orbyMr。HerbertSpencerandProfessorHuxley？HowcanthosewhoacceptevolutionwithanythoroughnessacceptsuchdoctrinesastheIncarnationortheRedemptionwithanybutaquasi-allegoricalandpoeticalinterpretation？CanweconceivablyacceptthesedoctrinesintheliteralsenseinwhichtheChurchadvancesthem？AndcantheleadersoftheChurchbeblindtotheresistlessnessofthecurrentthathassetagainstthoseliteralinterpretationswhichsheseemstohugmoreandmorecloselythemorereligiouslifeisawakenedatall？Theclergymaniswantedassupplementingthedoctorandthelawyerinallcivilisedcommunities；thesethreekeepwatchononeanother，andpreventoneanotherfrombecomingtoopowerful。I，whodistrustthedoctrinaireinscienceevenmorethanthedoctrinaireinreligion，shouldviewwithdismaytheabolitionoftheChurchofEngland，asknowingthatablatantbastardsciencewouldinstantlystepintohershoes；butifsomesuchdeplorableconsummationistobeavoidedinEngland，itcanonlybethroughmoreevidentleaningonthepartofourclergytosuchaninterpretationoftheSacredHistoryasthepresenceofablackandwhiteMadonnaalmostsidebysideatOropaappearstosuggest。
IfearthatintheselastparagraphsImayhavetrenchedondangerousground，butitisnotpossibletogotosuchplacesasOropawithoutaskingoneselfwhattheymeanandinvolve。AsfortheaverageItalianpilgrims，theydonotappeartogivethemattersomuchasathought。TheyloveOropa，andflocktoitinthousandsduringthesummer；thePresidentoftheAdministrationassuredmethattheylodged，afterafashion，asmanyastenthousandpilgrimsonthe15thoflastAugust。Itisastonishinghowlivingthestatuesaretothesepeople，andhowthewickedareupbraidedandthegoodapplauded。AtVarallo，sinceItookthephotographsI
publishedinmybook\"ExVoto，\"anangrypilgrimhassmashedthenoseofthedwarfinTabachetti’sJourneytoCalvary，fornootherreasonthaninabilitytorestrainhisindignationagainstonewhowashelpingtoinflictpainonChrist。Itistherealhairandthepaintinguptonaturethatdoesthis。HereatOropaIfoundapaperontheflooroftheSposalizioChapel，whichranasfollows：-
\"BythegraceofGodandthewilloftheadministrativechapterofthissanctuary，therehavecomeheretowork————，mason————，carpenter，and————plumber，allofChiavazza，onthetwenty-firstdayofJanuary1886，fullofcold（pienidifreddo）。
\"Theywritethesetwolinestorecordtheirvisit。TheypraytheBlessedVirginthatshewillmaintainthemsafeandsoundfromeverythingequivocalthatmaybefallthem（sempresaniesalvidaogniequivocolipossaaccadere）。Oh，farewell！Wereverentlysaluteallthepresentstatues，andespeciallytheBlessedVirgin，andthereader。\"
ThroughtheUniversalReview，Isuppose，allitsreadersaretoconsiderthemselvessaluted；atanyrate，thesegoodfellows，intheeffusivenessoftheirhearts，actuallywrotetheaboveinpencil。I
wassorelytemptedtostealit，but，aftercopyingit，leftitintheChiefPriest’shandsinstead。
ARTINTHEVALLEYOFSAAS{11}
HavingbeentoldbyMr。Fortescue，oftheBritishMuseum，thatthereweresomechapelsatSaas-FeewhichboreanalogytothoseatVarallo，describedinmybook\"ExVoto，\"{12}IwenttoSaasduringthislastsummer，andventurenowtolaymyconclusionsbeforethereader。
Thechapelsarefifteeninnumber，andleaduptoalargerandsingularlygracefulone，rathermorethanhalf-waybetweenSaasandSaas-Fee。ThisiscommonlybutwronglycalledthechapelofSt。
Joseph，foritisdedicatedtotheVirgin，anditssituationisofsuchextremebeauty——thegreatFeeglaciersshowingthroughtheopenportico——thatitisinitselfworthapilgrimage。Itissurroundedbynoblelarchesandoverhungbyrock；infrontoftheporticothereisasmallopenspacecoveredwithgrass，andahugelarch，thestemofwhichisgirtbyarudestoneseat。Theporticoitselfcontainsseatsforworshippers，andapulpitfromwhichthepreacher’svoicecanreachthemanywhomuststandoutside。Thewallsoftheinnerchapelarehungwithvotivepictures，someofthemveryquaintandpleasing，andnotoverweightedbythosequalitiesthatareusuallydubbedbythenameofartisticmerit。Innumerablewoodenandwaxenrepresentationsofarms，legs，eyes，earsandbabiestellofthecuresthathavebeeneffectedduringtwocenturiesofdevotion，andcanhardlyfailtoawakenakindlysympathywiththelongdeadandforgottenfolkswhoplacedthemwheretheyare。
Themaininterest，however，despitetheextremelovelinessoftheSt。Mary’sChapel，centresratherinthesmallandoutwardlyunimportantoratories（iftheyshouldbesocalled）thatleaduptoit。ThesebeginimmediatelywiththeascentfromthelevelgroundonwhichthevillageofSaas-im-Grundisplaced，andcontainscenesinthehistoryoftheRedemption，representedbyrudebutspiritedwoodenfigures，eachabouttwofeethigh，painted，gilt，andrenderedaslife-likeinallrespectsascircumstanceswouldpermit。
Thefigureshavesufferedagooddealfromneglect，andarestillnotalittlemisplaced。Withtheassistance，however，oftheRev。
E。J。Selwyn，EnglishChaplainatSaas-im-Grund，Ihavebeenabletoreplacemanyofthemintheiroriginalpositions，asindicatedbythepartsofthefiguresthatareleftrough-hewnandunpainted。
Theyvaryagooddealininterest，andcanbeeasilysneeredatbythosewhomakeatradeofsneering。Those，ontheotherhand，whoremainunsophisticatedbyovermuchart-culturewillfindthemfullofcharacterinspiteofnotalittlerudenessofexecution，andwillbesurprisedatcomingacrosssuchworksinaplacesoremotefromanyart-centreasSaasmusthavebeenatthetimethesechapelsweremade。ItwillbemybusinessthereforetothrowwhatlightI
canuponthequestionshowtheycametobemadeatall，andwhowastheartistwhodesignedthem。
TheonlydocumentaryevidenceconsistsinachronicleofthevalleyofSaaswrittenintheearlyyearsofthiscenturybytheRev。PeterJos。Ruppen，andpublishedatSionin1851。ThisworkmakesfrequentreferencetoamanuscriptbytheRev。PeterJosephClemensLommatter，cureofSaas-Feefrom1738to1751，whichhasunfortunatelybeenlost，sothatwehavenomeansofknowinghowcloselyitwasadheredto。TheRev。Jos。Ant。Ruppen，thepresentexcellentcureofSaas-im-Grund，assuresmethatthereisnoreferencetotheSaas-Feeoratoriesinthe\"Actesdel’Eglise\"atSaas，whichIunderstandgoalongwayback；butIhavenotseenthesemyself。Practically，then，wehavenomoredocumentaryevidencethanistobefoundinthepublishedchronicleabovereferredto。
Wetherefinditstatedthatthelargechapel，commonly，butasaboveexplained，wronglycalledSt。Joseph’s，wasbuiltin1687，andenlargedbysubscriptionin1747。Thesedatesappearonthebuildingitself，andarenodoubtaccurate。Thewriteraddsthattherewasnoactualedificeonthissitebeforetheonenowexistingwasbuilt，buttherewasamiraculouspictureoftheVirginplacedinamuralniche，beforewhichthepiousherdsmenanddevoutinhabitantsofthevalleyworshippedunderthevaultofheaven。{13}
Amiraculous（ormiracle-working）picturewasalwaysmoreorlessrareandimportant；thepresentsite，therefore，seemstohavebeenlongoneofpeculiarsanctity。PossiblythenameFeemaypointtostillearlierPaganmysteriesonthesamesite。
Asregardsthefifteensmallchapels，thewritersaystheyillustratethefifteenmysteriesofthePsalter，andwerebuiltin1709，eachhouseholderoftheSaas-Feecontributingonechapel。HeaddsthatHeinrichAndenmatten，afterwardsabrotheroftheSocietyofJesus，wasanespecialbenefactororpromoteroftheundertaking。
Oneofthechapels，theAscension（No。12oftheseries），hasthedate1709paintedonit；butthereisnodateonanyotherchapel，andthereseemsnoreasonwhythisshouldbetakenasgoverningthewholeseries。
Overandabovethis，thereexistsinSaasatradition，asIwastoldimmediatelyonmyarrival，byanEnglishvisitor，thatthechapelswerebuiltinconsequenceofaflood，butIhavevainlyendeavouredtotracethisstorytoanindigenoussource。
Theinternalevidenceofthewoodenfiguresthemselves——nothinganalogoustowhich，itshouldberemembered，canbefoundinthechapelof1687——pointstoamuchearlierdate。Ihavemetwithnoschoolofsculpturebelongingtotheearlypartoftheeighteenthcenturytowhichtheycanbeplausiblyassigned；andthesuppositionthattheyaretheworkofsomeunknownlocalgeniuswhowasnotleduptoandleftnosuccessorsmaybedismissed，fortheworkistooscholarlytohavecomefromanyonebutatrainedsculptor。Ireferofcoursetothosefigureswhichtheartistmustbesupposedtohaveexecutedwithhisownhand，as，forexample，thecentralfigureoftheCrucifixiongroupandthoseoftheMagdaleneandSt。John。Thegreaternumberofthefigureswereprobably，aswassuggestedtomebyMr。Ranshaw，ofLowth，executedbyalocalwoodcarverfrommodelsinclayandwaxfurnishedbytheartisthimself。Thosewhoexaminetheplayoflineinthehair，mantle，andsleeveoftheMagdaleneintheCrucifixiongroup，andcontrastitwiththegreaterpartoftheremainingdraperies，willfindlittlehesitationinconcludingthatthiswasthecase，andwillerelongreadilydistinguishthetwohandsfromwhichthefigureshavemainlycome。Isay\"mainly，\"
becausethereisatleastoneothersculptorwhomaywellhavebelongedtotheyear1709，butwhofortunatelyhasleftuslittle。
ExamplesofhisworkmayperhapsbeseeninthenearestvillainwithabighatintheFlagellationchapel，andintwocherubsintheAssumptionoftheVirgin。
Wemaysay，then，withsomecertainty，thatthedesignerwasacultivatedandpractisedartist。WemayalsonotlesscertainlyconcludethathewasofFlemishorigin，forthehorsesintheJourneytoCalvaryandCrucifixionchapels，wherealonethereareanyhorsesatall，areofFlemishbreed，withnotraceoftheArabbloodadoptedbyGaudenzioatVarallo。Thecharacter，moreover，ofthevillainsisNorthern——oftheQuentinMatsys，MartinSchongauertype，ratherthanItalian；thesamesub-RubensesquefeelingwhichisapparentinmorethanonechapelatVaralloisnotlessevidenthere——especiallyintheJourneytoCalvaryandCrucifixionchapels。
Therecanhardly，therefore，beadoubtthattheartistwasaFlemingwhohadworkedforseveralyearsinItaly。
ItisalsoevidentthathehadTabachetti’sworkatVarallowellinhismind。Fornotonlydoesheadoptcertaindetailsofcostume（I
referparticularlytothetreatmentofsoldiers’tunics）whicharepeculiartoTabachettiatVarallo，butwheneverhetreatsasubjectwhichTabachettihadtreatedatVarallo，asintheFlagellation，CrowningwithThorns，andJourneytoCalvarychapels，theworkatSaasisevidentlynothingbutasomewhatmodifiedabridgementofthatatVarallo。When，however，asintheAnnunciation，theNativity，theCrucifixion，andotherchapels，theworkatVaralloisbyanotherthanTabachetti，noallusionismadetoit。TheSaasartisthasTabachetti’sVaralloworkathisfinger-ends，butbetraysnoacquaintancewhateverwithGaudenzioFerrari，Gio。Ant。Paracca，orGiovanniD’Enrico。
Even，moreover，whenTabachetti’sworkatVaralloisbeingmostobviouslydrawnfrom，asintheJourneytoCalvarychapel，theSaasversiondiffersmateriallyfromthatatVarallo，andisinsomerespectsanimprovementonit。Theideaofshowingotherhorsemenandfollowerscomingupfrombehind，whoseheadscanbeseenoverthecrownoftheinterposinghill，issingularlyeffectiveassuggestinganumberofothersthatareunseen，norcanIconceivethatanyonebuttheoriginaldesignerwouldfollowTabachetti’sVarallodesignwithasmuchclosenessasithasbeenfollowedhere，andyetmakesuchabrilliantlysuccessfulmodification。Thestumbling，again，ofonehorse（adetailalmosthidden，accordingtoTabachetti’swont）isatouchwhichTabachettihimselfmightadd，butwhichnoSaaswoodcarverwhowasmerelyadaptingfromareminiscenceofTabachetti’sVarallochapelwouldbelikelytointroduce。TheseconsiderationshaveconvincedmethatthedesignerofthechapelsatSaasisnoneotherthanTabachettihimself，who，ashasbeennowconclusivelyshown，wasanativeofDinant，inBelgium。
TheSaaschronicler，indeed，aversthatthechapelswerenotbuilttill1709——astatementapparentlycorroboratedbyadatenowvisibleononechapel；butwemustrememberthatthechroniclerdidnotwriteuntilacenturyorsolaterthan1709，andthough，indeed，hisstatementmayhavebeentakenfromthelostearliermanuscriptof1738，weknownothingaboutthiseitheronewayortheother。Thewritermayhavegonebythestillexisting1709ontheAscensionchapel，whereasthisdatemayinfacthavereferredtoarestoration，andnottoanoriginalconstruction。Thereisnothing，asIhavesaid，inthechoiceofthechapelonwhichthedateappears，tosuggestthatitwasintendedtogoverntheothers。I
haveexplainedthattheworkisisolatedandexotic。ItisbyoneinwhomFlemishandItalianinfluencesarealikeequallypredominant；byonewhowassaturatedwithTabachetti’sVarallowork，andwhocanimproveuponit，butoverwhomtheotherVarallosculptorshavenopower。Thestyleoftheworkisofthesixteenthandnotoftheeighteenthcentury——withafewobviousexceptionsthatsuittheyear1709exceedinglywell。Againstsuchconsiderationsasthese，astatementmadeatthebeginningofthiscenturyreferringtoacenturyearlier，andapromiscuousdateupononechapel，cancarrybutlittleweight。Ishallassume，therefore，henceforward，thatwehaveheregroupsdesignedinaplasticmaterialbyTabachetti，andreproducedinwoodbythebestlocalwood-sculptoravailable，withtheexceptionofafewfigurescutbytheartisthimself。
Weask，then，atwhatperiodinhislifedidTabachettidesignthesechapels，andwhatledtohiscomingtosuchanout-of-the-wayplaceasSaasatall？Weshouldrememberthat，accordingbothtoFassolaandTorrotti（writingin1671and1686respectively），Tabachetti{14}becameinsaneabouttheyear1586orearlyin1587，afterhavingjustbeguntheSalutationchapel。Ihaveexplainedin\"ExVoto\"thatIdonotbelievethisstory。IhavenodoubtthatTabachettiwasdeclaredtobemad，butIbelievethistohavebeenduetoanintrigue，setonfootinordertogetaforeignartistoutoftheway，andtosecuretheMassacreoftheInnocentschapel，atthatprecisetimeundertaken，forGio。Ant。Paracca，whowasanItalian。
OrhemayhavebeensacrificedinordertofacilitatethereturnoftheworkersinstuccowhomhehadsupersededontheSacroMonte。Hemayhavebeengoadedintosomeimprudencewhichwasseizeduponasapretextforshuttinghimup；atanyrate，thefactthatwhenin1587
heinheritedhisfather’spropertyatDinant，histrustee（hebeingexpresslystatedtobe\"expatrie\"）was\"datif，\"\"dativus，\"appointednotbyhimselfbutbythecourt，lendscolourtothestatementthathewasnothisownmasteratthetime；forinlaterkindreddeeds，nowatNamur，heappointshisowntrustee。Isuppose，then，thatTabachettiwasshutupinamadhouseatVaralloforaconsiderabletime，duringwhichIcanfindnotraceofhim，butthateventuallyheescapedorwasreleased。
Whetherhewasafugitive，orwhetherhewasletoutfromprison，hewouldineithercase，inallreasonableprobability，turnhisfacehomeward。Ifhewasescaping，hewouldmakeimmediatelyfortheSavoyfrontier，withinwhichSaasthenlay。HewouldcrosstheBarancaaboveFobello，comingdownontoPonteGrandeintheValAnzasca。HewouldgouptheValAnzascatoMacugnaga，andovertheMonteMoro，whichwouldbringhimimmediatelytoSaas。Saas，therefore，isthenearestandmostnaturalplaceforhimtomakefor，ifhewereflyingfromVarallo，andhereIsupposehimtohavehalted。
Itsohappenedthatonthe9thofSeptember，1589，therewasoneofthethreegreatoutbreaksoftheMattmarkSeethathavefromtimetotimedevastatedthevalleyofSaas。{15}ItisprobablethatthechapelsweredecideduponinconsequenceofsomegraceshownbythemiraculouspictureoftheVirgin，whichhadmitigatedadisasteroccurringsosoonaftertheanniversaryofherownNativity。
Tabachetti，arrivingatthisjuncture，mayhaveofferedtoundertakethemiftheSaaspeoplewouldgivehimanasylum。Here，atanyrate，Isupposehimtohavestayedtillsometimein1590，probablythesecondhalfofit，hisdesignofeventuallyreturninghome，ifheeverentertainedit，beingtheninterruptedbyasummonstoCreanearCasale，whereIbelievehimtohaveworkedwithafewbriefinterruptionsthenceforwardforlittleifatallshortofhalfacentury，oruntilabouttheyear1640。Iadmit，however，thattheevidenceforassigninghimsolongaliferestssolelyonthesupposedidentityofthefigureknownas\"IlVecchietto，\"intheVaralloDescentfromtheCrosschapel，withtheportraitofTabachettihimselfintheEcceHomochapel，alsoatVarallo。
IfindadditionalreasonforthinkingthechapelsowetheirorigintotheinundationofSeptember9，1589，inthefactthatthe8thofSeptemberismadeadayofpilgrimagetotheSaas-FeechapelsthroughoutthewholevalleyofSaas。Itistruethe8thofSeptemberisthefestivaloftheNativityoftheVirginMary，sothatunderanycircumstancesthiswouldbeagreatday，butthefactthatnotonlythepeopleofSaas，butthewholevalleydowntoVisp，flocktothischapelonthe8thofSeptember，pointstothebeliefthatsomespecialactofgraceonthepartoftheVirginwasvouchsafedonthisdayinconnectionwiththischapel。AbeliefthatitwasowingtotheinterventionofSt。MaryofFeethattheinundationwasnotattendedwithlossoflifewouldbeverylikelytoleadtothefoundationofaseriesofchapelsleadinguptotheplacewherehermiraculouspicturewasplaced，andtothemorespecialcelebrationofherNativityinconnectionwiththisspotthroughoutthevalleyofSaas。IhavediscussedthesubjectwiththeRev。Jos。Ant。Ruppen，andhetoldmehethoughtthefactthatthegreatfeteoftheyearinconnectionwiththeSaas-Feechapelswasonthe8thofSeptemberpointedratherstronglytothesuppositionthattherewasaconnectionbetweentheseandtherecordedfloodofSeptember9，1589。
Turningtotheindividualchapelstheyareasfollows：-
1。TheAnnunciation。ThetreatmentherepresentsnomoreanalogytothatofthesamesubjectatVarallothanisinevitableinthenatureofthesubject。TheAnnunciationfiguresatVarallohaveprovedtobemeredrapeddummieswithwoodenheads；Tabachetti，eventhoughhedidtheheads，whichheverylikelydid，wouldtakenointerestintheVaralloworkwiththesamesubject。TheAnnunciation，fromitsverysimplicityaswellasfromthetranscendentalnatureofthesubject，issingularlyhardtotreat，andtheworkhere，whateveritmayoncehavebeen，isnownolongerremarkable。
2。TheSalutationofMarybyElizabeth。Thisgroup，again，bearsnoanalogytotheSalutationchapelatVarallo，inwhichTabachetti’ssharewassosmallthatitcannotbeconsideredasinanywayhis。Itisnottobeexpected，therefore，thattheSaaschapelshouldfollowtheVaralloone。Thefigures，fourinnumber，arepleasingandwellarranged。St。Joseph，St。Elizabeth，andSt。
Zachariasarealltalkingatonce。TheVirginisalonesilent。
3。TheNativityismuchdamagedandhardtosee。ThetreatmentbearsnoanalogytothatadoptedbyGaudenzioFerrariatVarallo。
Thereisonepleasingyoungshepherdstandingagainstthewall，butsomefigureshavenodoubt（asinothersofthechapels）
disappeared，andthosethatremainhavebeensoshiftedfromtheiroriginalpositionsthatverylittleideacanbeformedofwhatthegroupwaslikewhenTabachettileftit。
4。ThePurification。Icanhardlysaywhythischapelshouldremindme，asitdoes，oftheCircumcisionchapelatVarallo，fortherearemorefiguresherethanspaceatVarallowillallow。Itcannotbepretendedthatanysinglefigureisofextraordinarymerit，butamongstthemtheytelltheirstorywithexcellenteffect。
Two，thoseofSt。JosephandSt。Anna（？），thatdoubtlesswereoncemoreimportantfactorsinthedrama，arenowsomuchincornersnearthewindowthattheycanhardlybeseen。
5。TheDisputeintheTemple。ThissubjectisnottreatedatVarallo。HereatSaasthereareonlysixdoctorsnow；whetherornotherewereoriginallymorecannotbedetermined。
6。TheAgonyintheGarden。TabachettihadnochapelwiththissubjectatVarallo，andthereisnoresemblancebetweentheSaaschapelandthatbyD’Enrico。Thefiguresarenodoubtapproximatelyintheiroriginalpositions，butIhavenoconfidencethatIhaverearrangedthemcorrectly。TheywereinsuchconfusionwhenIfirstsawthemthattheRev。E。J。Selwynandmyselfdeterminedtorearrangethem。TheyhavedoubtlessbeenshiftedmorethanoncesinceTabachettileftthem。Thesleepingfiguresareallgood。St。
Jamesisperhapsalittleprosaic。OneRomansoldierwhoiscomingintothegardenwithalantern，andmotioningsilencewithhishand，doesdutyfortheothersthataretofollowhim。IshouldthinkmorethanoneofthesefiguresisactuallycarvedinwoodbyTabachetti，allowancebeingmadeforthefactthathewasworkinginamaterialwithwhichhewasnotfamiliar，andwhichnosculptorofthehighestrankhaseverfoundcongenial。
7。TheFlagellation。TabachettihasachapelwiththissubjectatVarallo，andtheSaasgroupisobviouslyadescentwithmodificationfromhisworkthere。ThefigureofChristissoliketheoneatVarallothatIthinkitmusthavebeencarvedbyTabachettihimself。
Themanwiththehookednose，whoatVaralloisstoopingtobindhisrods，ishereupright：itwasprobablytheintentiontoemphasisehiminthesucceedingscenesaswellasthis，inthesamewayashehasbeenemphasisedatVarallo，buthisnosegotpareddowninthecuttingoflaterscenes，andcouldnoteasilybeaddedto。ThemanbindingChristtothecolumnatVaralloisrepeated（longointervallo）here，andthewholeworkisoneinspiredbythatatVarallo，thoughnosinglefigureexceptthatoftheChristisadheredtowithanyverygreatcloseness。Ithinkthenearermalefactor，withagoitre，andwearingalargeblackhat，iseitheranadditionoftheyear1709，orwasdonebythejourneymanofthelocalsculptorwhocarvedthegreaternumberofthefigures。Themanstoopingdowntobindhisrodscanhardlybebythesamehandaseitherofthetwoblack-hattedmalefactors，butitisimpossibletospeakwithcertainty。Thegeneraleffectofthechapelisexcellent，ifweconsiderthematerialinwhichitisexecuted，andtherudenessoftheaudiencetowhomitaddressesitself。
8。TheCrowningwithThorns。HereagaintheinspirationisderivedfromTabachetti’sCrowningwithThornsatVarallo。TheChristsinthetwochapelsarestrikinglyalike，andthegeneraleffectisthatofaresiduaryimpressionleftinthemindofonewhohadknowntheVaralloFlagellationexceedinglywell。
9。Sta。Veronica。Thisandthenextsucceedingchapelsarethemostimportantoftheseries。Tabachetti’sJourneytoCalvaryatVaralloisagainthesourcefromwhichthepresentworkwastaken，but，asIhavealreadysaid，ithasbeenmodifiedinreproduction。
MountCalvaryisstillshown，asatVarallo，towardstheleft-handcornerofthework，butatSaasitismoretowardsthemiddlethanatVarallo，sothathorsemenandsoldiersmaybeseencomingupbehindit——astrokethatdeservesthenameofgeniusnonethelessforthemanifestimperfectionwithwhichithasbeencarriedintoexecution。Thereareonlythreehorsesfullyshown，andonepartlyshown。TheyarealloftheheavyFlemishtypeadoptedbyTabachettiatVarallo。ThemankickingthefallenChristandthegoitredman（withthesameteethmissing），whoaresoconspicuousintheVaralloJourneytoCalvary，reappearhere，onlythekickingmanhasmuchlessnosethanatVarallo，probablybecause（asexplained）thenosegotwhittledawayandcouldnotbewhittledbackagain。IobservethatthekindoflapelledtunicwhichTabachetti，andonlyTabachetti，adoptsatVarallo，isadoptedforthecenturioninthischapel，andindeedthroughouttheSaaschapelsthisparticularformoftunicisthemostusualforaRomansoldier。Theworkisstillaverystrikingone，notwithstandingitstranslationintowoodandthedecayintowhichithasbeenallowedtofall；norcanitfailtoimpressthevisitorwhoisfamiliarwiththisclassofartascomingfromamanofextraordinarydramaticpowerandcommandoverthealmostimpossibleartofcomposingmanyfigurestogethereffectivelyinall-roundsculpture。WhetherallthefiguresareevennowasTabachettileftthemIcannotdetermine，butMr。SelwynhasrestoredSimontheCyreniantothepositioninwhichheobviouslyoughttostand，andbetweenuswehavegotthechapelintosomethingmorelikeorder。
10。TheCrucifixion。ThissubjectwastreatedatVarallonotbyTabachettibutbyGaudenzioFerrari。ItconfirmsthereforemyopinionastothedesigneroftheSaaschapelstofindinthemnotraceoftheVaralloCrucifixion，whilethekindoftunicwhichatVaralloisonlyfoundinchapelswhereinTabachettiworkedagainappearshere。Theworkisinadeplorablestateofdecay。Mr。
Selwynhasgreatlyimprovedthearrangementofthefigures，butevennowtheyarenot，Iimagine，quiteasTabachettileftthem。ThefigureofChristisgreatlybetterintechnicalexecutionthanthatofeitherofthetwothieves；thefoldsofthedraperyalonewillshowthiseventoanunpractisedeye。IdonotthinktherecanbeadoubtbutthatTabachetticutthisfigurehimself，asalsothoseoftheMagdaleneandSt。John，whostandatthefootofthecross。Thethievesarecoarselyexecuted，withnoveryobviousdistinctionbetweenthepenitentandtheimpenitentone，exceptthatthereisafiendpaintedontheceilingovertheimpenitentthief。TheonehorseintroducedintothecompositionisagainoftheheavyFlemishtypeadoptedbyTabachettiatVarallo。Thereisgreatdifferenceinthecarewithwhichthefoldsontheseveraldraperieshavebeencut，somebeingstiffandpoorenough，whileothersaredoneverysufficiently。Inspiteofsmallnessofscale，ignoblematerial，disarrangementanddecay，theworkisstillstriking。
11。TheResurrection。TherebeingnochapelatVarallowithanyoftheremainingsubjectstreatedatSaas，thesculptorhasstruckoutalineforhimself。TheChristintheResurrectionChapelisacarefullymodelledfigure，andifbetterpaintedmightnotbeineffective。Threesoldiers，onesleeping，aloneremain。Therewereprobablyotherfiguresthathavebeenlost。Thesleepingsoldierisverypleasing。
12。TheAscensionisnotremarkablyinteresting；theChristappearstobe，butperhapsisnot，amuchmoremodernfigurethantherest。
18。TheDescentoftheHolyGhost。Someofthefiguresalongtheendwallareverygood，andwere，Ishouldimagine，cutbyTabachettihimself。Thoseagainstthetwosidewallsarenotsowellcut。
14。TheAssumptionoftheVirginMary。Thetwolargecherubshereareobviouslybyalaterhand，andthesmallonesarenotgood。ThefigureoftheVirginherselfisunexceptionable。ThereweredoubtlessonceotherfiguresoftheApostleswhichhavedisappeared；
oftheseasingleSt。Peter（？），sohiddenawayinacornernearthewindowthatitcanonlybeseenwithdifficulty，isthesolesurvivor。
15。TheCoronationoftheVirginisoflaterdate，andhasprobablysupersededanearlierwork。Itcanhardlybebythedesigneroftheotherchapelsoftheseries。PerhapsTabachettihadtoleaveforCreabeforeallthechapelsatSaaswerefinished。
Lastly，wehavethelargerchapeldedicatedtoSt。Mary，whichcrownstheseries。Herethereisnothingofmorethancommonartisticinterest，unlessweexceptthestonealtarmentionedinRuppen’schronicle。Thisisofcourseclassicalinstyle，andis，I
shouldthink，verygood。
OncemoreImustcautionthereaderagainstexpectingtofindhighly-finishedgemsofartinthechapelsIhavebeendescribing。
Awoodenfigurenotmorethantwofeethighcloggedwithmanycoatsofpaintcanhardlyclaimtobetakenveryseriously，andeventhosefewthatwerecutbyTabachettihimselfwerenotmeanttohaveattentionconcentratedonthemselvesalone。Asmerewood-carvingtheSaas-Feechapelswillnotstandcomparison，forexample，withthetriptychofunknownauthorshipintheChurchofSt。AnneatGliss，closetoBrieg。But，inthefirstplace，theworkatGlissisworthyofHolbeinhimself：Iknownowood-carvingthatcansorivettheattention；moreoveritiscolouredwithwater-colourandnotoil，sothatitistinted，notpainted；and，inthesecondplace，theGlisstriptychbelongstoadate（1519）whenartistsheldneithertimenorimpressionismasobjects，andhence，thoughgreatlybetterthantheSaas-FeechapelsasregardsacertainJapanesecuriousnessoffinishandnaiveteofliteraltranscription，itcannotevenenterthelistswiththeSaasworkasregardselananddramaticeffectiveness。Thedifferencebetweenthetwoclassesofworkismuchthatbetween，say，JohnVanEyckorMemlingandRubensorRembrandt，or，again，betweenGiovanniBelliniandTintoretto；
theaimsoftheoneclassofworkareincompatiblewiththoseoftheother。Moreover，intheGlisstriptychtheintentionofthedesigneriscarriedout（whetherbyhimselforno）withadmirableskill；whereasatSaasthewisdomoftheworkmanisratherofOber-
AmmergauthanoftheEgyptians，andthevoiceofthepoetisnotalittledrownedinthatofhismouthpiece。If，however，thereaderwillbearinmindthesesomewhatobviousconsiderations，andwillalsorememberthepatheticcircumstancesunderwhichthechapelsweredesigned——forTabachettiwhenhereachedSaaswasnodoubtshatteredinbodyandmindbyhisfouryears’imprisonment——hewillprobablybenotlessattractedtothemthanIobservedweremanyofthevisitorsbothatSaas-GrundandSaas-FeewithwhomIhadthepleasureofexaminingthem。
IwillnowrunbrieflythroughtheotherprincipalworksintheneighbourhoodtowhichIthinkthereaderwouldbegladtohavehisattentiondirected。
AtSaas-Feeitselfthemainaltar-pieceiswithoutinterest，asalsoonewithafigureofSt。Sebastian。TheVirginandChildabovetheremainingaltarare，sofarasIrememberthem，verygood，andgreatlysuperiortothesmallerfiguresofthesamealtar-piece。
AtAlmagel，anhour’swalkorsoaboveSaas-Grund——avillage，thenameofwhich，likethoseoftheAlphubel，theMonteMoro，andmorethanoneotherneighbouringsite，issupposedtobeofSaracenicorigin——themainaltar-piecerepresentsafemalesaintwithfoldedarmsbeingbeheadedbyavigorousmantotheleft。Thesetwofiguresareverygood。Therearetwosomewhatinferiorelderstotheright，andthecompositioniscrownedbytheAssumptionoftheVirgin。Ilikethework，buthavenoideawhodidit。Twobishopsflankingthecompositionarenotsogood。Therearetwootheraltarsinthechurch：theright-handonehassomepleasingfigures，notsotheleft-hand。
InSt。Joseph’sChapel，onthemule-roadbetweenSaas-GrundandSaas-Fee，theSt。Josephandthetwochildrenarerathernice。InthechurchesandchapelswhichIlookedintobetweenSaasandStalden，Isawmanyfloridextravagantaltar-pieces，butnothingthatimpressedmefavourably。
IntheparishchurchatSaas-Grundtherearetwoaltar-pieceswhichdeserveattention。IntheoneoverthemainaltarthearrangementoftheLastSupperinadeeprecesshalf-wayupthecompositionisverypleasingandeffective；inthatabovetheright-handaltarofthetwothatstandinthebodyofthechurchthereareanumberofroundlunettes，abouteightinchesindiameter，eachcontainingasmallbutspiritedgroupofwoodenfigures。Ihavelostmynotesonthesealtar-piecesandcanonlyrememberthatthemainonehasbeenrestored，andnowbelongstotwodifferentdates，theearlierdatebeing，Ishouldimagine，about1670。AsimilartreatmentoftheLastSuppermaybefoundnearBrieginthechurchofNaters，andnodoubtthetwoaltar-piecesarebythesameman。Thereare，bytheway，twoveryambitiousaltarsoneithersidethemainarchleadingtothechanceinthechurchatNaters，ofwhichtheoneonthesouthsidecontainsobviousreminiscencesofGaudenzioFerrari’sSta。
MariafrescoesatVarallo；butnoneofthefouraltar-piecesinthetwotranseptstemptedmetogivethemmuchattention。Asregardsthesmalleraltar-pieceatSaas-Grund，analogousworkmaybefoundatCravagliana，half-waybetweenVaralloandFobello，butthislasthassufferedthroughtheinveteratehabitwhichItalianshaveofshowingtheirhatredtowardstheenemiesofChristbymutilatingthefiguresthatrepresentthem。WhethertheSaasworkisbyaValsesianartistwhocameovertoSwitzerland，orwhethertheCravaglianaworkisbyaSwisswhohadcometoItaly，IcannotsaywithoutfurtherconsiderationandcloserexaminationthanIhavebeenabletogive。Thealtar-piecesofMairengo，Chiggiogna，and，I
amtold，Lavertezzo，allintheCantonTicino，arebyaSwissorGermanartistwhohasmigratedsouthward；butthereversemigrationwasequallycommon。
Beingintheneighbourhood，andwishingtoassuremyselfwhetherthesculptoroftheSaas-Feechapelshadorhadnotcomelowerdownthevalley，IexaminedeverychurchandvillagewhichIcouldhearofascontaininganythingthatmightthrowlightonthispoint。IwasthusledtoVispertimenen，avillagesomethreehoursaboveeitherVisporStalden。Itstandsveryhigh，andisanalmostuntouchedexampleofamedievalvillage。Thealtar-pieceofthemainchurchisevenmorefloridlyambitiousinitsabundanceofcarvingandgildingthanthemanyotherambitiousaltar-pieceswithwhichtheCantonValaisabounds。TheApostlesarereceivingtheHolyGhostonthefirststoreyofthecomposition，andtheycertainlyarereceivingitwithanoverjoyedalacrityandhilariousecstasyofallegriaspiritualewhichitwouldnotbeeasytosurpass。Abovethevillage，reachingalmosttothelimitsbeyondwhichthereisnocultivation，therestandsaseriesofchapelslikethoseIhavebeendescribingatSaas-Fee，onlymuchlargerandmoreambitious。Theyaretwelveinnumber，includingthechurchthatcrownstheseries。
Thefigurestheycontainareofwood（soIwasassured，butIdidnotgoinsidethechapels）：theyarelife-size，andinsomechapelsthereareasmanyasadozenfigures。Ishouldthinktheybelongedtothelaterhalfofthelastcentury，andhere，onewouldsay，sculpturetouchestheground；atleast，itisnoteasytoseehowcheapexaggerationcansinkanartmoredeeply。TheonlythingsthatatallpleasedmewereasmilingdonkeyandanecstaticcowintheNativitychapel。Thosewhoarenotalluredbytheprospectofseeingperhapstheveryworstthatcanbedoneinitsownline，neednotbeatthepainsofclimbinguptoVispertimenen。Those，ontheotherhand，whomayfindthissufficientinducementwillnotbedisappointed，andtheywillenjoymagnificentviewsoftheWeisshornandthemountainsneartheDom。
IhavealreadyreferredtothetriptychatGliss。ThisisfiguredinWolf’sworkonChamonixandtheCantonValais，butalargerandclearerreproductionofsuchanextraordinaryworkisgreatlytobedesired。Thesmallwoodenstatuesabovethetriptych，asalsothoseaboveitsmoderncompanioninthesouthtransept，arenotlessadmirablethanthetriptychitself。Iknowofnootherlikeworkinwood，andhavenocluewhateverastowhotheauthorcanhavebeenbeyondthefactthattheworkispurelyGermanandeminentlyHolbeinesqueincharacter。
IwastoldofsomechapelsatRarogne，fiveorsixmileslowerdownthevalleythanVisp。Iexaminedthem，andfoundtheyhadbeenstrippedoftheirfigures。Thefewthatremainedsatisfiedmethatwehavehadnoloss。AboveBriegtherearetwootherlikeseriesofchapels。Iexaminedthehigherandmorepromisingofthetwo，butfoundnotonesinglefigureleft。Iwastoldbymydriverthattheotherseries，closetothePontNapoleonontheSimplonroad，hadbeenalsostrippedofitsfigures，and，therebeingaheavystormatthetime，havetakenhiswordforitthatthiswasso。
THOUGHTANDLANGUAGE{16}
Threewell-knownwriters，ProfessorMaxMuller，ProfessorMivart，andMr。AlfredRusselWallacehavelatelymaintainedthatthoughthetheoryofdescentwithmodificationaccountsforthedevelopmentofallvegetablelife，andofallanimalslowerthanman，yetthatmancannot——notatleastinrespectofthewholeofhisnature——beheldtohavedescendedfromanyanimallowerthanhimself，inasmuchasnonelowerthanmanpossesseseventhegermsoflanguage。Reason，itiscontended——moreespeciallybyProfessorMaxMullerinhis\"ScienceofThought，\"towhichIproposeconfiningourattentionthisevening——issoinseparablyconnectedwithlanguage，thatthetwoareinpointoffactidentical；henceitisarguedthat，astheloweranimalshavenogermsoflanguage，theycanhavenogermsofreason，andtheinferenceisdrawnthatmancannotbeconceivedashavingderivedhisownreasoningpowersandcommandoflanguagethroughdescentfrombeingsinwhichnogermofeithercanbefound。
Therelationsthereforebetweenthoughtandlanguage，interestinginthemselves，acquireadditionalimportancefromthefactoftheirhavingbecomethebattle-groundbetweenthosewhosaythatthetheoryofdescentbreaksdownwithman，andthosewhomaintainthatwearedescendedfromsomeape-likeancestorlongsinceextinct。
Thecontentionofthosewhorefusetoadmitmanunreservedlyintotheschemeofevolutioniscomparativelyrecent。Thegreatpropoundersofevolution，Buffon，ErasmusDarwinandLamarck——nottomentionascoreofotherswhowroteatthecloseofthelastandearlypartofthispresentcentury——hadnoqualmsaboutadmittingmanintotheirsystem。TheyhavebeenfollowedinthisrespectbythelateMr。CharlesDarwin，andbythegreatlymoreinfluentialpartofourmodernbiologists，whoholdthatwhateverlossofdignitywemayincurthroughbeingprovedtobeofhumbleorigin，iscompensatedbythecreditwemayclaimforhavingadvancedourselvestosuchahighpitchofcivilisation；thisbidsusexpectstillfurtherprogress，andglorifiesourdescendantsmorethanitabasesourancestors。Buttowhicheverviewwemayinclineonsentimentalgroundsthefactremainsthat，whileCharlesDarwindeclaredlanguagetoformnoimpassablebarrierbetweenmanandtheloweranimals，ProfessorMaxMullercallsittheRubiconwhichnobrutedarecross，anddeduceshencetheconclusionthatmancannothavedescendedfromanunknownbutcertainlyspeechlessape。