ItmayperhapsbeexpectedthatIshouldbeginalectureontherelationsbetweenthoughtandlanguagewithsomedefinitionofboththesethings;butthought,asSirWilliamGrovesaidofmotion,isaphenomenon\"soobvioustosimpleapprehension,thattodefineitwouldmakeitmoreobscure。\"{17}Definitionsareusefulwherethingsarenewtous,buttheyaresuperfluousaboutthosethatarealreadyfamiliar,andmischievous,sofarastheyarepossibleatall,inrespectofallthosethingsthatentersoprofoundlyandintimatelyintoourbeingthatinthemwemusteitherliveorbearnolife。Tovivisectthemorevitalprocessesofthoughtistosuspend,ifnottodestroythem;forthoughtcanthinkabouteverythingmorehealthilyandeasilythanaboutitself。Itislikeitsinstrumentthebrain,whichknowsnothingofanyinjuriesinflicteduponitself。Asregardswhatisnewtous,adefinitionwillsometimesdiluteadifficulty,andhelpustoswallowthatwhichmightchokeusundiluted;buttodefinewhenwehaveoncewellswallowedistounsettle,ratherthansettle,ourdigestion。
Definitions,again,arelikestepscutinasteepslopeofice,orshellsthrownontoagreasypavement;theygiveusfoothold,andenableustoadvance,butwhenweareatourjourney’sendwewantthemnolonger。Again,theyareusefulasmentalfluxes,andashelpingustofusenewideaswithourolderones。Theypresentuswithsometagsandendsofideasthatwehavealreadymastered,ontowhichwecanhitchournewones;buttomultiplytheminrespectofsuchamatterasthought,islikescratchingthebiteofagnat;
themorewescratchthemorewewanttoscratch;themorewedefinethemoreweshallhavetogoondefiningthewordswehaveusedinourdefinitions,andshallendbysettingupaseriousmentalrawintheplaceofasmalluneasinessthatwasafterallquiteendurable。
Weknowtoowellwhatthoughtis,tobeabletoknowthatweknowit,andIampersuadedthereisnooneinthisroombutunderstandswhatismeantbythoughtandthinkingwellenoughforallthepurposesofthisdiscussion。Whoeverdoesnotknowthiswithoutwordswillnotlearnitforallthewordsanddefinitionsthatarelaidbeforehim。Themore,indeed,hehears,themoreconfusedhewillbecome。Ishall,therefore,merelypremisethatIusetheword\"thought\"inthesamesenseasthatinwhichitisgenerallyusedbypeoplewhosaythattheythinkthisorthat。Atanyrate,itwillbeenoughifItakeProfessorMaxMuller’sowndefinition,andsaythatitsessenceconsistsinabringingtogetherofmentalimagesandideaswithdeductionstherefrom,andwithacorrespondingpowerofdetachingthemfromoneanother。Hobbes,theProfessortellsus,maintainedthislongago,whenhesaidthatallourthinkingconsistsofadditionandsubtraction——thatistosay,inbringingideastogether,andindetachingthemfromoneanother。
Turningfromthoughttolanguage,weobservethatthewordisderivedfromtheFrenchlangue,ortongue。Strictly,therefore,itmeanstonguage。This,however,takesaccountofbutaverysmallpartoftheideasthatunderlietheword。Itdoes,indeed,seizeafamiliarandimportantdetailofeverydayspeech,thoughitmaybedoubtedwhetherthetonguehasmoretodowithspeakingthanlips,teethandthroathave,butitmakesnoattemptatgraspingandexpressingtheessentialcharacteristicofspeech。Anythingdonewiththetongue,eventhoughitinvolvenospeakingatall,istonguage;eatingorangesisasmuchtonguageasspeechis。Theword,therefore,thoughittellsusinparthowspeechiseffected,revealsnothingofthatulteriormeaningwhichisneverthelessinseparablefromanyrightuseofthewordseither\"speech\"or\"language。\"Itpresentsuswithwhatisindeedaveryfrequentadjunctofconversation,buttheuseofwrittencharacters,orthefinger-speechofdeafmutes,isenoughtoshowthattheword\"language\"omitsallreferencetothemostessentialcharacteristicsoftheidea,whichinpracticeitneverthelessverysufficientlypresentstous。Ihopepresentlytomakeitcleartoyouhowandwhyitshoulddoso。Thewordisincompleteinthefirstplace,becauseitomitsallreferencetotheideaswhichwords,speechorlanguageareintendedtoconvey,andtherecanbenotruewordwithoutitsactuallyorpotentiallyconveyinganidea。Secondly,itmakesnoallusiontothepersonorpersonstowhomtheideasaretobeconveyed。Languageisnotlanguageunlessitnotonlyexpressesfairlydefiniteandcoherentideas,butunlessitalsoconveystheseideastosomeotherlivingintelligentbeing,eithermanorbrute,thatcanunderstandthem。Wemayspeaktoadogorhorse,butnottoastone。Ifwemakepretenceofdoingsoweareinrealityonlytalkingtoourselves。Thepersonoranimalspokentoishalfthebattle——ahalf,moreover,whichisessentialtotherebeinganybattleatall。Ittakestwopeopletosayathing——asayeeaswellasasayer。Theoneisasessentialtoanytruesayingastheother。A。mayhavespoken,butifB。hasnotheard,therehasbeennothingsaid,andhemustspeakagain。True,thebeliefonA。’spartthathehadabonafidesayeeinB。,saveshisspeechquahim,butithasbeenbarrenandleftnofertileissue。Ithasfailedtofulfiltheconditionsoftruespeech,whichinvolvenotonlythatA。
shouldspeak,butalsothatB。shouldhear。True,again,weoftenspeakofloose,incoherent,indefinitelanguage;butbydoingsoweimply,andrightly,thatwearecallingthatlanguagewhichisnottruelanguageatall。People,again,sometimestalktothemselveswithoutintendingthatanyotherpersonshouldhearthem,butthisisnotwelldone,anddoesharmtothosewhopractiseit。Itisabnormal,whereasourconcerniswithnormalandessentialcharacteristics;wemay,therefore,neglectbothdeliriousbabblings,andthecasesinwhichapersonisregardinghimorherself,asitwere,fromoutside,andtreatinghimselfasthoughheweresomeoneelse。
Inquiring,then,whataretheessentials,thepresenceofwhichconstituteslanguage,whiletheirabsencenegativesitaltogether,wefindthatProfessorMaxMullerrestrictsthemtotheuseofgrammaticalarticulatewordsthatwecanwriteorspeak,anddeniesthatanythingcanbecalledlanguageunlessitcanbewrittenorspokeninarticulatewordsandsentences。Healsodeniesthatwecanthinkatallunlesswedosoinwords;thatistosay,insentenceswithverbsandnouns。Indeedhegoessofarastosayuponhistitle-pagethattherecanbenoreason——whichIimaginecomestomuchthesamethingasthought——withoutlanguage,andnolanguagewithoutreason。
AgainsttheassertionthattherecanbenotruelanguagewithoutreasonIhavenothingtosay。ButwhentheProfessorsaysthattherecanbenoreason,orthought,withoutlanguage,hisopponentscontend,asitseemstome,withgreaterforce,thatthought,thoughinfinitelyaided,extendedandrendereddefinitethroughtheinventionofwords,neverthelessexistedsofullyastodeservenoothernamethousands,ifnotmillionsofyearsbeforewordshadenteredintoitatall。Words,theysay,areacomparativelyrecentinvention,forthefullerexpressionofsomethingthatwasalreadyinexistence。
Children,theyurge,areoftenevidentlythinkingandreasoning,thoughtheycanneitherthinknorspeakinwords。Ifyouaskmetodefinereason,Ianswerasbeforethatthiscannomorebedonethanthought,truthormotioncanbedefined。Whohasansweredthequestion,\"Whatistruth?\"MancannotseeGodandlive。Wecannotgosofarbackuponourselvesastoundermineourownfoundations;
ifwetrytodowetoppleover,andlosethatveryreasonaboutwhichwevainlytrytoreason。Ifweletthefoundationsbe,weknowwellenoughthattheyarethere,andwecanbuildupontheminallsecurity。Wecannot,then,definereasonnorcrib,cabinandconfineitwithinathus-far-shalt-thou-go-and-no-further。Whocandefineheatorcold,ornightorday?Yet,solongasweholdfastbycurrentconsent,ourchancesoferrorforwantofbetterdefinitionaresosmallthatnosensiblepersonwillconsiderthem。
Inlikemanner,ifweholdbycurrentconsentorcommonsense,whichisthesamething,aboutreason,weshallnotfindthewantofanacademicdefinitionhinderusfromareasonableconclusion。Whatnurseormotherwilldoubtthatherinfantchildcanreasonwithinthelimitsofitsownexperience,longbeforeitcanformulateitsreasoninarticulatelywordedthought?Ifthedevelopmentofanygivenanimalis,asouropponentsthemselvesadmit,anepitomeofthehistoryofitswholeanteriordevelopment,surelythefactthatspeechisanaccomplishmentacquiredafterbirthsoartificiallythatchildrenwhohavegonewildinthewoodsloseitiftheyhaveeverlearnedit,pointstotheconclusionthatman’sancestorsonlylearnedtoexpressthemselvesinarticulatelanguageatacomparativelyrecentperiod。Grantedthattheylearntothinkandreasoncontinuallythemoreandmorefullyforhavingdoneso,willcommonsensepermitustosupposethattheycouldneitherthinknorreasonatalltilltheycouldconveytheirideasinwords?
Iwillreturnlatertothereasonoftheloweranimals,butwillnowdealwiththequestionwhatitisthatconstituteslanguageinthemostcomprehensivesensethatcanbeproperlyattachedtoit。I
havesaidalreadythatlanguagetobelanguageatallmustnotonlyconveyfairlydefinitecoherentideas,butmustalsoconveythemtoanotherlivingbeing。Whenevertwolivingbeingshaveconveyedandreceivedideas,therehasbeenlanguage,whetherlooksorgesturesorwordsspokenorwrittenhavebeenthevehiclebymeansofwhichtheideashavetravelled。Someideascrawl,somerun,somefly;andinthiscasewordsarethewingstheyflywith,buttheyareonlythewingsofthoughtorofideas,theyarenotthethoughtorideasthemselves,noryet,asProfessorMaxMullerwouldhaveit,inseparablyconnectedwiththem。LastsummerIwasataninninSicily,wheretherewasadeafanddumbwaiter;hehadbeenbornso,andcouldneitherwritenorread。Whathadhetodowithwordsorwordswithhim?Arewetosay,then,thatthismostactive,amiableandintelligentfellowcouldneitherthinknorreason?OnedayI
hadhadmydinnerandhadleftthehotel。Afriendcamein,andthewaitersawhimlookformeintheplaceIgenerallyoccupied。Heinstantlycameuptomyfriend,andmovedhistwoforefingersinawaythatsuggestedtwopeoplegoingabouttogether,thismeant\"yourfriend\";hethenmovedhisforefingershorizontallyacrosshiseyes,thismeant,\"whowearsdividedspectacles\";hemadetwofiercemarksoverthesocketsofhiseyes,thismeant,\"withtheheavyeyebrows\";
hepulledhischin,andthentouchedhiswhiteshirt,tosaythatmybeardwaswhite。Havingthusidentifiedmeasafriendofthepersonhewasspeakingto,andashavingawhitebeard,heavyeyebrows,andwearingdividedspectacles,hemadeamunchingmovementwithhisjawstosaythatIhadhadmydinner;andfinally,bymakingtwofingersimitatewalkingonthetable,heexplainedthatIhadgoneaway。Myfriend,however,wantedtoknowhowlongI
hadbeengone,sohepulledouthiswatchandlookedinquiringly。
Themanatonceslappedhimselfontheback,andheldupthefivefingersofonehand,tosayitwasfiveminutesago。Allthiswasdoneasrapidlyasthoughithadbeensaidinwords;andmyfriend,whoknewthemanwell,understoodwithoutamoment’shesitation。
Arewetosaythatthismanhadnothought,norreason,norlanguage,merelybecausehehadnotasinglewordofanykindinhishead,whichIamassuredhehadnot;for,asIhavesaid,hecouldnotspeakwithhisfingers?Isitpossibletodenythatadialogue——
anintelligentconversation——hadpassedbetweenthetwomen?Andifconversation,thensurelyitistechnicalandpedantictodenythatalltheessentialelementsoflanguagewerepresent。Thesignsandtokensusedbythispoorfellowwereasrudeaninstrumentofexpression,incomparisonwithordinarylanguage,asgoingonone’shandsandkneesisincomparisonwithwalking,oraswalkingcomparedwithgoingbytrain;butitisasgreatanabuseofwordstolimittheword\"language\"tomerewordswrittenorspoken,asitwouldbetolimittheideaofalocomotivetoarailwayengine。
Thismayindeedpassinordinaryconversation,wheresomuchmustbesuppressediftalkistobegotthroughatall,butitisintolerablewhenweareinquiringabouttherelationsbetweenthoughtandwords。Todosoistoletwordsbecomeasitwerethemastersofthought,onthegroundthatthefactoftheirbeingonlyitsservantsandappendagesissoobviousthatitisgenerallyallowedtogowithoutsaying。
IfallthatProfessorMaxMullermeanstosayis,thatnoanimalbutmancommandsanarticulatelanguage,withverbsandnouns,oriseverlikelytocommandone(andIquestionwhetherinrealityhemeansmuchmorethanthis),noonewilldifferfromhim。Nodogorelephanthasonewordforbread,anotherformeat,andanotherforwater。Yet,whenwewatchacatordogdreaming,astheyoftenevidentlydo,canwedoubtthatthedreamisaccompaniedbyamentalimageofthethingthatisdreamedof,muchlikewhatweexperienceindreamsourselves,andmuchdoubtlesslikethementalimageswhichmusthavepassedthroughthemindofmydeafanddumbwaiter?Iftheyhavementalimagesinsleep,canwedoubtthatwaking,also,theypicturethingsbeforetheirmind’seyes,andseethemmuchaswedo——toovaguelyindeedtoadmitofourthinkingthatweactuallyseetheobjectsthemselves,butdefinitelyenoughforustobeabletorecognisetheideaorobjectofwhichwearethinking,andtoconnectitwithanyotheridea,object,orsignthatwemaythinkappropriate?
Herewehavetouchedonthesecondessentialelementoflanguage。
Welaiditdown,thatitsessencelayinthecommunicationofanideafromoneintelligentbeingtoanother;butnoideascanbecommunicatedatallexceptbytheaidofconventionstowhichbothpartieshaveagreedtoattachanidenticalmeaning。Theagreementmaybeveryinformal,andmaypasssounconsciouslyfromonegenerationtoanotherthatitsexistencecanonlyberecognisedbytheaidofmuchintrospection,butitwillbealwaysthere。A
sayer,asayee,andaconvention,nomatterwhat,agreeduponbetweenthemasinseparablyattachedtotheideawhichitisintendedtoconvey——thesecomprisealltheessentialsoflanguage。
Wherethesearepresentthereislanguage;whereanyofthemarewantingthereisnolanguage。Itisnotnecessaryforthesayeetobeabletospeakandbecomeasayer。Ifhecomprehendsthesayer——
thatistosay,ifheattachesthesamemeaningtoacertainsymbolasthesayerdoes——ifheisapartytothebargainwherebyitisagreeduponbyboththatanygivensymbolshallbeattachedinvariablytoacertainidea,sothatinvirtueoftheprincipleofassociatedideasthesymbolshallneverbepresentwithoutimmediatelycarryingtheideaalongwithit,thenalltheessentialsoflanguagearecompliedwith,andtherehasbeentruespeechthoughneverawordwasspoken。
Theloweranimals,therefore,manyofthem,possessapartofourownlanguage,thoughtheycannotspeakit,andhencedonotpossessitsofullyaswedo。Theycannotsay\"bread,\"\"meat,\"or\"water,\"
buttherearemanythatreadilylearnwhatideastheyoughttoattachtothesesymbolswhentheyarepresentedtothem。Itisidletosaythatacatdoesnotknowwhatthecat’s-meatmanmeanswhenhesays\"meat。\"Thecatknowsjustaswell,neitherbetternorworsethanthecat’s-meatmandoes,andagreatdealbetterthanI
myselfunderstandmuchthatissaidbysomeverycleverpeopleatOxfordorCambridge。Thereismoretrueemploymentoflanguage,morebonafidecurrencyofspeech,betweenasayerandasayeewhounderstandeachother,thoughneitherofthemcanspeakaword,thanbetweenasayerwhocanspeakwiththetonguesofmenandofangelswithoutbeingclearabouthisownmeaning,andasayeewhocanhimselfutterthesamewords,butwhoisonlyinimperfectagreementwiththesayerastotheideaswhichthewordsorsymbolsthatheuttersareintendedtoconvey。Thenatureofthesymbolscountsfornothing;thegistofthematterisintheperfectharmonybetweensayerandsayeeastothesignificancethatistobeassociatedwiththem。
ProfessorMaxMulleradmitsthatwesharewiththeloweranimalswhathecallsanemotionallanguage,andcontinuesthatwemaycalltheirinterjectionsandimitationslanguageifwelike,aswespeakofthelanguageoftheeyesortheeloquenceofmutenature,buthewarnsusagainstmistakingmetaphorforfact。Itisindeedmeremetaphortotalkoftheeloquenceofmutenature,orthelanguageofwindsandwaves。Thereisnointercommunionofmindwithmindbymeansofacovenantedsymbol;butitisonlyanapparent,notareal,metaphortosaythattwopairsofeyeshavespokenwhentheyhavesignalledtooneanothersomethingwhichtheybothunderstand。
Aschoolboyathomefortheholidayswantsanotherplateofpudding,anddoesnotliketoapplyofficiallyformore。Hecatchestheservant’seyeandlooksatthepudding;theservantunderstands,takeshisplatewithoutaword,andgetshimsome。Isitmetaphortosaythattheboyaskedtheservanttodothis,orisitnotratherpedantrytoinsistontheletterofabondanddenyitsspirit,bydenyingthatlanguagepassed,onthegroundthatthesymbolscovenanteduponandassentedtobybothwereutteredandreceivedbyeyesandnotbymouthandears?Whentheladydranktothegentlemanonlywithhereyes,andhepledgedwithhis,wastherenoconversationbecausetherewasneithernounnorverb?Eyesareverbs,andglassesofwinearegoodnounsenoughasbetweenthosewhounderstandoneanother。Whethertheideasunderlyingthemareexpressedandconveyedbyeyeageorbytonguageisadetailthatmattersnothing。
Buteverythingwesayismetaphoricalifwechoosetobecaptious。
Scratchthesimplestexpressions,andyouwillfindthemetaphor。
Writtenwordsarehandage,inkageandpaperage;itisonlybymetaphor,orsubstitutionandtranspositionofideas,thatwecancallthemlanguage。Theyareindeedpotentiallanguage,andthesymbolsemployedpresupposenouns,verbs,andtheotherpartsofspeech;butforthemostpartitisinwhatwereadbetweenthelinesthattheprofoundermeaningofanyletterisconveyed。Therearewordsunwrittenanduntranslatableintoanynounsthatareneverthelessfeltasabove,aboutandunderneaththegrossmaterialsymbolsthatliescrawleduponthepaper;andthedeeperthefeelingwithwhichanythingiswrittenthemorepregnantwillitbeofmeaningwhichcanbeconveyedsecurelyenough,butwhichlosesratherthangainsifitissqueezedintoasentence,andlimitedbythepartsofspeech。Thelanguageisnotinthewordsbutintheheart-to-heartnessofthething,whichishelpedbywords,butisnearerandfartherthanthey。Acorrespondentwrotetomeonce,manyyearsago,\"IfIcouldthinktoyouwithoutwordsyouwouldunderstandmebetter。\"Butsurelyinthishewasthinkingtome,andwithoutwords,andIdidunderstandhimbetter……SoitisnotbythewordsthatIamtoopresumptuouslyventuringtospeakto-
nightthatyouropinionswillbeformedormodified。Theywillbeformedormodified,ifeither,bysomethingthatyouwillfeel,butwhichIhavenotspoken,tothefullasmuchasbyanythingthatI
haveactuallyuttered。Youmaysaythatthisbordersonmysticism。
Perhapsitdoes,buttheirreallyissomemysticisminnature。
Toreturn,however,toterrafirma。IbelieveIamrightinsayingthattheessenceoflanguageliesintheintentionalconveyanceofideasfromonelivingbeingtoanotherthroughtheinstrumentalityofarbitrarytokensorsymbolsagreedupon,andunderstoodbybothasbeingassociatedwiththeparticularideasinquestion。Thenatureofthesymbolchosenisamatterofindifference;itmaybeanythingthatappealstohumansenses,andisnottoohotortooheavy;theessenceofthematterliesinamutualcovenantthatwhateveritisitshallstandinvariablyforthesamething,ornearlyso。
Weshallseethismoreeasilyifweobservethedifferencesbetweenwrittenandspokenlanguage。Thewrittenword\"stone,\"andthespokenword,areeachofthemsymbolsarrivedatinthefirstinstancearbitrarily。Theyareneitherofthemmoreliketheotherthantheyaretotheideaofastonewhichrisesbeforeourminds,whenweeitherseeorheartheword,orthanthisideaagainisliketheactualstoneitself,butneverthelessthespokensymbolandthewrittenoneeachalikeconveywithcertaintythecombinationofideastowhichwehaveagreedtoattachthem。
Thewrittensymbolisformedwiththehand,appealstotheeye,leavesamaterialtraceaslongaspaperandinklast,cantravelasfaraspaperandinkcantravel,andcanbeimprintedoneyeaftereyepracticallyadinfinitumbothasregardstimeandspace。
Thespokensymbolisformedbymeansofvariousorgansinoraboutthemouth,appealstotheear,nottheeye,perishesinstantlywithoutmaterialtrace,andifitlivesatalldoessoonlyinthemindsofthosewhoheardit。Therangeofitsactionisnowiderthanthatwithinwhichavoicecanbeheard;andeverytimeafreshimpressioniswantedthetypemustbesetupanew。
Thewrittensymbolextendsinfinitely,asregardstimeandspace,therangewithinwhichonemindcancommunicatewithanother;itgivesthewriter’smindalifelimitedbythedurationofink,paper,andreaders,asagainstthatofhisfleshandbloodbody。Ontheotherhand,ittakeslongertolearntherulessoastobeabletoapplythemwitheaseandsecurity,andeventhentheycannotbeappliedsoquicklyandeasilyasthoseattachingtospokensymbols。
Moreover,thespokensymboladmitsofahundredquickandsubtleadjunctsbywayofaction,toneandexpression,sothatnoonewillusewrittensymbolsunlesseitherforthespecialadvantagesofpermanenceandtravellingpower,orbecauseheisincapacitatedfromusingspokenones。This,however,ishardlytothepoint;thepointisthatthesetwoconventionalcombinationsofsymbols,thatareasunlikeoneanotherastheHallelujahChorusistoSt。Paul’sCathedral,aretheoneasmuchlanguageastheother;andwethereforeinquirewhatthisverypatentfactrevealstousaboutthemoreessentialcharacteristicsoflanguageitself。Whatisthecommonbondthatunitesthesetwoclassesofsymbolsthatseematfirstsighttohavenothingincommon,andmakestheoneraisetheideaoflanguageinourmindsasreadilyastheother?Thebondliesinthefactthatbothareasetofconventionaltokensorsymbols,agreeduponbetweenthepartiestowhomtheyappealasbeingattachedinvariablytothesameideas,andbecausetheyarebeingmadeasameansofcommunionbetweenonemindandanother,——
foramemorandummadeforaperson’sownlateruseisnothingbutacommunicationfromanearliermindtoalaterandmodifiedone;itisthereforeinrealityacommunicationfromonemindtoanotherasmuchasthoughithadbeenaddressedtoanotherperson。
Wesee,therefore,thatthenatureoftheoutwardandvisiblesigntowhichtheinwardandspiritualideaoflanguageisattacheddoesnotmatter。Itmaybethefiringofagun;itmaybeanoldsemaphoretelegraph;itmaybethemovementsofaneedle;alook,agesture,thebreakingofatwigbyanIndiantotellsomeonethathehaspassedthatway:atwigbrokendesignedlywiththisendinviewisaletteraddressedtowhomsoeveritmayconcern,asmuchasthoughithadbeenwrittenoutinfullonbarkorpaper。Itdoesnotmatteronestrawwhatitis,provideditisagreeduponinconcert,andstuckto。Justasthelowestformsoflifeneverthelesspresentuswithalltheessentialcharacteristicsoflivingness,andareasmuchaliveintheirownhumblewayasthemosthighlydevelopedorganisms,sotherudestintentionalandeffectualcommunicationbetweentwomindsthroughtheinstrumentalityofaconcertedsymbolisasmuchlanguageasthemostfinishedoratoryofMr。Gladstone。Idemurthereforetotheassertionthattheloweranimalshavenolanguage,inasmuchastheycannotthemselvesarticulateagrammaticalsentence。Idonotindeedpretendthatwhenthecatcallsuponthetilesituseswhatitconsciouslyandintrospectivelyrecognisesaslanguage;itsayswhatithastosaywithoutintrospection,andintheordinarycourseofbusiness,asoneofthecommonformsofcourtship。ItnomoreknowsthatithasbeenusinglanguagethanM。Jourdainknewhehadbeenspeakingprose,butM。Jourdain’sknowingornotknowingwasneitherherenorthere。
Anythingwhichcanbemadetohitchoninvariablytoadefiniteideathatcancarrysomedistance——sayaninchattheleast,andwhichcanberepeatedatpleasure,canbepressedintotheserviceoflanguage。Mrs。Bentley,wifeofthefamousDr。BentleyofTrinityCollege,Cambridge,usedtosendhersnuff-boxtothecollegebutterywhenshewantedbeer,insteadofawrittenorder。Ifthesnuff-boxcamethebeerwassent,butiftherewasnosnuff-boxtherewasnobeer。Whereindidthesnuff-boxdiffermorefromawrittenorder,thanawrittenorderdiffersfromaspokenone?Thesnuff-boxwasforthetimebeinglanguage。Itsoundsstrangetosaythatonemighttakeapinchofsnuffoutofasentence,butiftheservanthadhelpedhimorherselftoapinchwhilecarryingittothebutterythisiswhatwouldhavebeendone;forifasnuff-boxcansay\"Sendmeaquartofbeer,\"soefficientlythatthebeerissent,itisimpossibletosaythatitisnotabonafidesentence。
Asfortherecipientofthemessage,thebutlerdidnotprobablytranslatethesnuff-boxintoarticulatenounsandverbs;assoonashesawithejustwentdownintothecellaranddrewthebeer,andifhethoughtatall,itwasprobablyaboutsomethingelse。Yethemusthavebeenthinkingwithoutwords,orhewouldhavedrawntoomuchbeerortoolittle,orhavespiltitinthebringingitup,andwemaybesurethathedidnoneofthesethings。
Youwill,ofcourse,observethatifMrs。Bentleyhadsentthesnuff-boxtothebutteryofSt。John’sCollegeinsteadofTrinity,itwouldnothavebeenlanguage,fortherewouldhavebeennocovenantbetweensayerandsayeeastowhatthesymbolshouldrepresent,therewouldhavebeennopreviouslyestablishedassociationofideasinthemindofthebutlerofSt。John’sbetweenbeerandsnuff-box;theconnectionwasartificial,arbitrary,andbynomeansoneofthoseinrespectofwhichanimpromptubargainmightbeproposedbytheverysymbolitself,andassentedtowithoutpreviousformalitybythepersontowhomitwaspresented。Morebriefly,thebutlerofSt。John’swouldnothavebeenabletounderstandandreaditaright。Itwouldhavebeenadeadlettertohim——asnuff-boxandnotaletter;whereastothebutlerofTrinityitwasaletterandnotasnuff-box。
Youwillalsonotethatitwasonlyatthemomentwhenhewaslookingatitandacceptingitasamessagethatitflashedforthfromsnuff-box-hoodintothelightandlifeoflivingutterance。Assoonasithadkindledthebutlerintosendingasinglequartofbeer,itsforcewasspentuntilMrs。Bentleythrewhersoulintoitagainandchargeditanewbywantingmorebeer,andsendingitdownaccordingly。
Again,taketheringwhichtheEarlofEssexsenttoQueenElizabeth,butwhichthequeendidnotreceive。Thiswasintendedasasentence,butfailedtobecomeeffectuallanguagebecausethesensiblematerialsymbolneverreachedthosesentientorganswhichitwasintendedtoaffect。Abook,again,howeverfullofexcellentwordsitmaybe,isnotlanguagewhenitismerelystandingonabookshelf。Itspeakstonoone,unlesswhenbeingactuallyread,orquotedfrombyanactofmemory。Itispotentiallanguageasalucifer-matchispotentialfire,butitisnomorelanguagetillitisincontactwitharecipientmind,thanamatchisfiretillitisstruck,andisbeingconsumed。
Apieceofmusic,again,withoutanywordsatall,orasongwithwordsthathavenothingintheworldtodowiththeideaswhichitisneverthelessmadetoconvey,isoftenveryeffectuallanguage。
Muchlying,andallironydependsontamperingwithcovenantedsymbols,andmakingthosethatareusuallyassociatedwithonesetofideasconveybyasleightofmindothersofadifferentnature。
Thatiswhyironyisintolerablyfatiguingunlessverysparinglyused。TakethesongwhichBlondelsangunderthewindowofKingRichard’sprison。TherewasnotonesyllableinittosaythatBlondelwasthere,andwasgoingtohelpthekingtogetoutofprison。Itwasaboutsomesillyloveaffair,butitwasaletterallthesame,andthekingmadelanguageofwhatwouldotherwisehavebeennolanguage,byguessingthemeaning,thatistosaybyperceivingthathewasexpectedtoenterthenandthereintoanewcovenantastothemeaningofthesymbolsthatwerepresentedtohim,understandingwhatthiscovenantwastobe,andacquiescinginit。
Ontheotherhand,noingenuitycantorturelanguageintobeingafitwordtouseinconnectionwitheithersoundsoranyothersymbolsthathavenotbeenintendedtoconveyameaning,oragaininconnectionwitheithersoundsorsymbolsinrespectofwhichtherehasbeennocovenantbetweensayerandsayee。Whenwehearpeoplespeakingaforeignlanguage——wewillsayWelsh——wefeelthatthoughtheyarenodoubtusingwhatisverygoodlanguageasbetweenthemselves,thereisnolanguagewhateverasfarasweareconcerned。Wecallitlingo,notlanguage。TheChineselettersonatea-chestmightaswellnotbethere,forallthattheysaytous,thoughtheChinesefindthemverymuchtothepurpose。Theyareacovenanttowhichwehavebeennoparties——towhichourintelligencehasaffixednosignature。
Wehavealreadyseenthatitisinvirtueofsuchanunderstoodcovenantthatsymbolssounlikeoneanotherasthewrittenword\"stone\"andthespokenwordalikeatonceraisetheideaofastoneinourminds。Seehowthesameholdsgoodasregardsthedifferentlanguagesthatpasscurrentindifferentnations。Thelettersp,i,e,r,r,econveytheideaofastonetoaFrenchmanasreadilyass,t,o,n,edotoourselves。Andwhy?becausethatisthecovenantthathasbeenstruckbetweenthosewhospeakandthosewhoarespokento。Our\"stone\"conveysnoideatoaFrenchman,norhis\"pierre\"tous,unlesswehavedonewhatiscommonlycalledacquiringoneanother’slanguage。Toacquireaforeignlanguageisonlytolearnandadheretothecovenantsinrespectofsymbolswhichthenationinquestionhasadoptedandadheresto。
Tillwehavedonethisweneitherofusknowtherules,sotospeak,ofthegamethattheotherisplaying,andcannot,therefore,playtogether;buttheconventionbeingonceknownandassentedto,itdoesnotmatterwhetherweraisetheideaofastonebytheword\"lapis,\"orby\"lithos,\"\"pietra,\"\"pierre,\"\"stein,\"\"stane\"or\"stone\";wemaychoosewhatsymbolswrittenorspokenwechoose,andoneset,unlesstheyareofunwieldylengthwilldoaswellasanother,ifwecangetotherpeopletochoosethesameandsticktothem;itistheacceptingandstickingtothemthatmatters,notthesymbols。Thewholepowerofspokenlanguageisvestedintheinvariablenesswithwhichcertainsymbolsareassociatedwithcertainideas。Ifwearestrictinalwaysconnectingthesamesymbolswiththesameideas,wespeakwell,keepourmeaningcleartoourselves,andconveyitreadilyandaccuratelytoanyonewhoisalsofairlystrict。If,ontheotherhand,weusethesamecombinationofsymbolsforonethingonedayandforanotherthenext,weabuseoursymbolsinsteadofusingthem,andthosewhoindulgeinslovenlyhabitsinthisrespecterelonglosethepoweralikeofthinkingandofexpressingthemselvescorrectly。Thesymbols,however,inthefirstinstance,maybeanythinginthewideworldthatwehaveafancyfor。Theyhavenomoretodowiththeideastheyservetoconveythanmoneyhaswiththethingsthatitservestobuy。
Theprincipleofassociation,aseveryoneknows,involvesthatwhenevertwothingshavebeenassociatedsufficientlytogether,thesuggestionofoneofthemtothemindshallimmediatelyraiseasuggestionoftheother。Itisinvirtueofthisprinciplethatlanguage,aswesocallit,existsatall,fortheessenceoflanguageconsists,asIhavesaidperhapsalreadytoooften,inthefixitywithwhichcertainideasareinvariablyconnectedwithcertainsymbols。Butthisbeingso,itishardtoseehowwecandenythattheloweranimalspossessthegermsofahighlyrudeandunspecialised,butstilltruelanguage,unlesswealsodenythattheyhaveanyideasatall;andthisIgatheriswhatProfessorMaxMullerinaquietwayratherwishestodo。Thushesays,\"Itiseasyenoughtoshowthatanimalscommunicate,butthisisafactwhichhasneverbeendoubted。Dogswhogrowlandbarkleavenodoubtinthemindsofotherdogsorcats,orevenofman,ofwhattheymean,butgrowlingandbarkingarenotlanguage,nordotheyevencontaintheelementsoflanguage。\"{18}
IobservetheProfessorsaysthatanimalscommunicatewithoutsayingwhatitisthattheycommunicate。Ibelievethistohavebeenbecauseifhesaidthattheloweranimalscommunicatetheirideas,thiswouldbetoadmitthattheyhaveideas;ifso,andif,astheypresenteveryappearanceofdoing,theycanremember,reflectupon,modifytheseideasaccordingtomodifiedsurroundings,andinterchangethemwithoneanother,howisitpossibletodenythemthegermsofthought,language,andreason——nottosayagooddealmorethanthegerms?Itseemstomethatnotknowingwhatelsetosaythatanimalscommunicatedifitwasnotideas,andnotknowingwhatmesshemightnotgetintoifheadmittedthattheyhadideasatall,hethoughtitsafertoomithisaccusativecasealtogether。
Thatgrowlingandbarkingcannotbecalledaveryhighlyspecialisedlanguagegoeswithoutsaying;theyare,however,somuchdiversifiedincharacter,accordingtocircumstances,thattheyplaceaconsiderablenumberofsymbolsatananimal’scommand,andheinvariablyattachesthesamesymboltothesameidea。Acatneverpurrswhensheisangry,norspitswhensheispleased。Whensherubsherheadagainstanyoneaffectionatelyitishersymbolforsayingthatsheisveryfondofhim,andsheexpects,andusuallyfindsthatitwillbeunderstood。Ifsheseeshermistressraiseherhandasthoughtopretendtostrikeher,sheknowsthatitisthesymbolhermistressinvariablyattachestotheideaofsendingheraway,andassuchsheacceptsit。Grantedthatthesymbolsinuseamongtheloweranimalsarefewerandlesshighlydifferentiatedthaninthecaseofanyknownhumanlanguage,andthereforethatanimallanguageisincomparablylesssubtleandlesscapableofexpressingdelicateshadesofmeaningthanourown,thesedifferencesareneverthelessonlythosethatexistbetweenhighlydevelopedandinchoatelanguage;theydonotinvolvethosethatdistinguishlanguagefromnolanguage。Theyarethedifferencesbetweentheundifferentiatedprotoplasmoftheamoebaandourowncomplexorganisation;theyarenotthedifferencesbetweenlifeandnolife。Inanimallanguageasmuchasinhumanthereisamindintentionallymakinguseofasymbolacceptedbyanothermindasinvariablyattachedtoacertainidea,inordertoproducethatideainthemindwhichitisdesiredtoaffect——morebriefly,thereisasayer,asayee,andacovenantedsymboldesignedlyapplied。Ourownspeechisvertebratedandarticulatedbymeansofnouns,verbs,andtherulesofgrammar。Adog’sspeechisinvertebrate,butIdonotseehowitispossibletodenythatitpossessesalltheessentialelementsoflanguage。
IhavesaidnothingaboutProfessorR。L。Garner’sresearchesintothelanguageofapes,becausetheyhavenotyetbeensofarverifiedandacceptedastomakeitsafetorelyuponthem;butwhenhelaysitdownthatallvoluntarysoundsaretheproductsofthought,andthat,iftheyconveyameaningtoanother,theyperformthefunctionsofhumanspeech,hesayswhatIbelievewillcommenditselftoanyunsophisticatedmind。Icouldhavewished,however,thathehadnotlimitedhimselftosounds,andshouldhavepreferredhissayingwhatIdoubtnothewouldreadilyaccept——Imean,thatallsymbolsortokensofwhateverkind,ifvoluntarilyadoptedassuch,aretheproductsofthought,andperformthefunctionsofhumanspeech;butIcannottoooftenremindyouthatnothingcanbeconsideredasfulfillingtheconditionsoflanguage,exceptavoluntaryapplicationofarecognisedtokeninordertoconveyamoreorlessdefinitemeaning,withtheintentiondoubtlessofthuspurchasingasitweresomeotherdesiredmeaningandconsequentsensation。Itisastonishinghowcloselyinthisrespectmoneyandwordsresembleoneanother。Moneyindeedmaybeconsideredasthemostuniversalandexpressiveofalllanguages。Forgoldandsilvercoinsarenomoremoneywhennotintheactualprocessofbeingvoluntarilyusedinpurchase,thanwordsnotsoinusearelanguage。
Pounds,shillingsandpencearerecognisedcovenantedtokens,theoutwardandvisiblesignsofaninwardandspiritualpurchasingpower,buttillinactualusetheyareonlypotentialmoney,asthesymbolsoflanguage,whatevertheymaybe,areonlypotentiallanguagetilltheyarepassingbetweentwominds。Itisthepowerandwilltoapplythesymbolsthatalonegiveslifetomoney,andaslongastheseareinabeyancethemoneyisinabeyancealso;thecoinsmaybesafeinone’spocket,buttheyareasdeadasalogtilltheybegintoburninit,andsoareourwordstilltheybegintoburnwithinus。
Therealquestion,however,astothesubstantialunderlyingidentitybetweenthelanguageoftheloweranimalsandourown,turnsuponthatotherquestionwhetherorno,inspiteofanimmeasurabledifferenceofdegree,thethoughtandreasonofmanandoftheloweranimalsisessentiallythesame。Noonewillexpectadogtomasterandexpressthevariedideasthatareincessantlyarisinginconnectionwithhumanaffairs。Heisapauperasagainstamillionaire。Toaskhimtodosowouldbelikegivingastreet-
boysixpenceandtellinghimtogoandbuyhimselfafounder’sshareintheNewRiverCompany。Hewouldnotevenknowwhatwasmeant,andevenifhediditwouldtakeseveralmillionsofsixpencestobuyone。Itisastonishingwhatacleverworkmanwilldowithverymodesttools,oragainhowfarathriftyhousewifewillmakeaverysmallsumofmoneygo,oragaininlikemannerhowmanyideasanintelligentbrutecanreceiveandconveywithitsverylimitedvocabulary;butnoonewillpretendthatadog’sintelligencecaneverreachthelevelofaman’s。Whatwedomaintainisthat,withinitsownlimitedrange,itisofthesameessentialcharacterasourown,andthatthoughadog’sideasinrespectofhumanaffairsarebothvagueandnarrow,yetinrespectofcanineaffairstheyarepreciseenoughandextensiveenoughtodeservenoothernamethanthoughtorreason。Weholdmoreoverthattheycommunicatetheirideasinessentiallythesamemanneraswedo——thatistosay,bytheinstrumentalityofacodeofsymbolsattachedtocertainstatesofmindandmaterialobjects,inthefirstinstancearbitrarily,butsopersistently,thatthepresentationofthesymbolimmediatelycarrieswithittheideawhichitisintendedtoconvey。Animalscanthusreceiveandimpartideasonallthatmostconcernsthem。Asmygreatnamesakesaidsometwohundredyearsago,theyknow\"what’swhat,andthat’sashighasmetaphysicwitcanfly。\"Andtheynotonlyknowwhat’swhatthemselves,butcanimparttooneanotheranynewwhat’s-whatnessthattheymayhaveacquired,fortheyarenotoriouslyabletoinstructandcorrectoneanother。
AgainstthisProfessorMaxMullercontendsthatwecanknownothingofwhatgoesoninthemindofanyloweranimal,inasmuchaswearenotloweranimalsourselves。\"Wecanimagineanythingwelikeaboutwhatpassesinthemindofananimal,\"hewrites,\"wecanknowabsolutelynothing。\"{19}Itissomethingtohaveitinevidencethatheconceivesanimalsashavingamindatall,butitisnoteasytoseehowtheycanbesupposedtohaveamind,withoutbeingabletoacquireideas,andhavingacquired,toread,mark,learn,andinwardlydigestthem。Surelythemistakeofrequiringtoomuchevidenceishardlylessgreatthanthatofbeingcontentedwithtoolittle。We,too,areanimals,andcannomorerefusetoinferreasonfromcertainvisibleactionsintheircasethanwecaninourown。IfProfessorMaxMuller’spleawereallowed,weshouldhavetodenyourrighttoinferconfidentlywhatpassesinthemindofanyonenotourselves,inasmuchaswearenotthatperson。Wenever,indeed,canobtainirrefragablecertaintyaboutthisoranyothermatter,butwecanbesureenoughinmanycasestowarrantourstakingallthatismostprecioustousonthesoundnessofouropinion。Moreover,iftheProfessordeniesourrighttoinferthatanimalsreason,onthegroundthatwearenotanimalsenoughourselvestobeabletoformanopinion,withwhatrightdoesheinfersoconfidentlyhimselfthattheydonotreason?Andhow,iftheypresenteveryoneofthoseappearanceswhichweareaccustomedtoconnectwiththecommunicationofanideafromonemindtoanother,canwedenythattheyhavealanguageoftheirown,thoughitisonewhichinmostcaseswecanneitherspeaknorunderstand?
Howcanwesaythatasentinelrook,whenitseesamanwithagunandwarnstheotherrooksbyaconcertednotewhichtheyallshowthattheyunderstandbyimmediatelytakingflight,shouldnotbecreditedbothwithreasonandthegermsoflanguage?
Afterall,aprofessor,whetherofphilology,psychology,biology,oranyotherology,ishardlythekindofpersontowhomweshouldappealonsuchanelementaryquestionasthatofanimalintelligenceandlanguage。Wemightaswellaskabotanisttotelluswhethergrassgrows,orameteorologisttotellusifithasleftoffraining。Ifitisnecessarytoappealtoanyone,Ishouldprefertheopinionofanintelligentgamekeepertothatofanyprofessor,howeverlearned。Thekeepers,again,attheZoologicalGardens,haveexceptionalopportunitiesforstudyingthemindsofanimals——
modified,indeed,bycaptivity,butstillmindsofanimals。Grooms,again,anddog-fanciers,aretothefullasabletoformanintelligentopiniononthereasonandlanguageofanimalsasanyUniversityProfessor,andsoarecats’-meatmen。IhaverepeatedlyaskedgamekeepersandkeepersattheZoologicalGardenswhetheranimalscouldreasonandconversewithoneanother,andhavealwaysfoundmyselfregardedsomewhatcontemptuouslyforhavingevenaskedthequestion。Ioncesaidtoafriend,inthehearingofakeeperattheZoologicalGardens,thatthepenguinwasverystupid。Themanwasfurious,andjumpeduponmeatonce。\"He’snotstupidatall,\"saidhe;\"he’sveryintelligent。\"
Whohasnotseenacat,whenitwishestogoout,raiseitsforepawsontothehandleofthedoor,orasnearasitcanget,andlookround,evidentlyaskingsomeonetoturnitforher?Isitreasonabletodenythatareasoningprocessisgoingoninthecat’smind,wherebysheconnectsherwishwiththestepsnecessaryforitsfulfilment,andalsowithcertaininvariablesymbolswhichsheknowshermasterormistresswillinterpret?Once,incompanywithafriend,Iwatchedacatplayingwithahouse-flyinthewindowofaground-floorroom。Wewereinthestreet,whilethecatwasinside。
Whenwecameuptothewindowshegaveusonesearchinglook,and,havingsatisfiedherselfthatwehadnothingforher,wentonwithhergame。Sheknewallabouttheglassinthewindow,andwassurewecoulddonothingtomolesther,soshetreateduswithabsolutecontempt,neverevenlookingatusagain。
Thegamewasthis。Shewastocatchtheflyandrollitroundandroundunderherpawalongthewindow-sill,butsogentlyasnottoinjureitnorpreventitfrombeingabletoflyagainwhenshehaddonerollingit。Itwasveryearlyspring,andflieswerescarce,infacttherewasnotanotherinthewholewindow。Sheknewthatifshecrippledthisone,itwouldnotbeabletoamuseherfurther,andthatshewouldnotreadilygetanotherinstead,andshelikedthefeelofitunderherpaw。Itwassoftandliving,andthequiveringofitswingstickledtheballofherfootinamannerthatshefoundparticularlygrateful;sosherolleditgentlyalongthewholelengthofthewindow-sill。Itthenbecamethefly’sturn。Hewastogetupandflyaboutinthewindow,soastorecoverhimselfalittle;thenshewastocatchhimagain,androllhimsoftlyallalongthewindow-sill,asshehaddonebefore。
Itwasplainthatthecatknewtherulesofhergameperfectlywell,andenjoyeditkeenly。Itwasequallyplainthattheflycouldnotmakeheadortailofwhatitwasallabout。Ifithadbeenabletodosoitwouldhavegonetoplayintheupperpartofthewindow,wherethecatcouldnotreachit。Perhapsitwasalwayshopingtogetthroughtheglass,andescapethatway;anyhow,itkeptprettymuchtothesamepane,nomatterhowoftenitwasrolled。Atlast,however,thefly,forsomereasonoranother,didnotreappearonthepane,andthecatbeganlookingeverywheretofindit。Herannoyancewhenshefailedtodosowasextreme。Itwasnotonlythatshehadlostherfly,butthatshecouldnotconceivehowsheshouldhaveevercometodoso。Presentlyshenotedasmallknotinthewoodworkofthesill,anditflasheduponherthatshehadaccidentallykilledthefly,andthatthiswasitsdeadbody。Shetriedtomoveitgentlywithherpaw,butitwasnouse,andforthetimeshesatisfiedherselfthattheknotandtheflyhadnothingtodowithoneanother。Everynowandthen,however,shereturnedtoitasthoughitweretheonlythingshecouldthinkof,andshewouldtryitagain。Sheseemedtosayshewascertaintherehadbeennoknottherebefore——shemusthaveseenitiftherehadbeen;
andyet,theflycouldhardlyhavegotjammedsofirmlyintothewood。Shewaspuzzledandirritatedbeyondmeasure,andkeptlookinginthesameplaceagainandagain,justaswedowhenwehavemislaidsomething。Shewasrapidlylosingtemperanddignitywhensuddenlywesawtheflyreappearfromunderthecat’sstomachandmakeforthewindow-pane,attheverymomentwhenthecatherselfwasexclaimingforthefiftiethtimethatshewonderedwherethatstupidflyevercouldhavegotto。Nomanwhohasbeenhuntingtwentyminutesforhisspectaclescouldbemoredelightedwhenhesuddenlyfindsthemonhisownforehead。\"Sothat’swhereyouwere,\"weseemedtohearhersay,assheproceededtocatchit,andagainbeganrollingitverysoftlywithouthurtingit,underherpaw。MyfriendandIbothnoticedthatthecat,inspiteofherperplexity,neversomuchashintedthatweweretheculprits。Thequestionwhetheranythingoutsidethewindowcoulddohergoodorharmhadlongsincebeensettledbyherinthenegative,andshewasnotgoingtoreopenit;shesimplycutusdead,andthoughherannoyancewassogreatthatshewasmanifestlyreadytolaytheblameonanybodyoranythingwithorwithoutreason,andthoughshemusthaveperfectlywellknownthatwewerewatchingthewholeaffairwithamusement,shenevereitheraskedusifwehadhappenedtoseesuchathingasaflygodownourwaylately,oraccusedusofhavingtakenitfromher——bothofwhichideasshewould,Iamconfident,havebeenverywellabletoconveytousifshehadbeensominded。
Nowwhatarethoughtandreasoniftheprocessesthatweregoingthroughthiscat’smindwerenotbothoneandtheother?Itwouldbechildishtosupposethatthecatthoughtinwordsofitsown,orinanythinglikewords。Itsthinkingwasprobablyconductedthroughtheinstrumentalityofaseriesofmentalimages。Wesohabituallythinkinwordsourselvesthatwefinditdifficulttorealisethoughtwithoutwordsatall;ourdifficulty,however,inimaginingtheparticularmannerinwhichthecatthinkshasnothingtodowiththematter。Wemustanswerthequestionwhethershethinksorno,notaccordingtoourowneaseordifficultyinunderstandingtheparticularmannerofherthinking,butaccordingasheractiondoesordoesnotappeartobeofthesamecharacterasotheractionthatwecommonlycallthoughtful。Tosaythatthecatisnotintelligent,merelyonthegroundthatwecannotourselvesfathomherintelligence——this,asIhaveelsewheresaid,istomakeintelligencemeanthepowerofbeingunderstood,ratherthanthepowerofunderstanding。Thisneverthelessiswhat,forallourboastedintelligence,wegenerallydo。Themorewecanunderstandananimal’sways,themoreintelligentwecallit,andthelesswecanunderstandthese,themorestupiddowedeclareittobe。Asforplants——whosepunctualityandattentiontoallthedetailsandroutineoftheirsomewhatrestrictedlinesofbusinessisasobviousasitisbeyondallpraise——weunderstandtheworkingoftheirmindssolittlethatbycommonconsentwedeclarethemtohavenointelligenceatall。