ItmayperhapsbeexpectedthatIshouldbeginalectureontherelationsbetweenthoughtandlanguagewithsomedefinitionofboththesethings；butthought，asSirWilliamGrovesaidofmotion，isaphenomenon\"soobvioustosimpleapprehension，thattodefineitwouldmakeitmoreobscure。\"{17}Definitionsareusefulwherethingsarenewtous，buttheyaresuperfluousaboutthosethatarealreadyfamiliar，andmischievous，sofarastheyarepossibleatall，inrespectofallthosethingsthatentersoprofoundlyandintimatelyintoourbeingthatinthemwemusteitherliveorbearnolife。Tovivisectthemorevitalprocessesofthoughtistosuspend，ifnottodestroythem；forthoughtcanthinkabouteverythingmorehealthilyandeasilythanaboutitself。Itislikeitsinstrumentthebrain，whichknowsnothingofanyinjuriesinflicteduponitself。Asregardswhatisnewtous，adefinitionwillsometimesdiluteadifficulty，andhelpustoswallowthatwhichmightchokeusundiluted；buttodefinewhenwehaveoncewellswallowedistounsettle，ratherthansettle，ourdigestion。
Definitions，again，arelikestepscutinasteepslopeofice，orshellsthrownontoagreasypavement；theygiveusfoothold，andenableustoadvance，butwhenweareatourjourney’sendwewantthemnolonger。Again，theyareusefulasmentalfluxes，andashelpingustofusenewideaswithourolderones。Theypresentuswithsometagsandendsofideasthatwehavealreadymastered，ontowhichwecanhitchournewones；buttomultiplytheminrespectofsuchamatterasthought，islikescratchingthebiteofagnat；
themorewescratchthemorewewanttoscratch；themorewedefinethemoreweshallhavetogoondefiningthewordswehaveusedinourdefinitions，andshallendbysettingupaseriousmentalrawintheplaceofasmalluneasinessthatwasafterallquiteendurable。
Weknowtoowellwhatthoughtis，tobeabletoknowthatweknowit，andIampersuadedthereisnooneinthisroombutunderstandswhatismeantbythoughtandthinkingwellenoughforallthepurposesofthisdiscussion。Whoeverdoesnotknowthiswithoutwordswillnotlearnitforallthewordsanddefinitionsthatarelaidbeforehim。Themore，indeed，hehears，themoreconfusedhewillbecome。Ishall，therefore，merelypremisethatIusetheword\"thought\"inthesamesenseasthatinwhichitisgenerallyusedbypeoplewhosaythattheythinkthisorthat。Atanyrate，itwillbeenoughifItakeProfessorMaxMuller’sowndefinition，andsaythatitsessenceconsistsinabringingtogetherofmentalimagesandideaswithdeductionstherefrom，andwithacorrespondingpowerofdetachingthemfromoneanother。Hobbes，theProfessortellsus，maintainedthislongago，whenhesaidthatallourthinkingconsistsofadditionandsubtraction——thatistosay，inbringingideastogether，andindetachingthemfromoneanother。
Turningfromthoughttolanguage，weobservethatthewordisderivedfromtheFrenchlangue，ortongue。Strictly，therefore，itmeanstonguage。This，however，takesaccountofbutaverysmallpartoftheideasthatunderlietheword。Itdoes，indeed，seizeafamiliarandimportantdetailofeverydayspeech，thoughitmaybedoubtedwhetherthetonguehasmoretodowithspeakingthanlips，teethandthroathave，butitmakesnoattemptatgraspingandexpressingtheessentialcharacteristicofspeech。Anythingdonewiththetongue，eventhoughitinvolvenospeakingatall，istonguage；eatingorangesisasmuchtonguageasspeechis。Theword，therefore，thoughittellsusinparthowspeechiseffected，revealsnothingofthatulteriormeaningwhichisneverthelessinseparablefromanyrightuseofthewordseither\"speech\"or\"language。\"Itpresentsuswithwhatisindeedaveryfrequentadjunctofconversation，buttheuseofwrittencharacters，orthefinger-speechofdeafmutes，isenoughtoshowthattheword\"language\"omitsallreferencetothemostessentialcharacteristicsoftheidea，whichinpracticeitneverthelessverysufficientlypresentstous。Ihopepresentlytomakeitcleartoyouhowandwhyitshoulddoso。Thewordisincompleteinthefirstplace，becauseitomitsallreferencetotheideaswhichwords，speechorlanguageareintendedtoconvey，andtherecanbenotruewordwithoutitsactuallyorpotentiallyconveyinganidea。Secondly，itmakesnoallusiontothepersonorpersonstowhomtheideasaretobeconveyed。Languageisnotlanguageunlessitnotonlyexpressesfairlydefiniteandcoherentideas，butunlessitalsoconveystheseideastosomeotherlivingintelligentbeing，eithermanorbrute，thatcanunderstandthem。Wemayspeaktoadogorhorse，butnottoastone。Ifwemakepretenceofdoingsoweareinrealityonlytalkingtoourselves。Thepersonoranimalspokentoishalfthebattle——ahalf，moreover，whichisessentialtotherebeinganybattleatall。Ittakestwopeopletosayathing——asayeeaswellasasayer。Theoneisasessentialtoanytruesayingastheother。A。mayhavespoken，butifB。hasnotheard，therehasbeennothingsaid，andhemustspeakagain。True，thebeliefonA。’spartthathehadabonafidesayeeinB。，saveshisspeechquahim，butithasbeenbarrenandleftnofertileissue。Ithasfailedtofulfiltheconditionsoftruespeech，whichinvolvenotonlythatA。
shouldspeak，butalsothatB。shouldhear。True，again，weoftenspeakofloose，incoherent，indefinitelanguage；butbydoingsoweimply，andrightly，thatwearecallingthatlanguagewhichisnottruelanguageatall。People，again，sometimestalktothemselveswithoutintendingthatanyotherpersonshouldhearthem，butthisisnotwelldone，anddoesharmtothosewhopractiseit。Itisabnormal，whereasourconcerniswithnormalandessentialcharacteristics；wemay，therefore，neglectbothdeliriousbabblings，andthecasesinwhichapersonisregardinghimorherself，asitwere，fromoutside，andtreatinghimselfasthoughheweresomeoneelse。
Inquiring，then，whataretheessentials，thepresenceofwhichconstituteslanguage，whiletheirabsencenegativesitaltogether，wefindthatProfessorMaxMullerrestrictsthemtotheuseofgrammaticalarticulatewordsthatwecanwriteorspeak，anddeniesthatanythingcanbecalledlanguageunlessitcanbewrittenorspokeninarticulatewordsandsentences。Healsodeniesthatwecanthinkatallunlesswedosoinwords；thatistosay，insentenceswithverbsandnouns。Indeedhegoessofarastosayuponhistitle-pagethattherecanbenoreason——whichIimaginecomestomuchthesamethingasthought——withoutlanguage，andnolanguagewithoutreason。
AgainsttheassertionthattherecanbenotruelanguagewithoutreasonIhavenothingtosay。ButwhentheProfessorsaysthattherecanbenoreason，orthought，withoutlanguage，hisopponentscontend，asitseemstome，withgreaterforce，thatthought，thoughinfinitelyaided，extendedandrendereddefinitethroughtheinventionofwords，neverthelessexistedsofullyastodeservenoothernamethousands，ifnotmillionsofyearsbeforewordshadenteredintoitatall。Words，theysay，areacomparativelyrecentinvention，forthefullerexpressionofsomethingthatwasalreadyinexistence。
Children，theyurge，areoftenevidentlythinkingandreasoning，thoughtheycanneitherthinknorspeakinwords。Ifyouaskmetodefinereason，Ianswerasbeforethatthiscannomorebedonethanthought，truthormotioncanbedefined。Whohasansweredthequestion，\"Whatistruth？\"MancannotseeGodandlive。Wecannotgosofarbackuponourselvesastoundermineourownfoundations；
ifwetrytodowetoppleover，andlosethatveryreasonaboutwhichwevainlytrytoreason。Ifweletthefoundationsbe，weknowwellenoughthattheyarethere，andwecanbuildupontheminallsecurity。Wecannot，then，definereasonnorcrib，cabinandconfineitwithinathus-far-shalt-thou-go-and-no-further。Whocandefineheatorcold，ornightorday？Yet，solongasweholdfastbycurrentconsent，ourchancesoferrorforwantofbetterdefinitionaresosmallthatnosensiblepersonwillconsiderthem。
Inlikemanner，ifweholdbycurrentconsentorcommonsense，whichisthesamething，aboutreason，weshallnotfindthewantofanacademicdefinitionhinderusfromareasonableconclusion。Whatnurseormotherwilldoubtthatherinfantchildcanreasonwithinthelimitsofitsownexperience，longbeforeitcanformulateitsreasoninarticulatelywordedthought？Ifthedevelopmentofanygivenanimalis，asouropponentsthemselvesadmit，anepitomeofthehistoryofitswholeanteriordevelopment，surelythefactthatspeechisanaccomplishmentacquiredafterbirthsoartificiallythatchildrenwhohavegonewildinthewoodsloseitiftheyhaveeverlearnedit，pointstotheconclusionthatman’sancestorsonlylearnedtoexpressthemselvesinarticulatelanguageatacomparativelyrecentperiod。Grantedthattheylearntothinkandreasoncontinuallythemoreandmorefullyforhavingdoneso，willcommonsensepermitustosupposethattheycouldneitherthinknorreasonatalltilltheycouldconveytheirideasinwords？
Iwillreturnlatertothereasonoftheloweranimals，butwillnowdealwiththequestionwhatitisthatconstituteslanguageinthemostcomprehensivesensethatcanbeproperlyattachedtoit。I
havesaidalreadythatlanguagetobelanguageatallmustnotonlyconveyfairlydefinitecoherentideas，butmustalsoconveythemtoanotherlivingbeing。Whenevertwolivingbeingshaveconveyedandreceivedideas，therehasbeenlanguage，whetherlooksorgesturesorwordsspokenorwrittenhavebeenthevehiclebymeansofwhichtheideashavetravelled。Someideascrawl，somerun，somefly；andinthiscasewordsarethewingstheyflywith，buttheyareonlythewingsofthoughtorofideas，theyarenotthethoughtorideasthemselves，noryet，asProfessorMaxMullerwouldhaveit，inseparablyconnectedwiththem。LastsummerIwasataninninSicily，wheretherewasadeafanddumbwaiter；hehadbeenbornso，andcouldneitherwritenorread。Whathadhetodowithwordsorwordswithhim？Arewetosay，then，thatthismostactive，amiableandintelligentfellowcouldneitherthinknorreason？OnedayI
hadhadmydinnerandhadleftthehotel。Afriendcamein，andthewaitersawhimlookformeintheplaceIgenerallyoccupied。Heinstantlycameuptomyfriend，andmovedhistwoforefingersinawaythatsuggestedtwopeoplegoingabouttogether，thismeant\"yourfriend\"；hethenmovedhisforefingershorizontallyacrosshiseyes，thismeant，\"whowearsdividedspectacles\"；hemadetwofiercemarksoverthesocketsofhiseyes，thismeant，\"withtheheavyeyebrows\"；
hepulledhischin，andthentouchedhiswhiteshirt，tosaythatmybeardwaswhite。Havingthusidentifiedmeasafriendofthepersonhewasspeakingto，andashavingawhitebeard，heavyeyebrows，andwearingdividedspectacles，hemadeamunchingmovementwithhisjawstosaythatIhadhadmydinner；andfinally，bymakingtwofingersimitatewalkingonthetable，heexplainedthatIhadgoneaway。Myfriend，however，wantedtoknowhowlongI
hadbeengone，sohepulledouthiswatchandlookedinquiringly。
Themanatonceslappedhimselfontheback，andheldupthefivefingersofonehand，tosayitwasfiveminutesago。Allthiswasdoneasrapidlyasthoughithadbeensaidinwords；andmyfriend，whoknewthemanwell，understoodwithoutamoment’shesitation。
Arewetosaythatthismanhadnothought，norreason，norlanguage，merelybecausehehadnotasinglewordofanykindinhishead，whichIamassuredhehadnot；for，asIhavesaid，hecouldnotspeakwithhisfingers？Isitpossibletodenythatadialogue——
anintelligentconversation——hadpassedbetweenthetwomen？Andifconversation，thensurelyitistechnicalandpedantictodenythatalltheessentialelementsoflanguagewerepresent。Thesignsandtokensusedbythispoorfellowwereasrudeaninstrumentofexpression，incomparisonwithordinarylanguage，asgoingonone’shandsandkneesisincomparisonwithwalking，oraswalkingcomparedwithgoingbytrain；butitisasgreatanabuseofwordstolimittheword\"language\"tomerewordswrittenorspoken，asitwouldbetolimittheideaofalocomotivetoarailwayengine。
Thismayindeedpassinordinaryconversation，wheresomuchmustbesuppressediftalkistobegotthroughatall，butitisintolerablewhenweareinquiringabouttherelationsbetweenthoughtandwords。Todosoistoletwordsbecomeasitwerethemastersofthought，onthegroundthatthefactoftheirbeingonlyitsservantsandappendagesissoobviousthatitisgenerallyallowedtogowithoutsaying。
IfallthatProfessorMaxMullermeanstosayis，thatnoanimalbutmancommandsanarticulatelanguage，withverbsandnouns，oriseverlikelytocommandone（andIquestionwhetherinrealityhemeansmuchmorethanthis），noonewilldifferfromhim。Nodogorelephanthasonewordforbread，anotherformeat，andanotherforwater。Yet，whenwewatchacatordogdreaming，astheyoftenevidentlydo，canwedoubtthatthedreamisaccompaniedbyamentalimageofthethingthatisdreamedof，muchlikewhatweexperienceindreamsourselves，andmuchdoubtlesslikethementalimageswhichmusthavepassedthroughthemindofmydeafanddumbwaiter？Iftheyhavementalimagesinsleep，canwedoubtthatwaking，also，theypicturethingsbeforetheirmind’seyes，andseethemmuchaswedo——toovaguelyindeedtoadmitofourthinkingthatweactuallyseetheobjectsthemselves，butdefinitelyenoughforustobeabletorecognisetheideaorobjectofwhichwearethinking，andtoconnectitwithanyotheridea，object，orsignthatwemaythinkappropriate？
Herewehavetouchedonthesecondessentialelementoflanguage。
Welaiditdown，thatitsessencelayinthecommunicationofanideafromoneintelligentbeingtoanother；butnoideascanbecommunicatedatallexceptbytheaidofconventionstowhichbothpartieshaveagreedtoattachanidenticalmeaning。Theagreementmaybeveryinformal，andmaypasssounconsciouslyfromonegenerationtoanotherthatitsexistencecanonlyberecognisedbytheaidofmuchintrospection，butitwillbealwaysthere。A
sayer，asayee，andaconvention，nomatterwhat，agreeduponbetweenthemasinseparablyattachedtotheideawhichitisintendedtoconvey——thesecomprisealltheessentialsoflanguage。
Wherethesearepresentthereislanguage；whereanyofthemarewantingthereisnolanguage。Itisnotnecessaryforthesayeetobeabletospeakandbecomeasayer。Ifhecomprehendsthesayer——
thatistosay，ifheattachesthesamemeaningtoacertainsymbolasthesayerdoes——ifheisapartytothebargainwherebyitisagreeduponbyboththatanygivensymbolshallbeattachedinvariablytoacertainidea，sothatinvirtueoftheprincipleofassociatedideasthesymbolshallneverbepresentwithoutimmediatelycarryingtheideaalongwithit，thenalltheessentialsoflanguagearecompliedwith，andtherehasbeentruespeechthoughneverawordwasspoken。
Theloweranimals，therefore，manyofthem，possessapartofourownlanguage，thoughtheycannotspeakit，andhencedonotpossessitsofullyaswedo。Theycannotsay\"bread，\"\"meat，\"or\"water，\"
buttherearemanythatreadilylearnwhatideastheyoughttoattachtothesesymbolswhentheyarepresentedtothem。Itisidletosaythatacatdoesnotknowwhatthecat’s-meatmanmeanswhenhesays\"meat。\"Thecatknowsjustaswell，neitherbetternorworsethanthecat’s-meatmandoes，andagreatdealbetterthanI
myselfunderstandmuchthatissaidbysomeverycleverpeopleatOxfordorCambridge。Thereismoretrueemploymentoflanguage，morebonafidecurrencyofspeech，betweenasayerandasayeewhounderstandeachother，thoughneitherofthemcanspeakaword，thanbetweenasayerwhocanspeakwiththetonguesofmenandofangelswithoutbeingclearabouthisownmeaning，andasayeewhocanhimselfutterthesamewords，butwhoisonlyinimperfectagreementwiththesayerastotheideaswhichthewordsorsymbolsthatheuttersareintendedtoconvey。Thenatureofthesymbolscountsfornothing；thegistofthematterisintheperfectharmonybetweensayerandsayeeastothesignificancethatistobeassociatedwiththem。
ProfessorMaxMulleradmitsthatwesharewiththeloweranimalswhathecallsanemotionallanguage，andcontinuesthatwemaycalltheirinterjectionsandimitationslanguageifwelike，aswespeakofthelanguageoftheeyesortheeloquenceofmutenature，buthewarnsusagainstmistakingmetaphorforfact。Itisindeedmeremetaphortotalkoftheeloquenceofmutenature，orthelanguageofwindsandwaves。Thereisnointercommunionofmindwithmindbymeansofacovenantedsymbol；butitisonlyanapparent，notareal，metaphortosaythattwopairsofeyeshavespokenwhentheyhavesignalledtooneanothersomethingwhichtheybothunderstand。
Aschoolboyathomefortheholidayswantsanotherplateofpudding，anddoesnotliketoapplyofficiallyformore。Hecatchestheservant’seyeandlooksatthepudding；theservantunderstands，takeshisplatewithoutaword，andgetshimsome。Isitmetaphortosaythattheboyaskedtheservanttodothis，orisitnotratherpedantrytoinsistontheletterofabondanddenyitsspirit，bydenyingthatlanguagepassed，onthegroundthatthesymbolscovenanteduponandassentedtobybothwereutteredandreceivedbyeyesandnotbymouthandears？Whentheladydranktothegentlemanonlywithhereyes，andhepledgedwithhis，wastherenoconversationbecausetherewasneithernounnorverb？Eyesareverbs，andglassesofwinearegoodnounsenoughasbetweenthosewhounderstandoneanother。Whethertheideasunderlyingthemareexpressedandconveyedbyeyeageorbytonguageisadetailthatmattersnothing。
Buteverythingwesayismetaphoricalifwechoosetobecaptious。
Scratchthesimplestexpressions，andyouwillfindthemetaphor。
Writtenwordsarehandage，inkageandpaperage；itisonlybymetaphor，orsubstitutionandtranspositionofideas，thatwecancallthemlanguage。Theyareindeedpotentiallanguage，andthesymbolsemployedpresupposenouns，verbs，andtheotherpartsofspeech；butforthemostpartitisinwhatwereadbetweenthelinesthattheprofoundermeaningofanyletterisconveyed。Therearewordsunwrittenanduntranslatableintoanynounsthatareneverthelessfeltasabove，aboutandunderneaththegrossmaterialsymbolsthatliescrawleduponthepaper；andthedeeperthefeelingwithwhichanythingiswrittenthemorepregnantwillitbeofmeaningwhichcanbeconveyedsecurelyenough，butwhichlosesratherthangainsifitissqueezedintoasentence，andlimitedbythepartsofspeech。Thelanguageisnotinthewordsbutintheheart-to-heartnessofthething，whichishelpedbywords，butisnearerandfartherthanthey。Acorrespondentwrotetomeonce，manyyearsago，\"IfIcouldthinktoyouwithoutwordsyouwouldunderstandmebetter。\"Butsurelyinthishewasthinkingtome，andwithoutwords，andIdidunderstandhimbetter……SoitisnotbythewordsthatIamtoopresumptuouslyventuringtospeakto-
nightthatyouropinionswillbeformedormodified。Theywillbeformedormodified，ifeither，bysomethingthatyouwillfeel，butwhichIhavenotspoken，tothefullasmuchasbyanythingthatI
haveactuallyuttered。Youmaysaythatthisbordersonmysticism。
Perhapsitdoes，buttheirreallyissomemysticisminnature。
Toreturn，however，toterrafirma。IbelieveIamrightinsayingthattheessenceoflanguageliesintheintentionalconveyanceofideasfromonelivingbeingtoanotherthroughtheinstrumentalityofarbitrarytokensorsymbolsagreedupon，andunderstoodbybothasbeingassociatedwiththeparticularideasinquestion。Thenatureofthesymbolchosenisamatterofindifference；itmaybeanythingthatappealstohumansenses，andisnottoohotortooheavy；theessenceofthematterliesinamutualcovenantthatwhateveritisitshallstandinvariablyforthesamething，ornearlyso。
Weshallseethismoreeasilyifweobservethedifferencesbetweenwrittenandspokenlanguage。Thewrittenword\"stone，\"andthespokenword，areeachofthemsymbolsarrivedatinthefirstinstancearbitrarily。Theyareneitherofthemmoreliketheotherthantheyaretotheideaofastonewhichrisesbeforeourminds，whenweeitherseeorheartheword，orthanthisideaagainisliketheactualstoneitself，butneverthelessthespokensymbolandthewrittenoneeachalikeconveywithcertaintythecombinationofideastowhichwehaveagreedtoattachthem。
Thewrittensymbolisformedwiththehand，appealstotheeye，leavesamaterialtraceaslongaspaperandinklast，cantravelasfaraspaperandinkcantravel，andcanbeimprintedoneyeaftereyepracticallyadinfinitumbothasregardstimeandspace。
Thespokensymbolisformedbymeansofvariousorgansinoraboutthemouth，appealstotheear，nottheeye，perishesinstantlywithoutmaterialtrace，andifitlivesatalldoessoonlyinthemindsofthosewhoheardit。Therangeofitsactionisnowiderthanthatwithinwhichavoicecanbeheard；andeverytimeafreshimpressioniswantedthetypemustbesetupanew。
Thewrittensymbolextendsinfinitely，asregardstimeandspace，therangewithinwhichonemindcancommunicatewithanother；itgivesthewriter’smindalifelimitedbythedurationofink，paper，andreaders，asagainstthatofhisfleshandbloodbody。Ontheotherhand，ittakeslongertolearntherulessoastobeabletoapplythemwitheaseandsecurity，andeventhentheycannotbeappliedsoquicklyandeasilyasthoseattachingtospokensymbols。
Moreover，thespokensymboladmitsofahundredquickandsubtleadjunctsbywayofaction，toneandexpression，sothatnoonewillusewrittensymbolsunlesseitherforthespecialadvantagesofpermanenceandtravellingpower，orbecauseheisincapacitatedfromusingspokenones。This，however，ishardlytothepoint；thepointisthatthesetwoconventionalcombinationsofsymbols，thatareasunlikeoneanotherastheHallelujahChorusistoSt。Paul’sCathedral，aretheoneasmuchlanguageastheother；andwethereforeinquirewhatthisverypatentfactrevealstousaboutthemoreessentialcharacteristicsoflanguageitself。Whatisthecommonbondthatunitesthesetwoclassesofsymbolsthatseematfirstsighttohavenothingincommon，andmakestheoneraisetheideaoflanguageinourmindsasreadilyastheother？Thebondliesinthefactthatbothareasetofconventionaltokensorsymbols，agreeduponbetweenthepartiestowhomtheyappealasbeingattachedinvariablytothesameideas，andbecausetheyarebeingmadeasameansofcommunionbetweenonemindandanother，——
foramemorandummadeforaperson’sownlateruseisnothingbutacommunicationfromanearliermindtoalaterandmodifiedone；itisthereforeinrealityacommunicationfromonemindtoanotherasmuchasthoughithadbeenaddressedtoanotherperson。
Wesee，therefore，thatthenatureoftheoutwardandvisiblesigntowhichtheinwardandspiritualideaoflanguageisattacheddoesnotmatter。Itmaybethefiringofagun；itmaybeanoldsemaphoretelegraph；itmaybethemovementsofaneedle；alook，agesture，thebreakingofatwigbyanIndiantotellsomeonethathehaspassedthatway：atwigbrokendesignedlywiththisendinviewisaletteraddressedtowhomsoeveritmayconcern，asmuchasthoughithadbeenwrittenoutinfullonbarkorpaper。Itdoesnotmatteronestrawwhatitis，provideditisagreeduponinconcert，andstuckto。Justasthelowestformsoflifeneverthelesspresentuswithalltheessentialcharacteristicsoflivingness，andareasmuchaliveintheirownhumblewayasthemosthighlydevelopedorganisms，sotherudestintentionalandeffectualcommunicationbetweentwomindsthroughtheinstrumentalityofaconcertedsymbolisasmuchlanguageasthemostfinishedoratoryofMr。Gladstone。Idemurthereforetotheassertionthattheloweranimalshavenolanguage，inasmuchastheycannotthemselvesarticulateagrammaticalsentence。Idonotindeedpretendthatwhenthecatcallsuponthetilesituseswhatitconsciouslyandintrospectivelyrecognisesaslanguage；itsayswhatithastosaywithoutintrospection，andintheordinarycourseofbusiness，asoneofthecommonformsofcourtship。ItnomoreknowsthatithasbeenusinglanguagethanM。Jourdainknewhehadbeenspeakingprose，butM。Jourdain’sknowingornotknowingwasneitherherenorthere。
Anythingwhichcanbemadetohitchoninvariablytoadefiniteideathatcancarrysomedistance——sayaninchattheleast，andwhichcanberepeatedatpleasure，canbepressedintotheserviceoflanguage。Mrs。Bentley，wifeofthefamousDr。BentleyofTrinityCollege，Cambridge，usedtosendhersnuff-boxtothecollegebutterywhenshewantedbeer，insteadofawrittenorder。Ifthesnuff-boxcamethebeerwassent，butiftherewasnosnuff-boxtherewasnobeer。Whereindidthesnuff-boxdiffermorefromawrittenorder，thanawrittenorderdiffersfromaspokenone？Thesnuff-boxwasforthetimebeinglanguage。Itsoundsstrangetosaythatonemighttakeapinchofsnuffoutofasentence，butiftheservanthadhelpedhimorherselftoapinchwhilecarryingittothebutterythisiswhatwouldhavebeendone；forifasnuff-boxcansay\"Sendmeaquartofbeer，\"soefficientlythatthebeerissent，itisimpossibletosaythatitisnotabonafidesentence。
Asfortherecipientofthemessage，thebutlerdidnotprobablytranslatethesnuff-boxintoarticulatenounsandverbs；assoonashesawithejustwentdownintothecellaranddrewthebeer，andifhethoughtatall，itwasprobablyaboutsomethingelse。Yethemusthavebeenthinkingwithoutwords，orhewouldhavedrawntoomuchbeerortoolittle，orhavespiltitinthebringingitup，andwemaybesurethathedidnoneofthesethings。
Youwill，ofcourse，observethatifMrs。Bentleyhadsentthesnuff-boxtothebutteryofSt。John’sCollegeinsteadofTrinity，itwouldnothavebeenlanguage，fortherewouldhavebeennocovenantbetweensayerandsayeeastowhatthesymbolshouldrepresent，therewouldhavebeennopreviouslyestablishedassociationofideasinthemindofthebutlerofSt。John’sbetweenbeerandsnuff-box；theconnectionwasartificial，arbitrary，andbynomeansoneofthoseinrespectofwhichanimpromptubargainmightbeproposedbytheverysymbolitself，andassentedtowithoutpreviousformalitybythepersontowhomitwaspresented。Morebriefly，thebutlerofSt。John’swouldnothavebeenabletounderstandandreaditaright。Itwouldhavebeenadeadlettertohim——asnuff-boxandnotaletter；whereastothebutlerofTrinityitwasaletterandnotasnuff-box。
Youwillalsonotethatitwasonlyatthemomentwhenhewaslookingatitandacceptingitasamessagethatitflashedforthfromsnuff-box-hoodintothelightandlifeoflivingutterance。Assoonasithadkindledthebutlerintosendingasinglequartofbeer，itsforcewasspentuntilMrs。Bentleythrewhersoulintoitagainandchargeditanewbywantingmorebeer，andsendingitdownaccordingly。
Again，taketheringwhichtheEarlofEssexsenttoQueenElizabeth，butwhichthequeendidnotreceive。Thiswasintendedasasentence，butfailedtobecomeeffectuallanguagebecausethesensiblematerialsymbolneverreachedthosesentientorganswhichitwasintendedtoaffect。Abook，again，howeverfullofexcellentwordsitmaybe，isnotlanguagewhenitismerelystandingonabookshelf。Itspeakstonoone，unlesswhenbeingactuallyread，orquotedfrombyanactofmemory。Itispotentiallanguageasalucifer-matchispotentialfire，butitisnomorelanguagetillitisincontactwitharecipientmind，thanamatchisfiretillitisstruck，andisbeingconsumed。
Apieceofmusic，again，withoutanywordsatall，orasongwithwordsthathavenothingintheworldtodowiththeideaswhichitisneverthelessmadetoconvey，isoftenveryeffectuallanguage。
Muchlying，andallironydependsontamperingwithcovenantedsymbols，andmakingthosethatareusuallyassociatedwithonesetofideasconveybyasleightofmindothersofadifferentnature。
Thatiswhyironyisintolerablyfatiguingunlessverysparinglyused。TakethesongwhichBlondelsangunderthewindowofKingRichard’sprison。TherewasnotonesyllableinittosaythatBlondelwasthere，andwasgoingtohelpthekingtogetoutofprison。Itwasaboutsomesillyloveaffair，butitwasaletterallthesame，andthekingmadelanguageofwhatwouldotherwisehavebeennolanguage，byguessingthemeaning，thatistosaybyperceivingthathewasexpectedtoenterthenandthereintoanewcovenantastothemeaningofthesymbolsthatwerepresentedtohim，understandingwhatthiscovenantwastobe，andacquiescinginit。
Ontheotherhand，noingenuitycantorturelanguageintobeingafitwordtouseinconnectionwitheithersoundsoranyothersymbolsthathavenotbeenintendedtoconveyameaning，oragaininconnectionwitheithersoundsorsymbolsinrespectofwhichtherehasbeennocovenantbetweensayerandsayee。Whenwehearpeoplespeakingaforeignlanguage——wewillsayWelsh——wefeelthatthoughtheyarenodoubtusingwhatisverygoodlanguageasbetweenthemselves，thereisnolanguagewhateverasfarasweareconcerned。Wecallitlingo，notlanguage。TheChineselettersonatea-chestmightaswellnotbethere，forallthattheysaytous，thoughtheChinesefindthemverymuchtothepurpose。Theyareacovenanttowhichwehavebeennoparties——towhichourintelligencehasaffixednosignature。
Wehavealreadyseenthatitisinvirtueofsuchanunderstoodcovenantthatsymbolssounlikeoneanotherasthewrittenword\"stone\"andthespokenwordalikeatonceraisetheideaofastoneinourminds。Seehowthesameholdsgoodasregardsthedifferentlanguagesthatpasscurrentindifferentnations。Thelettersp，i，e，r，r，econveytheideaofastonetoaFrenchmanasreadilyass，t，o，n，edotoourselves。Andwhy？becausethatisthecovenantthathasbeenstruckbetweenthosewhospeakandthosewhoarespokento。Our\"stone\"conveysnoideatoaFrenchman，norhis\"pierre\"tous，unlesswehavedonewhatiscommonlycalledacquiringoneanother’slanguage。Toacquireaforeignlanguageisonlytolearnandadheretothecovenantsinrespectofsymbolswhichthenationinquestionhasadoptedandadheresto。
Tillwehavedonethisweneitherofusknowtherules，sotospeak，ofthegamethattheotherisplaying，andcannot，therefore，playtogether；buttheconventionbeingonceknownandassentedto，itdoesnotmatterwhetherweraisetheideaofastonebytheword\"lapis，\"orby\"lithos，\"\"pietra，\"\"pierre，\"\"stein，\"\"stane\"or\"stone\"；wemaychoosewhatsymbolswrittenorspokenwechoose，andoneset，unlesstheyareofunwieldylengthwilldoaswellasanother，ifwecangetotherpeopletochoosethesameandsticktothem；itistheacceptingandstickingtothemthatmatters，notthesymbols。Thewholepowerofspokenlanguageisvestedintheinvariablenesswithwhichcertainsymbolsareassociatedwithcertainideas。Ifwearestrictinalwaysconnectingthesamesymbolswiththesameideas，wespeakwell，keepourmeaningcleartoourselves，andconveyitreadilyandaccuratelytoanyonewhoisalsofairlystrict。If，ontheotherhand，weusethesamecombinationofsymbolsforonethingonedayandforanotherthenext，weabuseoursymbolsinsteadofusingthem，andthosewhoindulgeinslovenlyhabitsinthisrespecterelonglosethepoweralikeofthinkingandofexpressingthemselvescorrectly。Thesymbols，however，inthefirstinstance，maybeanythinginthewideworldthatwehaveafancyfor。Theyhavenomoretodowiththeideastheyservetoconveythanmoneyhaswiththethingsthatitservestobuy。
Theprincipleofassociation，aseveryoneknows，involvesthatwhenevertwothingshavebeenassociatedsufficientlytogether，thesuggestionofoneofthemtothemindshallimmediatelyraiseasuggestionoftheother。Itisinvirtueofthisprinciplethatlanguage，aswesocallit，existsatall，fortheessenceoflanguageconsists，asIhavesaidperhapsalreadytoooften，inthefixitywithwhichcertainideasareinvariablyconnectedwithcertainsymbols。Butthisbeingso，itishardtoseehowwecandenythattheloweranimalspossessthegermsofahighlyrudeandunspecialised，butstilltruelanguage，unlesswealsodenythattheyhaveanyideasatall；andthisIgatheriswhatProfessorMaxMullerinaquietwayratherwishestodo。Thushesays，\"Itiseasyenoughtoshowthatanimalscommunicate，butthisisafactwhichhasneverbeendoubted。Dogswhogrowlandbarkleavenodoubtinthemindsofotherdogsorcats，orevenofman，ofwhattheymean，butgrowlingandbarkingarenotlanguage，nordotheyevencontaintheelementsoflanguage。\"{18}
IobservetheProfessorsaysthatanimalscommunicatewithoutsayingwhatitisthattheycommunicate。Ibelievethistohavebeenbecauseifhesaidthattheloweranimalscommunicatetheirideas，thiswouldbetoadmitthattheyhaveideas；ifso，andif，astheypresenteveryappearanceofdoing，theycanremember，reflectupon，modifytheseideasaccordingtomodifiedsurroundings，andinterchangethemwithoneanother，howisitpossibletodenythemthegermsofthought，language，andreason——nottosayagooddealmorethanthegerms？Itseemstomethatnotknowingwhatelsetosaythatanimalscommunicatedifitwasnotideas，andnotknowingwhatmesshemightnotgetintoifheadmittedthattheyhadideasatall，hethoughtitsafertoomithisaccusativecasealtogether。
Thatgrowlingandbarkingcannotbecalledaveryhighlyspecialisedlanguagegoeswithoutsaying；theyare，however，somuchdiversifiedincharacter，accordingtocircumstances，thattheyplaceaconsiderablenumberofsymbolsatananimal’scommand，andheinvariablyattachesthesamesymboltothesameidea。Acatneverpurrswhensheisangry，norspitswhensheispleased。Whensherubsherheadagainstanyoneaffectionatelyitishersymbolforsayingthatsheisveryfondofhim，andsheexpects，andusuallyfindsthatitwillbeunderstood。Ifsheseeshermistressraiseherhandasthoughtopretendtostrikeher，sheknowsthatitisthesymbolhermistressinvariablyattachestotheideaofsendingheraway，andassuchsheacceptsit。Grantedthatthesymbolsinuseamongtheloweranimalsarefewerandlesshighlydifferentiatedthaninthecaseofanyknownhumanlanguage，andthereforethatanimallanguageisincomparablylesssubtleandlesscapableofexpressingdelicateshadesofmeaningthanourown，thesedifferencesareneverthelessonlythosethatexistbetweenhighlydevelopedandinchoatelanguage；theydonotinvolvethosethatdistinguishlanguagefromnolanguage。Theyarethedifferencesbetweentheundifferentiatedprotoplasmoftheamoebaandourowncomplexorganisation；theyarenotthedifferencesbetweenlifeandnolife。Inanimallanguageasmuchasinhumanthereisamindintentionallymakinguseofasymbolacceptedbyanothermindasinvariablyattachedtoacertainidea，inordertoproducethatideainthemindwhichitisdesiredtoaffect——morebriefly，thereisasayer，asayee，andacovenantedsymboldesignedlyapplied。Ourownspeechisvertebratedandarticulatedbymeansofnouns，verbs，andtherulesofgrammar。Adog’sspeechisinvertebrate，butIdonotseehowitispossibletodenythatitpossessesalltheessentialelementsoflanguage。
IhavesaidnothingaboutProfessorR。L。Garner’sresearchesintothelanguageofapes，becausetheyhavenotyetbeensofarverifiedandacceptedastomakeitsafetorelyuponthem；butwhenhelaysitdownthatallvoluntarysoundsaretheproductsofthought，andthat，iftheyconveyameaningtoanother，theyperformthefunctionsofhumanspeech，hesayswhatIbelievewillcommenditselftoanyunsophisticatedmind。Icouldhavewished，however，thathehadnotlimitedhimselftosounds，andshouldhavepreferredhissayingwhatIdoubtnothewouldreadilyaccept——Imean，thatallsymbolsortokensofwhateverkind，ifvoluntarilyadoptedassuch，aretheproductsofthought，andperformthefunctionsofhumanspeech；butIcannottoooftenremindyouthatnothingcanbeconsideredasfulfillingtheconditionsoflanguage，exceptavoluntaryapplicationofarecognisedtokeninordertoconveyamoreorlessdefinitemeaning，withtheintentiondoubtlessofthuspurchasingasitweresomeotherdesiredmeaningandconsequentsensation。Itisastonishinghowcloselyinthisrespectmoneyandwordsresembleoneanother。Moneyindeedmaybeconsideredasthemostuniversalandexpressiveofalllanguages。Forgoldandsilvercoinsarenomoremoneywhennotintheactualprocessofbeingvoluntarilyusedinpurchase，thanwordsnotsoinusearelanguage。
Pounds，shillingsandpencearerecognisedcovenantedtokens，theoutwardandvisiblesignsofaninwardandspiritualpurchasingpower，buttillinactualusetheyareonlypotentialmoney，asthesymbolsoflanguage，whatevertheymaybe，areonlypotentiallanguagetilltheyarepassingbetweentwominds。Itisthepowerandwilltoapplythesymbolsthatalonegiveslifetomoney，andaslongastheseareinabeyancethemoneyisinabeyancealso；thecoinsmaybesafeinone’spocket，buttheyareasdeadasalogtilltheybegintoburninit，andsoareourwordstilltheybegintoburnwithinus。
Therealquestion，however，astothesubstantialunderlyingidentitybetweenthelanguageoftheloweranimalsandourown，turnsuponthatotherquestionwhetherorno，inspiteofanimmeasurabledifferenceofdegree，thethoughtandreasonofmanandoftheloweranimalsisessentiallythesame。Noonewillexpectadogtomasterandexpressthevariedideasthatareincessantlyarisinginconnectionwithhumanaffairs。Heisapauperasagainstamillionaire。Toaskhimtodosowouldbelikegivingastreet-
boysixpenceandtellinghimtogoandbuyhimselfafounder’sshareintheNewRiverCompany。Hewouldnotevenknowwhatwasmeant，andevenifhediditwouldtakeseveralmillionsofsixpencestobuyone。Itisastonishingwhatacleverworkmanwilldowithverymodesttools，oragainhowfarathriftyhousewifewillmakeaverysmallsumofmoneygo，oragaininlikemannerhowmanyideasanintelligentbrutecanreceiveandconveywithitsverylimitedvocabulary；butnoonewillpretendthatadog’sintelligencecaneverreachthelevelofaman’s。Whatwedomaintainisthat，withinitsownlimitedrange，itisofthesameessentialcharacterasourown，andthatthoughadog’sideasinrespectofhumanaffairsarebothvagueandnarrow，yetinrespectofcanineaffairstheyarepreciseenoughandextensiveenoughtodeservenoothernamethanthoughtorreason。Weholdmoreoverthattheycommunicatetheirideasinessentiallythesamemanneraswedo——thatistosay，bytheinstrumentalityofacodeofsymbolsattachedtocertainstatesofmindandmaterialobjects，inthefirstinstancearbitrarily，butsopersistently，thatthepresentationofthesymbolimmediatelycarrieswithittheideawhichitisintendedtoconvey。Animalscanthusreceiveandimpartideasonallthatmostconcernsthem。Asmygreatnamesakesaidsometwohundredyearsago，theyknow\"what’swhat，andthat’sashighasmetaphysicwitcanfly。\"Andtheynotonlyknowwhat’swhatthemselves，butcanimparttooneanotheranynewwhat’s-whatnessthattheymayhaveacquired，fortheyarenotoriouslyabletoinstructandcorrectoneanother。
AgainstthisProfessorMaxMullercontendsthatwecanknownothingofwhatgoesoninthemindofanyloweranimal，inasmuchaswearenotloweranimalsourselves。\"Wecanimagineanythingwelikeaboutwhatpassesinthemindofananimal，\"hewrites，\"wecanknowabsolutelynothing。\"{19}Itissomethingtohaveitinevidencethatheconceivesanimalsashavingamindatall，butitisnoteasytoseehowtheycanbesupposedtohaveamind，withoutbeingabletoacquireideas，andhavingacquired，toread，mark，learn，andinwardlydigestthem。Surelythemistakeofrequiringtoomuchevidenceishardlylessgreatthanthatofbeingcontentedwithtoolittle。We，too，areanimals，andcannomorerefusetoinferreasonfromcertainvisibleactionsintheircasethanwecaninourown。IfProfessorMaxMuller’spleawereallowed，weshouldhavetodenyourrighttoinferconfidentlywhatpassesinthemindofanyonenotourselves，inasmuchaswearenotthatperson。Wenever，indeed，canobtainirrefragablecertaintyaboutthisoranyothermatter，butwecanbesureenoughinmanycasestowarrantourstakingallthatismostprecioustousonthesoundnessofouropinion。Moreover，iftheProfessordeniesourrighttoinferthatanimalsreason，onthegroundthatwearenotanimalsenoughourselvestobeabletoformanopinion，withwhatrightdoesheinfersoconfidentlyhimselfthattheydonotreason？Andhow，iftheypresenteveryoneofthoseappearanceswhichweareaccustomedtoconnectwiththecommunicationofanideafromonemindtoanother，canwedenythattheyhavealanguageoftheirown，thoughitisonewhichinmostcaseswecanneitherspeaknorunderstand？
Howcanwesaythatasentinelrook，whenitseesamanwithagunandwarnstheotherrooksbyaconcertednotewhichtheyallshowthattheyunderstandbyimmediatelytakingflight，shouldnotbecreditedbothwithreasonandthegermsoflanguage？
Afterall，aprofessor，whetherofphilology，psychology，biology，oranyotherology，ishardlythekindofpersontowhomweshouldappealonsuchanelementaryquestionasthatofanimalintelligenceandlanguage。Wemightaswellaskabotanisttotelluswhethergrassgrows，orameteorologisttotellusifithasleftoffraining。Ifitisnecessarytoappealtoanyone，Ishouldprefertheopinionofanintelligentgamekeepertothatofanyprofessor，howeverlearned。Thekeepers，again，attheZoologicalGardens，haveexceptionalopportunitiesforstudyingthemindsofanimals——
modified，indeed，bycaptivity，butstillmindsofanimals。Grooms，again，anddog-fanciers，aretothefullasabletoformanintelligentopiniononthereasonandlanguageofanimalsasanyUniversityProfessor，andsoarecats’-meatmen。IhaverepeatedlyaskedgamekeepersandkeepersattheZoologicalGardenswhetheranimalscouldreasonandconversewithoneanother，andhavealwaysfoundmyselfregardedsomewhatcontemptuouslyforhavingevenaskedthequestion。Ioncesaidtoafriend，inthehearingofakeeperattheZoologicalGardens，thatthepenguinwasverystupid。Themanwasfurious，andjumpeduponmeatonce。\"He’snotstupidatall，\"saidhe；\"he’sveryintelligent。\"
Whohasnotseenacat，whenitwishestogoout，raiseitsforepawsontothehandleofthedoor，orasnearasitcanget，andlookround，evidentlyaskingsomeonetoturnitforher？Isitreasonabletodenythatareasoningprocessisgoingoninthecat’smind，wherebysheconnectsherwishwiththestepsnecessaryforitsfulfilment，andalsowithcertaininvariablesymbolswhichsheknowshermasterormistresswillinterpret？Once，incompanywithafriend，Iwatchedacatplayingwithahouse-flyinthewindowofaground-floorroom。Wewereinthestreet，whilethecatwasinside。
Whenwecameuptothewindowshegaveusonesearchinglook，and，havingsatisfiedherselfthatwehadnothingforher，wentonwithhergame。Sheknewallabouttheglassinthewindow，andwassurewecoulddonothingtomolesther，soshetreateduswithabsolutecontempt，neverevenlookingatusagain。
Thegamewasthis。Shewastocatchtheflyandrollitroundandroundunderherpawalongthewindow-sill，butsogentlyasnottoinjureitnorpreventitfrombeingabletoflyagainwhenshehaddonerollingit。Itwasveryearlyspring，andflieswerescarce，infacttherewasnotanotherinthewholewindow。Sheknewthatifshecrippledthisone，itwouldnotbeabletoamuseherfurther，andthatshewouldnotreadilygetanotherinstead，andshelikedthefeelofitunderherpaw。Itwassoftandliving，andthequiveringofitswingstickledtheballofherfootinamannerthatshefoundparticularlygrateful；sosherolleditgentlyalongthewholelengthofthewindow-sill。Itthenbecamethefly’sturn。Hewastogetupandflyaboutinthewindow，soastorecoverhimselfalittle；thenshewastocatchhimagain，androllhimsoftlyallalongthewindow-sill，asshehaddonebefore。
Itwasplainthatthecatknewtherulesofhergameperfectlywell，andenjoyeditkeenly。Itwasequallyplainthattheflycouldnotmakeheadortailofwhatitwasallabout。Ifithadbeenabletodosoitwouldhavegonetoplayintheupperpartofthewindow，wherethecatcouldnotreachit。Perhapsitwasalwayshopingtogetthroughtheglass，andescapethatway；anyhow，itkeptprettymuchtothesamepane，nomatterhowoftenitwasrolled。Atlast，however，thefly，forsomereasonoranother，didnotreappearonthepane，andthecatbeganlookingeverywheretofindit。Herannoyancewhenshefailedtodosowasextreme。Itwasnotonlythatshehadlostherfly，butthatshecouldnotconceivehowsheshouldhaveevercometodoso。Presentlyshenotedasmallknotinthewoodworkofthesill，anditflasheduponherthatshehadaccidentallykilledthefly，andthatthiswasitsdeadbody。Shetriedtomoveitgentlywithherpaw，butitwasnouse，andforthetimeshesatisfiedherselfthattheknotandtheflyhadnothingtodowithoneanother。Everynowandthen，however，shereturnedtoitasthoughitweretheonlythingshecouldthinkof，andshewouldtryitagain。Sheseemedtosayshewascertaintherehadbeennoknottherebefore——shemusthaveseenitiftherehadbeen；
andyet，theflycouldhardlyhavegotjammedsofirmlyintothewood。Shewaspuzzledandirritatedbeyondmeasure，andkeptlookinginthesameplaceagainandagain，justaswedowhenwehavemislaidsomething。Shewasrapidlylosingtemperanddignitywhensuddenlywesawtheflyreappearfromunderthecat’sstomachandmakeforthewindow-pane，attheverymomentwhenthecatherselfwasexclaimingforthefiftiethtimethatshewonderedwherethatstupidflyevercouldhavegotto。Nomanwhohasbeenhuntingtwentyminutesforhisspectaclescouldbemoredelightedwhenhesuddenlyfindsthemonhisownforehead。\"Sothat’swhereyouwere，\"weseemedtohearhersay，assheproceededtocatchit，andagainbeganrollingitverysoftlywithouthurtingit，underherpaw。MyfriendandIbothnoticedthatthecat，inspiteofherperplexity，neversomuchashintedthatweweretheculprits。Thequestionwhetheranythingoutsidethewindowcoulddohergoodorharmhadlongsincebeensettledbyherinthenegative，andshewasnotgoingtoreopenit；shesimplycutusdead，andthoughherannoyancewassogreatthatshewasmanifestlyreadytolaytheblameonanybodyoranythingwithorwithoutreason，andthoughshemusthaveperfectlywellknownthatwewerewatchingthewholeaffairwithamusement，shenevereitheraskedusifwehadhappenedtoseesuchathingasaflygodownourwaylately，oraccusedusofhavingtakenitfromher——bothofwhichideasshewould，Iamconfident，havebeenverywellabletoconveytousifshehadbeensominded。
Nowwhatarethoughtandreasoniftheprocessesthatweregoingthroughthiscat’smindwerenotbothoneandtheother？Itwouldbechildishtosupposethatthecatthoughtinwordsofitsown，orinanythinglikewords。Itsthinkingwasprobablyconductedthroughtheinstrumentalityofaseriesofmentalimages。Wesohabituallythinkinwordsourselvesthatwefinditdifficulttorealisethoughtwithoutwordsatall；ourdifficulty，however，inimaginingtheparticularmannerinwhichthecatthinkshasnothingtodowiththematter。Wemustanswerthequestionwhethershethinksorno，notaccordingtoourowneaseordifficultyinunderstandingtheparticularmannerofherthinking，butaccordingasheractiondoesordoesnotappeartobeofthesamecharacterasotheractionthatwecommonlycallthoughtful。Tosaythatthecatisnotintelligent，merelyonthegroundthatwecannotourselvesfathomherintelligence——this，asIhaveelsewheresaid，istomakeintelligencemeanthepowerofbeingunderstood，ratherthanthepowerofunderstanding。Thisneverthelessiswhat，forallourboastedintelligence，wegenerallydo。Themorewecanunderstandananimal’sways，themoreintelligentwecallit，andthelesswecanunderstandthese，themorestupiddowedeclareittobe。Asforplants——whosepunctualityandattentiontoallthedetailsandroutineoftheirsomewhatrestrictedlinesofbusinessisasobviousasitisbeyondallpraise——weunderstandtheworkingoftheirmindssolittlethatbycommonconsentwedeclarethemtohavenointelligenceatall。