Ihavementionedthefactthat，about40or50yearsago，anycultivatedforeignersettlinginEnglandwasstruckbywhathewasthenboundtoconsiderthereligiousbigotryandstupidityoftheEnglishrespectablemiddle—class。
IamnowgoingtoprovethattherespectableEnglishmiddle—classofthattimewasnotquiteasstupidasitlookedtotheintelligentforeigner。
Itsreligiousleaningscanbeexplained。
Notes（1VorwartsexistedinLeipzigfrom1876—78，aftertheGothaUnificationCongress。
[2]\"Qual\"isaphilosophicalplayuponwords。Qualliterallymeanstorture，apainwhichdrivestoactionofsomekind；atthesametime，themysticBohmeputsintotheGermanwordsomethingofthemeaningoftheLatinqualitas；
his\"qual\"wastheactivatingprinciplearisingfrom，andpromotinginitsturn，thespontaneousdevelopmentofthething，relation，orpersonsubjecttoit，incontradistinctiontoapaininflictedfromwithout。[NotebyEngelstotheEnglishEdition]
Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Chpt。1）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientificI
[TheDevelopmentofUtopianSocialism]
ModernSocialismis，initsessence，thedirectproductoftherecognition，ontheonehand，oftheclassantagonismsexistinginthesocietyoftodaybetweenproprietorsandnon—proprietors，betweencapitalistsandwage—workers；
ontheotherhand，oftheanarchyexistinginproduction。But，initstheoreticalform，modernSocialismoriginallyappearsostensiblyasamorelogicalextensionoftheprincipleslaiddownbythegreatFrenchphilosophersofthe18thcentury。Likeeverynewtheory，modernSocialismhad，atfirst，toconnectitselfwiththeintellectualstock—in—tradereadytoitshand，howeverdeeplyitsrootslayinmaterialeconomicfacts。
Thegreatmen，whoinFrancepreparedmen’smindsforthecomingrevolution，werethemselvesextremerevolutionists。Theyrecognizednoexternalauthorityofanykindwhatever。Religion，naturalscience，society，politicalinstitutions？everythingwassubjectedtothemostunsparingcriticism：everythingmustjustifyitsexistencebeforethejudgment—seatofreasonorgiveupexistence。Reasonbecamethesolemeasureofeverything。Itwasthetimewhen，asHegelsays，theworldstooduponitshea；[1]；
firstinthesensethatthehumanhead，andtheprinciplesarrivedatbyitsthought，claimedtobethebasisofallhumanactionandassociation；
butbyandby，also，inthewidersensethattherealitywhichwasincontradictiontotheseprincipleshad，infact，tobeturnedupsidedown。Everyformofsocietyandgovernmentthenexisting，everyoldtraditionalnotion，wasflungintothelumber—roomasirrational；theworldhadhithertoalloweditselftobeledsolelybyprejudices；everythinginthepastdeservedonlypityandcontempt。Now，forthefirsttime，appearedthelightofday，thekingdomofreason；henceforthsuperstition，injustice，privilege，oppression，weretobesupersededbyeternaltruth，eternalRight，equalitybasedonNatureandtheinalienablerightsofman。
Weknowtodaythatthiskingdomofreasonwasnothingmorethantheidealizedkingdomofthebourgeoisie；thatthiseternalRightfounditsrealizationinbourgeoisjustice；thatthisequalityreduceditselftobourgeoisequalitybeforethelaw；thatbourgeoispropertywasproclaimedasoneoftheessentialrightsofman；andthatthegovernmentofreason，theContratSocialofRousseau，cameintobeing，andonlycouldcomeintobeing，asademocraticbourgeoisrepublic。Thegreatthinkersofthe18thcenturycould，nomorethantheirpredecessors，gobeyondthelimitsimposeduponthembytheirepoch。
But，sidebysidewiththeantagonismsofthefeudalnobilityandtheburghers，whoclaimedtorepresentalltherestofsociety，wasthegeneralantagonismofexploitersandexploited，ofrichidlersandpoorworkers。
Itwasthisverycircumstancethatmadeitpossiblefortherepresentativesofthebourgeoisietoputthemselvesforwardasrepresentingnotonespecialclass，butthewholeofsufferinghumanity。Stillfurther。Fromitsoriginthebourgeoisiewassaddledwithitsantithesis：capitalistscannotexistwithoutwage—workers，and，inthesameproportionasthemediaevalburgheroftheguilddevelopedintothemodernbourgeois，theguildjourneymanandtheday—laborer，outsidetheguilds，developedintotheproletarian。
Andalthough，uponthewhole，thebourgeoisie，intheirstrugglewiththenobility，couldclaimtorepresentatthesametimetheinterestsofthedifferentworking—classesofthatperiod，yetineverygreatbourgeoismovementtherewereindependentoutburstsofthatclasswhichwastheforerunner，moreorlessdeveloped，ofthemodernproletariat。Forexample，atthetimeoftheGermanReformationandthePeasants’War，theAnabaptistsandThomasMunzer；inthegreatEnglishRevolution，theLevellers；inthegreatFrenchRevolution，Babeuf。
Theseweretheoreticalenunciations，correspondingwiththeserevolutionaryuprisingsofaclassnotyetdeveloped；inthe16thand17thcenturies，Utopianpicturesofidealsocialconditions2）；
inthe18thcentury，actualcommunistictheories（MorellyandMably）。Thedemandforequalitywasnolongerlimitedtopoliticalrights；itwasextendedalsotothesocialconditionsofindividuals。Itwasnotsimplyclassprivilegesthatweretobeabolished，butclassdistinctionsthemselves。ACommunism，ascetic，denouncingallthepleasuresoflife，Spartan，wasthefirstformofthenewteaching。ThencamethethreegreatUtopians：Saint—Simon，towhomthemiddle—classmovement，sidebysidewiththeproletarian，stillhadacertainsignificance；FourierandOwen，whointhecountrywherecapitalistproductionwasmostdeveloped，andundertheinfluenceoftheantagonismsbegottenofthis，workedouthisproposalsfortheremovalofclassdistinctionsystematicallyandindirectrelationtoFrenchmaterialism。
Onethingiscommontoallthree。Notoneofthemappearsasarepresentativeoftheinterestsofthatproletariatwhichhistoricaldevelopmenthad，inthemeantime，produced。LiketheFrenchphilosophers，theydonotclaimtoemancipateaparticularclasstobeginwith，butallhumanityatonce。
Likethem，theywishtobringinthekingdomofreasonandeternaljustice，butthiskingdom，astheyseeit，isasfarasHeavenfromEarth，fromthatoftheFrenchphilosophers。
For，toourthreesocialreformers，thebourgeoisworld，basedupontheprinciplesofthesephilosophers，isquiteasirrationalandunjust，and，therefore，findsitswaytothedust—holequiteasreadilyasfeudalismandalltheearlierstagesofsociety。Ifpurereasonandjusticehavenot，hitherto，ruledtheworld，thishasbeenthecaseonlybecausemenhavenotrightlyunderstoodthem。Whatwaswantedwastheindividualmanofgenius，whohasnowarisenandwhounderstandsthetruth。Thathehasnowarisen，thatthetruthhasnowbeenclearlyunderstood，isnotaninevitableevent，followingofnecessityinthechainsofhistoricaldevelopment，butamerehappyaccident。Hemightjustaswellhavebeenborn500yearsearlier，andmightthenhavesparedhumanity500yearsoferror，strife，andsuffering。
WesawhowtheFrenchphilosophersofthe18thcentury，theforerunnersoftheRevolution，appealedtoreasonasthesolejudgeofallthatis。
Arationalgovernment，rationalsociety，weretobefounded；everythingthatrancountertoeternalreasonswastoberemorselesslydoneawaywith。
Wesawalsothatthiseternalreasonwasinrealitynothingbuttheidealizedunderstandofthe18thcenturycitizen，justthenevolvingintothebourgeois。
TheFrenchRevolutionhadrealizedthisrationalsocietyandgovernment。
Buttheneworderofthings，rationalenoughascomparedwithearlierconditions，turnedouttobebynomeansabsolutelyrational。Thestatebaseduponreasoncompletelycollapsed。Rousseau’sContratSocialhadfounditsrealizationintheReignofTerror，fromwhichthebourgeoisie，whohadlostconfidenceintheirownpoliticalcapacity，hadtakenrefugefirstinthecorruptionoftheDirectorate，and，finally，underthewingoftheNapoleonicdespotism。Thepromisedeternalpeacewasturnedintoanendlesswarofconquest。Thesocietybaseduponreasonhadfarednobetter。Theantagonismbetweenrichandpoor，insteadofdissolvingintogeneralprosperity，hadbecomeintensifiedbytheremovaloftheguildandotherprivileges，whichhadtosomeextentbridgeditover，andbytheremovalofthecharitableinstitutionsoftheChurch。The\"freedomofproperty\"fromfeudalfetters，nowveritablyaccomplished，turnedouttobe，forthesmallcapitalistsandsmallproprietors，thefreedomtoselltheirsmallproperty，crushedundertheovermasteringcompetitionofthelargecapitalistsandlandlords，tothesegreatlords，andthus，asfarasthesmallcapitalistsandpeasantproprietorswereconcerned，became\"freedomfromproperty\"。Thedevelopmentofindustryuponacapitalisticbasismadepovertyandmiseryoftheworkingmassesconditionsofexistenceofsociety。Cashpaymentbecamemoreandmore，inCarlyle’sphrase，thesolenexusbetweenmanandman。Thenumberofcrimesincreasedfromyeartoyear。Formerly，thefeudalviceshadopenlystalkedaboutinbroaddaylight；thoughnoteradicated，theywerenowatanyratethrustintothebackground。Intheirstead，thebourgeoisvices，hithertopracticedinsecret，begantoblossomallthemoreluxuriantly。Tradebecametoagreaterandgreaterextentcheating。The\"fraternity\"oftherevolutionarymottowasrealizedinthechicaneryandrivalriesofthebattleofcompetition。
Oppressionbyforcewasreplacedbycorruption；thesword，asthefirstsociallever，bygold。Therightofthefirstnightwastransferredfromthefeudallordstothebourgeoismanufacturers。Prostitutionincreasedtoanextentneverheadof。Marriageitselfremained，asbefore，thelegallyrecognizedform，theofficialcloakofprostitution，and，moreover，wassupplementedbyrichcropsofadultery。
Inaword，comparedwiththesplendidpromisesofthephilosophers，thesocialandpoliticalinstitutionsbornofthe\"triumphofreason\"werebitterlydisappointingcaricatures。Allthatwaswantingwasthementoformulatethisdisappointment，andtheycamewiththeturnofthecentury。
In1802，Saint—Simon’sGenevalettersappeared；in1808appearedFourier’sfirstwork，althoughthegroundworkofhistheorydatedfrom1799；onJanuary1，1800，RobertOwenundertookthedirectionofNewLanark。
Atthistime，however，thecapitalistmodeofproduction，andwithittheantagonismbetweenthebourgeoisieandtheproletariat，wasstillveryincompletelydeveloped。ModernIndustry，whichhadjustariseninEngland，wasstillunknowninFrance。ButModernIndustrydevelops，ontheonehand，theconflictswhichmakeabsolutelynecessaryarevolutioninthemodeofproduction，andthedoingawaywithitscapitalisticcharacter？conflictsnotonlybetweentheclassesbegottenofit，butalsobetweentheveryproductiveforcesandtheformsofexchangecreatedbyit。And，ontheotherhand，itdevelops，intheseverygiganticproductiveforces，themeansofendingtheseconflicts。If，therefore，abouttheyear1800，theconflictsarisingfromthenewsocialorderwereonlyjustbeginningtotakeshape，thisholdsstillmorefullyastothemeansofendingthem。
The\"have—nothing\"massesofParis，duringtheReignofTerror，wereableforamomenttogainthemastery，andthustoleadthebourgeoisrevolutiontovictoryinspiteofthebourgeoisiethemselves。But，indoingso，theyonlyprovedhowimpossibleitwasfortheirdominationtolastundertheconditionsthenobtaining。Theproletariat，whichthenforthefirsttimeevolveditselffromthese\"have—nothing\"massesasthenucleusofanewclass，asyetquiteincapableofindependentpoliticalaction，appearedasanoppressed，sufferingorder，towhom，initsincapacitytohelpitself，helpcould，atbest，bebroughtinfromwithoutordownfromabove。
ThishistoricalsituationalsodominatedthefoundersofSocialism。
Tothecrudeconditionsofcapitalisticproductionandthecrudeclassconditionscorrespondcrudetheories。Thesolutionofthesocialproblems，whichasyetlayhiddeninundevelopedeconomicconditions，theUtopiansattemptedtoevolveoutofthehumanbrain。Societypresentednothingbutwrongs；toremovethesewasthetaskofreason。Itwasnecessary，then，todiscoveranewandmoreperfectsystemofsocialorderandtoimposethisuponsocietyfromwithoutbypropaganda，and，whereveritwaspossible，bytheexampleofmodelexperiments。ThesenewsocialsystemswereforedoomedasUtopian；themorecompletelytheywereworkedoutindetail，themoretheycouldnotavoiddriftingoffintopurephantasies。
Thesefactsonceestablished，weneednotdwellamomentlongeruponthissideofthequestion，nowwhollybelongingtothepast。Wecanleaveittotheliterarysmallfrytosolemnlyquibbleoverthesephantasies，whichtodayonlymakeussmile，andtocrowoverthesuperiorityoftheirownbaldreasoning，ascomparedwithsuch\"insanity\"。Forourselves，wedelightinthestupendouslygrandthoughtsandgermsofthoughtthateverywherebreakoutthroughtheirphantasticcovering，andtowhichthesePhilistinesareblind。
Saint—SimonwasasonofthegreatFrenchRevolution，attheoutbreakofwhichhewasnotyet30。TheRevolutionwasthevictoryofthe3rdestate？i。e。，ofthegreatmassesofthenation，workinginproductionandintrade，overtheprivilegedidleclasses，thenoblesandthepriests。Butthevictoryofthe3rdestatesoonrevealeditselfasexclusivelythevictoryofasmallerpartofthis\"estate\"，astheconquestofpoliticalpowerbythesociallyprivilegedsectionofit？i。e。，thepropertiedbourgeoisie。
AndthebourgeoisiehadcertainlydevelopedrapidlyduringtheRevolution，partlybyspeculationinthelandsofthenobilityandoftheChurch，confiscatedandafterwardsputupforsale，andpartlybyfraudsuponthenationbymeansofarmycontracts。Itwasthedominationoftheseswindlersthat，undertheDirectorate，broughtFrancetothevergeofruin，andthusgaveNapoleonthepretextforhiscoupd’etat。
Hence，toSaint—Simontheantagonismbetweenthe3rdEstateandtheprivilegedclassestooktheformofanantagonismbetween\"workers\"and\"idlers\"。Theidlerswerenotmerelytheoldprivilegedclasses，butalsoallwho，withouttakinganypartinproductionordistribution，livedontheirincomes。Andtheworkerswerenotonlythewage—workers，butalsothemanufacturers，themerchants，thebankers。Thattheidlershadlostthecapacityforintellectualleadershipandpoliticalsupremacyhadbeenproved，andwasbytheRevolutionfinallysettled。Thatthenon—possessingclasseshadnotthiscapacityseemedtoSaint—SimonprovedbytheexperiencesoftheReignofTerror。Then，whowastoleadandcommand？AccordingtoSaint—Simon，scienceandindustry，bothunitedbyanewreligiousbond，destinedtorestorethatunityofreligiousideaswhichhadbeenlostsincethetimeoftheReformation？anecessarilymysticandrigidlyhierarchic\"newChristianity\"。Butscience，thatwasthescholars；andindustry，thatwas，inthefirstplace，theworkingbourgeois，manufacturers，merchants，bankers。Thesebourgeoiswere，certainly，intendedbySaint—Simontotransformthemselvesintoakindofpublicofficials，ofsocialtrustees；buttheywerestilltohold，vis—a—visoftheworkers，acommandingandeconomicallyprivilegedposition。Thebankersespeciallyweretobecalledupontodirectthewholeofsocialproductionbytheregulationofcredit。ThisconceptionwasinexactkeepingwithatimeinwhichModernIndustryinFranceand，withit，thechasmbetweenbourgeoisieandproletariatwasonlyjustcomingintoexistence。ButwhatSaint—Simonespeciallylaysstressuponisthis：
whatinterestshimfirst，andaboveallotherthings，isthelotoftheclassthatisthemostnumerousandthemostpoor（\"laclasselaplusnombreuseetlapluspauvre\"）。
AlreadyinhisGenevaletters，Saint—Simonlaysdownthepropositionthat\"allmenoughttowork\"。InthesameworkherecognizesalsothattheReignofTerrorwasthereignofthenon—possessingmasses。
\"See，\"sayshetothem，\"whathappenedinFranceatthetimewhenyourcomradesheldswaythere；theybroughtaboutafamine。\"
ButtorecognizetheFrenchRevolutionasaclasswar，andnotsimplyonebetweennobilityandbourgeoisie，butbetweennobility，bourgeoisie，andthenon—possessors，was，intheyear1802，amostpregnantdiscovery。
In1816，hedeclaresthatpoliticsisthescienceofproduction，andforetellsthecompleteabsorptionofpoliticsbyeconomics。Theknowledgethateconomicconditionsarethebasisofpoliticalinstitutionsappearshereonlyinembryo。Yetwhatisherealreadyveryplainlyexpressedistheideaofthefutureconversionofpoliticalruleovermenintoanadministrationofthingsandadirectionofprocessesofproduction？thatistosay，the\"abolitionofthestate\"，aboutwhichrecentlytherehasbeensomuchnoise。
Saint—Simonshowsthesamesuperiorityoverhiscontemporaries，whenin1814，immediatelyaftertheentryofthealliesintoParis，andagainin1815，duringtheHundredDays’War，heproclaimstheallianceofFranceandEngland，andthenofbothofthesecountries，withGermany，astheonlyguaranteefortheprosperousdevelopmentandpeaceofEurope。TopreachtotheFrenchin1815analliancewiththevictorsofWaterloorequiredasmuchcourageashistoricalforesight。
IfinSaint—Simonwefindacomprehensivebreadthofview，byvirtueofwhichalmostalltheideasoflaterSocialiststhatarenotstrictlyeconomicarefoundinhiminembryo，wefindinFourieracriticismoftheexistingconditionsofsociety，genuinelyFrenchandwitty，butnotuponthataccountanythelessthorough。Fouriertakesthebourgeoisie，theirinspiredprophetsbeforetheRevolution，andtheirinterestedeulogistsafterit，attheirownword。Helaysbareremorselesslythematerialandmoralmiseryofthebourgeoisworld。Heconfrontsitwiththeearlierphilosophers’
dazzlingpromisesofasocietyinwhichreasonaloneshouldreign，ofacivilizationinwhichhappinessshouldbeuniversal，ofanillimitablehumanperfectibility，andwiththerose—coloredphraseologyofthebourgeoisideologistsofhistime。Hepointsouthoweverywherethemostpitifulrealitycorrespondswiththemosthigh—soundingphrases，andheoverwhelmsthishopelessfiascoofphraseswithhismordantsarcasm。
Fourierisnotonlyacritic，hisimperturbablyserenenaturemakeshimasatirist，andassuredlyoneofthegreatestsatiristsofalltime。
Hedepicts，withequalpowerandcharm，theswindlingspeculationsthatblossomedoutuponthedownfalloftheRevolution，andtheshopkeepingspiritprevalentin，andcharacteristicof，Frenchcommerceatthattime。
Stillmoremasterlyishiscriticismofthebourgeoisformoftherelationsbetweensexes，andthepositionofwomaninbourgeoissociety。Hewasthefirsttodeclarethatinanygivensocietythedegreeofwoman’semancipationisthenaturalmeasureofthegeneralemancipation。
ButFourierisathisgreatestinhisconceptionofthehistoryofsociety。
Hedividesitswholecourse，thusfar，intofourstagesofevolution？
savagery，barbarism，thepatriarchate，civilization。Thislastisidenticalwiththeso—calledcivil，orbourgeois，societyoftoday？i。e。，withthesocialorderthatcameinwiththe16thcentury。Heproves\"thatthecivilizedstageraiseseveryvicepracticedbybarbarisminasimplefashionintoaformofexistence，complex，ambiguous，equivocal，hypocritical\"？thatcivilizationmoves\"inaviciouscircle\"，incontradictionswhichitconstantlyreproduceswithoutbeingabletosolvethem；henceitconstantlyarrivesattheveryoppositetothatwhichitwantstoattain，orpretendstowanttoattain，sothat，e。g。，\"undercivilizationpovertyisbornofsuperabundanceitself\"。
Fourier，aswesee，usesthedialecticmethodinthesamemasterlywayashiscontemporary，Hegel。Usingthesesamedialectics，hearguesagainsttalkaboutillimitablehumanperfectibility，thateveryhistoricalphasehasitsperiodofascentandalsoitsperiodofdescent，andheappliesthisobservationtothefutureofthewholehumanrace。AsKantintroducedintonaturalsciencetheideaoftheultimatedestructionoftheEarth，Fourierintroducedintohistoricalsciencethatoftheultimatedestructionofthehumanrace。
WhilstinFrancethehurricaneoftheRevolutionsweptovertheland，inEnglandaquieter，butnotonthataccountlesstremendous，revolutionwasgoingon。Steamandthenewtool—makingmachineryweretransformingmanufactureintomodernindustry，andthusrevolutionizingthewholefoundationofbourgeoissociety。Thesluggishmarchofdevelopmentofthemanufacturingperiodchangedintoaveritablestormandstressperiodofproduction。
Withconstantlyincreasingswiftnessthesplitting—upintolargecapitalistsandnon—possessingproletarianswenton。Betweenthese，insteadoftheformerstablemiddle—class，anunstablemassofartisansandsmallshopkeepers，themostfluctuatingportionofthepopulation，nowledaprecariousexistence。
Thenewmodeofproductionwas，asyet，onlyatthebeginningofitsperiodofascent；asyetitwasthenormal，regularmethodofproduction？theonlyonepossibleunderexistingconditions。Nevertheless，eventhenitwasproducingcryingsocialabuses？theherdingtogetherofahomelesspopulationintheworstquartersofthelargetowns；thelooseningofalltraditionalmoralbonds，ofpatriarchalsubordination，offamilyrelations；
overwork，especiallyofwomenandchildren，toafrightfulextent；completedemoralizationoftheworking—class，suddenlyflungintoaltogethernewconditions，fromthecountryintothetown，fromagricultureintomodernindustry，fromstableconditionsofexistenceintoinsecureonesthatchangefromdaytoday。
Atthisjuncture，therecameforwardasareformeramanufacturer29—years—old？amanofalmostsublime，childlikesimplicityofcharacter，andatthesametimeoneofthefewbornleadersofmen。RobertOwenhadadoptedtheteachingofthematerialisticphilosophers：thatman’scharacteristheproduct，ontheonehand，ofheredity；ontheother，oftheenvironmentoftheindividualduringhislifetime，andespeciallyduringhisperiodofdevelopment。Intheindustrialrevolutionmostofhisclasssawonlychaosandconfusion，andtheopportunityoffishinginthesetroubledwatersandmakinglargefortunesquickly。Hesawinittheopportunityofputtingintopracticehisfavoritetheory，andsoofbringingorderoutofchaos。
Hehadalreadytrieditwithsuccess，assuperintendentofmorethan500
meninaManchesterfactory。From1800to1829，hedirectedthegreatcottonmillatNewLanark，inScotland，asmanagingpartner，alongthesamelines，butwithgreaterfreedomofactionandwithasuccessthatmadehimaEuropeanreputation。Apopulation，originallyconsistingofthemostdiverseand，forthemostpart，verydemoralizedelements，apopulationthatgraduallygrewto2，500，heturnedintoamodelcolony，inwhichdrunkenness，police，magistrates，lawsuits，poorlaws，charity，wereunknown。Andallthissimplybyplacingthepeopleinconditionsworthyofhumanbeings，andespeciallybycarefullybringinguptherisinggeneration。Hewasthefounderofinfantschools，andintroducedthemfirstatNewLanark。Attheageoftwo，thechildrencametoschool，wheretheyenjoyedthemselvessomuchthattheycouldscarelybegothomeagain。Whilsthiscompetitorsworkedtheirpeople13or14hoursaday，inNewLanarktheworking—daywasonly10andahalfhours。Whenacrisisincottonstoppedworkforfourmonths，hisworkersreceivedtheirfullwagesallthetime。Andwithallthisthebusinessmorethandoubledinvalue，andtothelastyieldedlargeprofitstoitsproprietors。
Inspiteofallthis，Owenwasnotcontent。Theexistencewhichhesecuredforhisworkerswas，inhiseyes，stillfarfrombeingworthyofhumanbeings。\"Thepeoplewereslavesatmymercy。\"Therelativelyfavorableconditionsinwhichhehadplacedthemwerestillfarfromallowingarationaldevelopmentofthecharacterandoftheintellectinalldirections，muchlessofthefreeexerciseofalltheirfaculties。
\"Andyet，theworkingpartofthispopulationof2，500
personswasdailyproducingasmuchrealwealthforsocietyas，lessthanhalfacenturybefore，itwouldhaverequiredtheworkingpartofapopulationof600，000tocreate。Iaskedmyself，whatbecameofthedifferencebetweenthewealthconsumedby2，500personsandthatwhichwouldhavebeenconsumedby600，000？\"[3]
Theanswerwasclear。Ithadbeenusedtopaytheproprietorsoftheestablishment5percentonthecapitaltheyhadlaidout，inadditiontoover300，000poundsclearprofit。AndthatwhichheldforNewLanarkheldtoastillgreaterextentforallthefactoriesinEngland。
\"Ifthisnewwealthhadnotbeencreatedbymachinery，imperfectlyasithasbeenapplied，thewarsofEurope，inoppositiontoNapoleon，andtosupportthearistocraticprinciplesofsociety，couldnothavebeenmaintained。Andyetthisnewpowerwasthecreationoftheworking—classes。\"
Note，l。c。，p。22。
Tothem，therefore，thefruitsofthisnewpowerbelonged。Thenewly—createdgiganticproductiveforces，hithertousedonlytoenrichindividualsandtoenslavethemasses，offeredtoOwenthefoundationsforareconstructionofsociety；theyweredestined，asthecommonpropertyofall，tobeworkedforthecommongoodofall。
Owen’scommunismwasbaseduponthispurelybusinessfoundation，theoutcome，sotosay，ofcommercialcalculation。Throughout，itmaintainedthispracticalcharacter。Thus，in1823，OwenproposedthereliefofthedistressinIrelandbyCommunistcolonies，anddrewupcompleteestimatesofcostsoffoundingthem，yearlyexpenditure，andprobablyrevenue。Andinhisdefiniteplanforthefuture，thetechnicalworkingoutofdetailsismanagedwithsuchpracticalknowledge？groundplan，frontandsideandbird’s—eyeviewsallincluded？thattheOwenmethodofsocialreformonceaccepted，thereisfromthepracticalpointofviewlittletobesaidagainsttheactualarrangementofdetails。
HisadvanceinthedirectionofCommunismwastheturning—pointinOwen’slife。Aslongashewassimplyaphilanthropist，hewasrewardedwithnothingbutwealth，applause，honor，andglory。HewasthemostpopularmaninEurope。Notonlymenofhisownclass，butstatesmenandprincelistenedtohimapprovingly。ButwhenhecameoutwithhisCommunisttheoriesthatwasquiteanotherthing。Threegreatobstaclesseemedtohimespeciallytoblockthepathtosocialreform：privateproperty，religion，thepresentformofmarriage。
Heknewwhatconfrontedhimifheattackedthese？outlawry，excommunicationfromofficialsociety，thelossofhiswholesocialposition。Butnothingofthispreventedhimfromattackingthemwithoutfearofconsequences，andwhathehadforeseenhappened。Banishedfromofficialsociety，withaconspiracyofsilenceagainsthiminthepress，ruinedbyhisunsuccessfulCommunistexperimentsinAmerica，inwhichhesacrificedallhisfortune，heturneddirectlytotheworking—classandcontinuedworkingintheirmidstfor30years。Everysocialmovement，everyrealadvanceinEnglandonbehalfoftheworkerslinksitselfontothenameofRobertOwen。Heforcedthroughin1819，afterfiveyears’fighting，thefirstlawlimitingthehoursoflaborofwomenandchildreninfactories。HewaspresidentofthefirstCongressatwhichalltheTradeUnionsofEnglandunitedinasinglegreattradeassociation。Heintroducedastransitionmeasurestothecompletecommunisticorganizationofsociety，ontheonehand，cooperativesocietiesforretailtradeandproduction。Thesehavesincethattime，atleast，givenpracticalproofthatthemerchantandthemanufactureraresociallyquiteunnecessary。Ontheotherhand，heintroducedlaborbazaarsfortheexchangeoftheproductsoflaborthroughthemediumoflabor—notes，whoseunitwasasinglehourofwork；institutionsnecessarilydoomedtofailure，butcompletelyanticipatingProudhon’sbankofexchangeofamuchlaterperiod，anddifferingentirelyfromthisinthatitdidnotclaimtobethepanaceaforallsocialills，butonlyafirststeptowardsamuchmoreradicalrevolutionofsociety。
TheUtopians’modeofthoughthasforalongtimegovernedtheSocialistideasofthe19thcentury，andstillgovernssomeofthem。Untilveryrecently，allFrenchandEnglishSocialistsdidhomagetoit。TheearlierGermanCommunism，includingthatofWeitling，wasofthesameschool。Toallthese，Socialismistheexpressionofabsolutetruth，reasonandjustice，andhasonlytobediscoveredtoconqueralltheworldbyvirtueofitsownpower。Andasanabsolutetruthisindependentoftime，space，andofthehistoricaldevelopmentofman，itisamereaccidentwhenandwhereitisdiscovered。Withallthis，absolutetruth，reason，andjusticearedifferentwiththefounderofeachdifferentschool。Andaseachone’sspecialkindofabsolutetruth，reason，andjusticeisagainconditionedbyhissubjectiveunderstanding，hisconditionsofexistence，themeasureofhisknowledgeandhisintellectualtraining，thereisnootherendingpossibleinthisconflictofabsolutetruthsthanthattheyshallbemutuallyexclusiveofoneanother。Hence，fromthisnothingcouldcomebutakindofeclectic，averageSocialism，which，asamatteroffact，hasuptothepresenttimedominatedthemindsofmostofthesocialistworkersinFranceandEngland。
Hence，amish—mashallowingofthemostmanifoldshadesofopinion：amish—mashofsuchcriticalstatements，economictheories，picturesoffuturesocietybythefoundersofdifferentsects，asexciteaminimumofopposition；
amish—mashwhichisthemoreeasilybrewedthemoredefinitesharpedgesoftheindividualconstituentsarerubbeddowninthestreamofdebate，likeroundedpebblesinabrook。
TomakeascienceofSocialism，ithadfirsttobeplaceduponarealbasis。
Notes[1]ThisisthepassageoftheFrenchRevolution：
\"Thought，theconceptoflaw，allatoncemadeitselffelt，andagainstthistheoldscaffoldingofwrongcouldmakenostand。
Inthisconceptionoflaw，therefore，aconstitutionhasnowbeenestablished，andhencefortheverythingmustbecaseduponthis。SincetheSunhadbeeninthefirmament，andtheplanetscircledaroundhim，thesighthadneverbeenseenofmanstandinguponhishead？i。e。，ontheIdea？andbuildingrealityafterthisimage。AnaxagorasfirstsaidthattheNous，reason，rulestheworld；butnow，forthefirsttime，hadmencometorecognizethattheIdeamustrulethementalreality。Andthiswasamagnificentsunrise。AllthinkingBeingshaveparticipatedincelebratingthisholyday。Asublimeemotionswayedmenatthattime，anenthusiasmofreasonpervadedtheworld，asifnowhadcomethereconciliationoftheDivinePrinciplewiththeworld。\"
[Hegel：\"ThePhilosophyofhistory\"，1840，p。535]
Isitnothightimetosettheanti—Socialistlawinactionagainstsuchteachings，subversiveandtothecommondanger，bythelateProfessorHegel？
（2EngelsrefersheretotheworksoftheutopianSocialistsThomasMore（16thcentury）andTommasoCampanella（17thcentury）。
[3]FromTheRevolutioninMindandPractice，p。21，amemorialaddressedtoallthe\"redRepublicans，CommunistsandSocialistsofEurope\"，andsenttotheprovisionalgovernmentofFrance，1848，andalso\"toQueenVictoriaandherresponsibleadvisers。\"
Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Chpt。2）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientificII
[TheScienceofDialectics]
Inthemeantime，alongwithandaftertheFrenchphilosophyofthe18thcentury，hadarisenthenewGermanphilosophy，culminatinginHegel。
Itsgreatestmeritwasthetakingupagainofdialecticsasthehighestformofreasoning。TheoldGreekphilosopherswereallbornnaturaldialecticians，andAristotle，themostencyclopaedicofthem，hadalreadyanalyzedthemostessentialformsofdialecticthought。Thenewerphilosophy，ontheotherhand，althoughinitalsodialecticshadbrilliantexponents（e。g。
DescartesandSpinoza），had，especiallythroughEnglishinfluence，becomemoreandmorerigidlyfixedintheso—calledmetaphysicalmodeofreasoning，bywhichalsotheFrenchofthe18thcenturywerealmostwhollydominated，atalleventsintheirspecialphilosophicalwork。Outsidephilosophyintherestrictedsense，theFrenchneverthelessproducedmasterpiecesofdialectic。WeneedonlycalltomindDiderot’sLeNeveudeRameau，andRousseau’sDiscourssurl’origineetlesfondementsdel’inegaliteparmilesshommes。Wegivehere，inbrief，theessentialcharacterofthesetwomodesofthought。
WhenweconsiderandreflectuponNatureatlarge，orthehistoryofmankind，orourownintellectualactivity，atfirstweseethepictureofanendlessentanglementofrelationsandreactions，permutationsandcombinations，inwhichnothingremainswhat，whereandasitwas，buteverythingmoves，changes，comesintobeingandpassesaway。Wesee，therefore，atfirstthepictureasawhole，withitsindividualpartsstillmoreorlesskeptinthebackground；weobservethemovements，transitions，connections，ratherthanthethingsthatmove，combine，andareconnected。Thisprimitive，naivebutintrinsicallycorrectconceptionoftheworldisthatofancientGreekphilosophy，andwasfirstclearlyformulatedbyHeraclitus：everythingisandisnot，foreverythingisfluid，isconstantlychanging，constantlycomingintobeingandpassingaway。
Butthisconception，correctlyasitexpressesthegeneralcharacterofthepictureofappearancesasawhole，doesnotsufficetoexplainthedetailsofwhichthispictureismadeup，andsolongaswedonotunderstandthese，wehavenotaclearideaofthewholepicture。Inordertounderstandthesedetails，wemustdetachthemfromtheirnatural，specialcauses，effects，etc。Thisis，primarily，thetaskofnaturalscienceandhistoricalresearch：branchesofsciencewhichtheGreekofclassicaltimes，onverygoodgrounds，relegatedtoasubordinateposition，becausetheyhadfirstofalltocollectmaterialsforthesesciencestoworkupon。Acertainamountofnaturalandhistoricalmaterialmustbecollectedbeforetherecanbeanycriticalanalysis，comparison，andarrangementinclasses，orders，andspecies。Thefoundationsoftheexactnaturalscienceswere，therefore，firstworkedoutbytheGreeksoftheAlexandrianperiod1），andlateron，intheMiddleAges，bytheArabs。Realnaturalsciencedatesfromthesecondhalfofthe15thcentury，andthenceonwardithadadvancedwithconstantlyincreasingrapidity。TheanalysisofNatureintoitsindividualparts，thegroupingofthedifferentnaturalprocessesandobjectsindefiniteclasses，thestudyoftheinternalanatomyoforganizedbodiesintheirmanifoldforms？thesewerethefundamentalconditionsofthegiganticstridesinourknowledgeofNaturethathavebeenmadeduringthelast400years。Butthismethodofworkhasalsoleftusaslegacythehabitofobservingnaturalobjectsandprocessesinisolation，apartfromtheirconnectionwiththevastwhole；ofobservingtheminrepose，notinmotion；
asconstraints，notasessentiallyvariables；intheirdeath，notintheirlife。AndwhenthiswayoflookingatthingswastransferredbyBaconandLockefromnaturalsciencetophilosophy，itbegotthenarrow，metaphysicalmodeofthoughtpeculiartothelastcentury。
Tothemetaphysician，thingsandtheirmentalreflexes，ideas，areisolated，aretobebeconsideredoneaftertheotherandapartfromeachother，areobjectsofinvestigationfixed，rigid，givenonceforall。Hethinksinabsolutelyirreconcilableantitheses。Hiscommunicationis’yea，yea；
nay，nay’；forwhatsoeverismorethanthesecomethofevil。\"Forhim，athingeitherexistsordoesnotexist；athingcannotatthesametimebeitselfandsomethingelse。Positiveandnegativeabsolutelyexcludeonanother；causeandeffectstandinarigidantithesis，onetotheother。
Atfirstsight，thismodeofthinkingseemstousveryluminous，becauseitisthatofso—calledsoundcommonsense。Onlysoundcommonsense，respectablefellowthatheis，inthehomelyrealmofhisownfourwalls，hasverywonderfuladventuresdirectlyheventuresoutintothewideworldofresearch。
Andthemetaphysicalmodeofthought，justifiableandnecessaryasitisinanumberofdomainswhoseextentvariesaccordingtothenatureoftheparticularobjectofinvestigation，soonerorlaterreachesalimit，beyondwhichitbecomesone—sided，restricted，abstract，lostininsolublecontradictions。
Inthecontemplationofindividualthings，itforgetstheconnectionbetweenthem；inthecontemplationoftheirexistence，itforgetsthebeginningandendofthatexistence；oftheirrepose，ifforgetstheirmotion。Itcannotseethewoodsforthetrees。
Foreverydaypurposes，weknowandcansay，e。g。，whetherananimalisaliveornot。But，uponcloserinquiry，wefindthathisis，inmanycases，averycomplexquestion，asthejuristsknowverywell。Theyhavecudgelledtheirbrainsinvaintodiscoverarationallimitbeyondwhichthekillingofthechildinitsmother’swombismurder。Itisjustasimpossibletodetermineabsolutelythemomentofdeath，forphysiologyprovesthatdeathisnotaninstantaneous，momentaryphenomenon，butaveryprotractedprocess。
Inlikemanner，everyorganizedbeingiseverymomentthesameandnotthesame；everymoment，itassimilatesmattersuppliedfromwithout，andgetsridofothermatter；everymoment，somecellsofitsbodydieandothersbuildthemselvesanew；inalongerorshortertime，thematterofitsbodyiscompletelyrenewed，andisreplacedbyothermoleculesofmatter，sothateveryorganizedbeingisalwaysitself，andyetsomethingotherthanitself。
Further，wefinduponcloserinvestigationthatthetwopolesofanantithesis，positiveandnegative，e。g。，areasinseparableastheyareopposed，andthatdespitealltheiropposition，theymutuallyinterpenetrate。
Andwefind，inlikemanner，thatcauseandeffectareconceptionswhichonlyholdgoodintheirapplicationtoindividualcases；butassoonasweconsidertheindividualcasesintheirgeneralconnectionwiththeuniverseasawhole，theyrunintoeachother，andtheybecomeconfoundedwhenwecontemplatethatuniversalactionandreactioninwhichcausesandeffectsareeternallychangingplaces，sothatwhatiseffecthereandnowwillbecausethereandthen，andviceversa。
Noneoftheseprocessesandmodesofthoughtentersintotheframeworkofmetaphysicalreasoning。Dialectics，ontheotherhand，comprehendsthingsandtheirrepresentations，ideas，intheiressentialconnection，concatenation，motion，originandending。Suchprocessesasthosementionedaboveare，therefore，somanycorroborationsofitsownmethodofprocedure。
Natureistheproofofdialectics，anditmustbesaidformodernsciencethatithasfurnishedthisproofwithveryrichmaterialsincreasinglydaily，andthushasshownthat，inthelastresort，Natureworksdialecticallyandnotmetaphysically；thatshedoesnotmoveintheeternalonenessofaperpetuallyrecurringcircle，butgoesthrougharealhistoricalevolution。
Inthisconnection，Darwinmustbenamedbeforeallothers。HedealtthemetaphysicalconceptionofNaturetheheaviestblowbyhisproofthatallorganicbeings，plants，animals，andmanhimself，aretheproductsofaprocessofevolutiongoingonthroughmillionsofyears。But，thenaturalists，whohavelearnedtothinkdialectically，arefewandfarbetween，andthisconflictoftheresultsofdiscoverywithpreconceivedmodesofthinking，explainstheendlessconfusionnowreigningintheoreticalnaturalscience，thedespairofteachersaswellaslearners，ofauthorsandreadersalike。
Anexactrepresentationoftheuniverse，ofitsevolution，ofthedevelopmentofmankind，andofthereflectionofthisevolutioninthemindsofmen，canthereforeonlybeobtainedbythemethodsofdialecticswithitsconstantregardtotheinnumerableactionsandreactionsoflifeanddeath，ofprogressiveorretrogressivechanges。Andinthisspirit，thenewGermanphilosophyhasworked。KantbeganhiscareerbyresolvingthestableSolarsystemofNewtonanditseternalduration，afterthefamousinitialimpulsehadoncebeengiven，intotheresultofahistoricalprocess，theformationoftheSunandalltheplanetsoutofarotating，nebulousmass。Fromthis，heatthesametimedrewtheconclusionthat，giventhisoriginoftheSolarsystem，itsfuturedeathfollowedofnecessity。Histheory，halfacenturylater，wasestablishedmathematicallybyLaplace，andhalfacenturyafterthat，thespectroscopeprovedtheexistenceinspaceofsuchincandescentmassesofgasinvariousstagesofcondensation。
ThisnewGermanphilosophyculminatedintheHegeliansystem。
Inthissystem？andhereinisitsgreatmerit？forthefirsttimethewholeworld，natural，historical，intellectual，isrepresentedasaprocess？i。e。，asinconstantmotion，change，transformation，development；andtheattemptismadetotraceouttheinternalconnectionthatmakesacontinuouswholeofallthismovementanddevelopment。Fromthispointofview，thehistoryofmankindnolongerappearedasawildwhirlofsenselessdeedsofviolence，allequallycondemnableatthejudgmentseatofmaturephilosophicreasonandwhicharebestforgottenasquicklyaspossible，butastheprocessofevolutionofmanhimself。Itwasnowthetaskoftheintellecttofollowthegradualmarchofthisprocessthroughallitsdeviousways，andtotraceouttheinnerlawrunningthroughallitsapparentlyaccidentalphenomena。
ThattheHegeliansystemdidnotsolvetheproblemitpropoundedishereimmaterial。Itsepoch—makingmeritwasthatitpropoundedtheproblem。
Thisproblemisonethatnosingleindividualwilleverbeabletosolve。
AlthoughHegelwas？withSaint—Simon？themostencyclopaedicmindofhistime，yethewaslimited，first，bythenecessarylimitedextentofhisownknowledgeand，second，bythelimitedextentanddepthoftheknowledgeandconceptionsofhisage。totheselimits，athirdmustbeadded。Hegelwasanidealist。Tohim，thethoughtswithinhisbrainwerenotthemoreorlessabstractpicturesofactualthingsandprocesses，but，conversely，thingsandtheirevolutionwereonlytherealizedpicturesofthe\"Idea\"，existingsomewherefrometernitybeforetheworldwas。Thiswayofthinkingturnedeverythingupsidedown，andcompletelyreversedtheactualconnectionofthingsintheworld。CorrectlyandingeniouslyasmanygroupsoffactsweregraspedbyHegel，yet，forthereasonsjustgiven，thereismuchthatisbotched，artificial，labored，inaword，wronginpointofdetail。TheHegeliansystem，initself，wasacolossalmiscarriage？butitwasalsothelastofitskind。
Itwassuffering，infact，fromaninternalandincurablecontradiction。
Upontheonehand，itsessentialpropositionwastheconceptionthathumanhistoryisaprocessofevolution，which，byitsverynature，cannotfinditsintellectualfinalterminthediscoveryofanyso—calledabsolutetruth。But，ontheotherhand，itlaidclaimtobeingtheveryessenceofthisabsolutetruth。Asystemofnaturalandhistoricalknowledge，embracingeverything，andfinalforalltime，isacontradictiontothefundamentallawofdialecticreasoning。
Thislaw，indeed，bynomeansexcludes，but，onthecontrary，includestheideathatthesystematicknowledgeoftheexternaluniversecanmakegiantstridesfromagetoage。
TheperceptionofthethefundamentalcontradictioninGermanidealismlednecessarilybacktomaterialism，but？notabene？nottothesimplymetaphysical，exclusivelymechanicalmaterialismofthe18thcentury。
Oldmaterialismlookeduponallprevioushistoryasacrudeheapofirrationalityandviolence；modernmaterialismseesinittheprocessofevolutionofhumanity，andaimsatdiscoveringthelawsthereof。WiththeFrenchofthe18thcentury，andevenwithHegel，theconceptionobtainedofNatureasawhole？movinginnarrowcircles，andforeverimmutable，withitseternalcelestialbodies，asNewton，andunalterableorganicspecies，asLinnaeus，taught。Modernmaterialismembracesthemorerecentdiscoveriesofnaturalscience，accordingtowhichNaturealsohasitshistoryintime，thecelestialbodies，liketheorganicspeciesthat，underfavorableconditions，peoplethem，beingbornandperishing。AndevenifNature，asawhole，muststillbesaidtomoveinrecurrentcycles，thesecyclesassumeinfinitelylargerdimensions。Inbothaspects，modernmaterialismisessentiallydialectic，andnolongerrequirestheassistanceofthatsortofphilosophywhich，queen—like，pretendedtoruletheremainingmobofsciences。Assoonaseachspecialscienceisboundtomakeclearitspositioninthegreattotalityofthingsandofourknowledgeofthings，aspecialsciencedealingwiththistotalityissuperfluousorunnecessary。Thatwhichstillsurvivesofallearlierphilosophyisthescienceofthoughtanditslaw？formallogicanddialectics。EverythingelseissubsumedinthepositivescienceofNatureandhistory。
Whilst，however，therevolutionintheconceptionofNaturecouldonlybemadeinproportiontothecorrespondingpositivematerialsfurnishedbyresearch，alreadymuchearliercertainhistoricalfactshadoccurredwhichledtoadecisivechangeintheconceptionofhistory。In1831，thefirstworking—classrisingtookplaceinLyons；between1838and1842，thefirstnationalworking—classmovement，thatoftheEnglishChartists，reacheditsheight。TheclassstrugglebetweenproletariatandbourgeoisiecametothefrontinthehistoryofthemostadvancedcountriesinEurope，inproportiontothedevelopment，upontheonehand，ofmodernindustry，upontheother，ofthenewly—acquiredpoliticalsupremacyofthebourgeoisie。
factsmoreandmorestrenuouslygavethelietotheteachingsofbourgeoiseconomyastotheidentityoftheinterestsofcapitalandlabor，astotheuniversalharmonyanduniversalprosperitythatwouldbetheconsequenceofunbridledcompetition。Allthesethingscouldnolongerbeignored，anymorethantheFrenchandEnglishSocialism，whichwastheirtheoretical，thoughveryimperfect，expression。Buttheoldidealistconceptionofhistory，whichwasnotyetdislodged，knewnothingofclassstrugglesbaseduponeconomicinterests，knewnothingofeconomicinterests；productionandalleconomicrelationsappearedinitonlyasincidental，subordinateelementsinthe\"historyofcivilization\"。
Thenewfactsmadeimperativeanewexaminationofallpasthistory。
Thenitwasseenthatallpasthistory，withtheexceptionofitsprimitivestages，wasthehistoryofclassstruggles；thatthesewarringclassesofsocietyarealwaystheproductsofthemodesofproductionandofexchange？inaword，oftheeconomicconditionsoftheirtime；
thattheeconomicstructureofsocietyalwaysfurnishestherealbasis，startingfromwhichwecanaloneworkouttheultimateexplanationofthewholesuperstructureofjuridicalandpoliticalinstitutionsaswellasofthereligious，philosophical，andotherideasofagivenhistoricalperiod。Hegelhasfreedhistoryfrommetaphysics？hemadeitdialectic；
buthisconceptionofhistorywasessentiallyidealistic。Butnowidealismwasdrivenfromitslastrefuge，thephilosophyofhistory；nowamaterialistictreatmentofhistorywaspropounded，andamethodfoundofexplainingman’s\"knowing\"byhis\"being\"，insteadof，asheretofore，his\"being\"byhis\"knowing\"。
Fromthattimeforward，Socialismwasnolongeranaccidentaldiscoveryofthisorthatingeniousbrain，butthenecessaryoutcomeofthestrugglebetweentwohistoricallydevelopedclasses？theproletariatandthebourgeoisie。
Itstaskwasnolongertomanufactureasystemofsocietyasperfectaspossible，buttoexaminethehistorico—economicsuccessionofeventsfromwhichtheseclassesandtheirantagonismhadofnecessitysprung，andtodiscoverintheeconomicconditionsthuscreatedthemeansofendingtheconflict。ButtheSocialismofearlierdayswasasincompatiblewiththismaterialistconceptionastheconceptionofNatureoftheFrenchmaterialistswaswithdialecticsandmodernnaturalscience。TheSocialismofearlierdayscertainlycriticizedtheexistingcapitalisticmodeofproductionanditsconsequences。Butitcouldnotexplainthem，and，therefore，couldnotgetthemasteryofthem。Itcouldonlysimplyrejectthemasbad。ThemorestronglythisearlierSocialismdenouncedtheexploitationsoftheworking—class，inevitableunderCapitalism，thelessablewasitclearlytoshowinwhatthisexploitationconsistedandhowitarose。butforthisitwasnecessary？
topresentthecapitalisticmodeofproductioninitshistoricalconnectionanditsinevitablenessduringaparticularhistoricalperiod，andtherefore，also，topresentitsinevitabledownfall；andtolaybareitsessentialcharacter，whichwasstillasecret。Thiswasdonebythediscoveryofsurplus—value。
Itwasshownthattheappropriationofunpaidlaboristhebasisofthecapitalistmodeofproductionandoftheexploitationoftheworkerthatoccursunderit；thatevenifthecapitalistbuysthelaborpowerofhislaboreratitsfullvalueasacommodityonthemarket，heyetextractsmorevaluefromitthanhepaidfor；andthatintheultimateanalysis，thissurplus—valueformsthosesumsofvaluefromwhichareheapedupconstantlyincreasingmassesofcapitalinthehandsofthepossessingclasses。Thegenesisofcapitalistproductionandtheproductionofcapitalwerebothexplained。
Thesetwogreatdiscoveries，thematerialisticconceptionofhistoryandtherevelationofthesecretofcapitalisticproductionthroughsurplus—value，weowetoMarx。Withthesediscoveries，Socialismbecameascience。Thenextthingwastoworkoutallitsdetailsandrelations。
Notes（1TheAlexandrianperiodofthedevelopmentofsciencecomprisestheperiodextendingfromthe3rdcenturyB。C。tothe17thcenturyA。D。ItderivesitsnamefromthetownofAlexandriainEgypt，whichwasoneofthemostimportantcentresofinternationaleconomicintercoursesatthattime。
IntheAlexandrianperiod，mathematics（EuclidandArchimedes），geography，astronomy，anatomy，physiology，etc。，attainedconsiderabledevelopment。
Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Chpt。3）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientificIII
[HistoricalMaterialism]
Thematerialistconceptionofhistorystartsfromthepropositionthattheproductionofthemeanstosupporthumanlifeand，nexttoproduction，theexchangeofthingsproduced，isthebasisofallsocialstructure；
thatineverysocietythathasappearedinhistory，themannerinwhichwealthisdistributedandsocietydividedintoclassesorordersisdependentuponwhatisproduced，howitisproduced，andhowtheproductsareexchanged。