第3章
加入书架 A- A+
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  Fromthispointofview,thefinalcausesofallsocialchangesandpoliticalrevolutionsaretobesought,notinmen’sbrains,notinmen’sbetterinsightsintoeternaltruthandjustice,butinchangesinthemodesofproductionandexchange。Theyaretobesought,notinthephilosophy,butintheeconomicsofeachparticularepoch。Thegrowingperceptionthatexistingsocialinstitutionsareunreasonableandunjust,thatreasonhasbecomeunreason,andrightwrong1),isonlyproofthatinthemodesofproductionandexchangechangeshavesilentlytakenplacewithwhichthesocialorder,adaptedtoearliereconomicconditions,isnolongerinkeeping。Fromthisitalsofollowsthatthemeansofgettingridoftheincongruitiesthathavebeenbroughttolightmustalsobepresent,inamoreorlessdevelopedcondition,withinthechangedmodesofproductionthemselves。Thesemeansarenottobeinventedbydeductionfromfundamentalprinciples,butaretobediscoveredinthestubbornfactsoftheexistingsystemofproduction。

  Whatis,then,thepositionofmodernSocialisminthisconnection?

  Thepresentsituationofsociety?thisisnowprettygenerallyconceded?isthecreationoftherulingclassoftoday,ofthebourgeoisie。Themodeofproductionpeculiartothebourgeoisie,known,sinceMarx,asthecapitalistmodeofproduction,wasincompatiblewiththefeudalsystem,withtheprivilegesitconferreduponindividuals,entiresocialranksandlocalcorporations,aswellaswiththehereditarytiesofsubordinationwhichconstitutedtheframeworkofitssocialorganization。Thebourgeoisiebrokeupthefeudalsystemandbuiltuponitsruinsthecapitalistorderofsociety,thekingdomoffreecompetition,ofpersonalliberty,oftheequality,beforethelaw,ofallcommodityowners,ofalltherestofthecapitalistblessings。Thenceforward,thecapitalistmodeofproductioncoulddevelopinfreedom。Sincesteam,machinery,andthemakingofmachinesbymachinerytransformedtheoldermanufactureintomodernindustry,theproductiveforces,evolvedundertheguidanceofthebourgeoisie,developedwitharapidityandinadegreeunheardofbefore。Butjustastheoldermanufacture,initstime,andhandicraft,becomingmoredevelopedunderitsinfluence,hadcomeintocollisionwiththefeudaltrammelsoftheguilds,sonowmodernindustry,initscompletedevelopment,comesintocollisionwiththeboundswithinwhichthecapitalistmodeofproductionholdsitconfined。Thenewproductiveforceshavealreadyoutgrownthecapitalisticmodeofusingthem。Andthisconflictbetweenproductiveforcesandmodesofproductionisnotaconflictengenderedinthemindofman,likethatbetweenoriginalsinanddivinejustice。Itexists,infact,objectively,outsideus,independentlyofthewillandactionsevenofthementhathavebroughtiton。ModernSocialismisnothingbutthereflex,inthought,ofthisconflictinfact;itsidealreflectionintheminds,first,oftheclassdirectlysufferingunderit,theworkingclass。

  Now,inwhatdoesthisconflictconsist?

  Beforecapitalistproduction?i。e。,intheMiddleAges?thesystemofpettyindustryobtainedgenerally,basedupontheprivatepropertyofthelaborersintheirmeansofproduction;inthecountry,theagricultureofthesmallpeasant,freeman,orserf;inthetowns,thehandicraftsorganizedinguilds。Theinstrumentsoflabor?land,agriculturalimplements,theworkshop,thetool?weretheinstrumentsoflaborofsingleindividuals,adaptedfortheuseofoneworker,and,therefore,ofnecessity,small,dwarfish,circumscribed。But,forthisveryreason,theybelongedasaruletotheproducerhimself。Toconcentratethesescattered,limitedmeansofproduction,toenlargethem,toturnthemintothepowerfulleversofproductionofthepresentday?thiswaspreciselythehistoricroleofcapitalistproductionandofitsupholder,thebourgeoisie。InthefourthsectionofCapital,Marxhasexplainedindetailhowsincethe15thcenturythishasbeenhistoricallyworkedoutthroughthethreephasesofsimpleco—operation,manufacture,andmodernindustry。Butthebourgeoisie,asisshownthere,couldnottransformthesepunymeansofproductionintomightyproductiveforceswithouttransformingthem,atthesametime,frommeansofproductionoftheindividualintosocialmeansofproductiononlyworkablebyacollectivityofmen。Thespinningwheel,thehandloom,theblacksmith’shammer,werereplacedbythespinning—machine,thepower—loom,thesteam—hammer;theindividualworkshop,bythefactoryimplyingtheco—operationofhundredsandthousandsofworkmen。Inlikemanner,productionitselfchangedfromaseriesofindividualintoaseriesofsocialacts,andtheproductionfromindividualtosocialproducts。Theyarn,thecloth,themetalarticlesthatnowcomeoutofthefactorywerethejointproductofmanyworkers,throughwhosehandstheyhadsuccessivelytopassbeforetheywereready。Noonepersoncouldsayofthem:\"Imadethat;thisismyproduct。\"

  Butwhere,inagivensociety,thefundamentalformofproductionisthatspontaneousdivisionoflaborwhichcreepsingraduallyandnotuponanypreconceivedplan,theretheproductstakeontheformofcommodities,whosemutualexchange,buyingandselling,enabletheindividualproducerstosatisfytheirmanifoldwants。AndthiswasthecaseintheMiddleAges。

  Thepeasant,e。g。,soldtotheartisanagriculturalproductsandboughtfromhimtheproductsofhandicraft。Intothissocietyofindividualproducers,ofcommodityproducers,thenewmodeofproductionthrustitself。Inthemidstoftheolddivisionoflabor,grownupspontaneouslyanduponnodefiniteplan,whichhadgovernedthewholeofsociety,nowarosedivisionoflaboruponadefiniteplan,asorganizedinthefactory;sidebysidewithindividualproductionappearedsocialproduction。

  Theproductsofbothweresoldinthesamemarket,and,therefore,atpricesatleastapproximatelyequal。Butorganizationuponadefiniteplanwasstrongerthanspontaneousdivisionoflabor。Thefactoriesworkingwiththecombinedsocialforcesofacollectivityofindividualsproducedtheircommoditiesfarmorecheaplythantheindividualsmallproducers。Individualproducerssuccumbedinonedepartmentafteranother。Socializedproductionrevolutionizedalltheoldmethodsofproduction。Butitsrevolutionarycharacterwas,atthesametime,solittlerecognizedthatitwas,onthecontrary,introducedasameansofincreasinganddevelopingtheproductionofcommodities。Whenitarose,itfoundready—made,andmadeliberaluseof,certainmachineryfortheproductionandexchangeofcommodities:merchants’

  capital,handicraft,wage—labor。Socializedproductionthusintroducingitselfasanewformoftheproductionofcommodities,itwasamatterofcoursethatunderittheoldformsofappropriationremainedinfullswing,andwereappliedtoitsproductsaswell。

  Inthemedievalstageofevolutionoftheproductionofcommodities,thequestionastotheowneroftheproductoflaborcouldnotarise。Theindividualproducer,asarule,had,fromrawmaterialbelongingtohimself,andgenerallyhisownhandiwork,produceditwithhisowntools,bythelaborofhisownhandsorofhisfamily。Therewasnoneedforhimtoappropriatethenewproduct。Itbelongedwhollytohim,asamatterofcourse。Hispropertyintheproductwas,therefore,baseduponhisownlabor。

  Evenwhereexternalhelpwasused,thiswas,asarule,oflittleimportance,andverygenerallywascompensatedbysomethingotherthanwages。Theapprenticesandjourneymenoftheguildsworkedlessforboardandwagesthanforeducation,inorderthattheymightbecomemastercraftsmenthemselves。

  Thencametheconcentrationofthemeansofproductionandoftheproducersinlargeworkshopsandmanufactories,theirtransformationintoactualsocializedmeansofproductionandsocializedproducers。Butthesocializedproducersandmeansofproductionandtheirproductswerestilltreated,afterthischange,justastheyhadbeenbefore?i。e。,asthemeansofproductionandtheproductsofindividuals。Hitherto,theowneroftheinstrumentsoflaborhadhimselfappropriatedtheproduct,because,asarule,itwashisownproductandtheassistanceofotherswastheexception。

  Now,theowneroftheinstrumentsoflaboralwaysappropriatedtohimselftheproduct,althoughitwasnolongerhisproductbutexclusivelytheproductofthelaborofothers。Thus,theproductsnowproducedsociallywerenotappropriatedbythosewhohadactuallysetinmotionthemeansofproductionandactuallyproducedthecommodities,butbythecapitalists。Themeansofproduction,andproductionitself,hadbecomeinessencesocialized。Buttheyweresubjectedtoaformofappropriationwhichpresupposestheprivateproductionofindividuals,underwhich,therefore,everyoneownshisownproductandbringsittomarket。Themodeofproductionissubjectedtothisformofappropriation,althoughitabolishestheconditionsuponwhichthelatterrests。[2]

  Thiscontradiction,whichgivestothenewmodeofproductionitscapitalisticcharacter,containsthegermofthewholeofthesocialantagonismsoftoday。Thegreaterthemasteryobtainedbythenewmodeofproductionoverallimportantfieldsofproductionandinallmanufacturingcountries,themoreitreducedindividualproductiontoaninsignificantresiduum,themoreclearlywasbroughtouttheincompatibilityofsocializedproductionwithcapitalisticappropriation。

  Thefirstcapitalistsfound,aswehavesaid,alongsideofotherformsoflabor,wage—laborready—madeforthemonthemarket。Butitwasexceptional,complementary,accessory,transitorywage—labor。Theagriculturallaborer,though,uponoccassion,hehiredhimselfoutbytheday,hadafewacresofhisownlandonwhichhecouldatalleventsliveatapinch。Theguildsweresoorganizedthatthejourneymantotodaybecamethemasteroftomorrow。

  Butallthischanged,assoonasthemeansofproductionbecamesocializedandconcentratedinthehandsofcapitalists。Themeansofproduction,aswellastheproduct,oftheindividualproducerbecamemoreandmoreworthless;therewasnothingleftforhimbuttoturnwage—workerunderthecapitalist。Wage—labor,aforetimetheexceptionandaccessory,nowbecametheruleandbasisofallproduction;aforetimecomplementary,itnowbecamethesoleremainingfunctionoftheworker。Thewage—workerforatimebecameawage—workerforlife。Thenumberofthesepermanentwasfurtherenormouslyincreasedbythebreaking—upofthefeudalsystemthatoccurredatthesametime,bythedisbandingoftheretainersofthefeudallords,theevictionofthepeasantsfromtheirhomesteads,etc。Theseparationwasmadecompletebetweenthemeansofproductionconcentratedinthehandsofthecapitalists,ontheoneside,andtheproducers,possessingnothingbuttheirlabor—power,ontheother。Thecontradictionbetweensocializedproductionandcapitalisticappropriationmanifesteditselfastheantagonismofproletariatandbourgeoisie。

  Wehaveseenthatthecapitalisticmodeofproductionthrustitswayintoasocietyofcommodity—producers,ofindividualproducers,whosesocialbondwastheexchangeoftheirproducts。Buteverysocietybasedupontheproductionofcommoditieshasthispeculiarity:thattheproducershavelostcontrolovertheirownsocialinter—relations。Eachmanproducesforhimselfwithsuchmeansofproductionashemayhappentohave,andforsuchexchangeashemayrequiretosatisfyhisremainingwants。Nooneknowshowmuchofhisparticulararticleiscomingonthemarket,norhowmuchofitwillbewanted。Nooneknowswhetherhisindividualproductwillmeetanactualdemand,whetherhewillbeabletomakegoodhiscostsofproductionoreventosellhiscommodityatall。Anarchyreignsinsocializedproduction。

  Buttheproductionofcommodities,likeeveryotherformofproduction,hasitpeculiar,inherentlawsinseparablefromit;andtheselawswork,despiteanarchy,inandthroughanarchy。Theyrevealthemselvesintheonlypersistentformofsocialinter—relations?i。e。,inexchange?andheretheyaffecttheindividualproducersascompulsorylawsofcompetition。

  Theyare,atfirst,unknowntotheseproducersthemselves,andhavetobediscoveredbythemgraduallyandastheresultofexperience。Theyworkthemselvesout,therefore,independentlyoftheproducers,andinantagonismtothem,asinexorablenaturallawsoftheirparticularformofproduction。

  Theproductgovernstheproducers。

  Inmediaevalsociety,especiallyintheearliercenturies,productionwasessentiallydirectedtowardsatisfyingthewantsoftheindividual。

  Itsatisfied,inthemain,onlythewantsoftheproducerandhisfamily。

  Whererelationsofpersonaldependenceexisted,asinthecountry,italsohelpedtosatisfythewantsofthefeudallord。Inallthistherewas,therefore,noexchange;theproducts,consequently,didnotassumethecharacterofcommodities。Thefamilyofthepeasantproducedalmosteverythingtheywanted:clothesandfurniture,aswellasthemeansofsubsistence。

  Onlywhenitbegantoproducemorethanwassufficienttosupplyitsownwantsandthepaymentsinkindtothefeudallords,onlythendiditalsoproducecommodities。Thissurplus,thrownintosocializedexchangeandofferedforsale,becamecommodities。

  Theartisaninthetowns,itistrue,hadfromthefirsttoproduceforexchange。Butthey,also,themselvessuppliedthegreatestpartoftheirindividualwants。Theyhadgardensandplotsofland。Theyturnedtheircattleoutintothecommunalforest,which,also,yieldedthemtimberandfiring。Thewomenspunflax,wool,andsoforth。Productionforthepurposeofexchange,productionofcommodities,wasonlyinitsinfancy。

  Hence,exchangewasrestricted,themarketnarrow,themethodsofproductionstable;therewaslocalexclusivenesswithout,localunitywithin;themarkinthecountry;inthetown,theguild。

  Butwiththeextensionoftheproductionofcommodities,andespeciallywiththeintroductionofthecapitalistmodeofproduction,thelawsofcommodity—production,hithertolatent,cameintoactionmoreopenlyandwithgreaterforce。Theoldbondswereloosened,theoldexclusivelimitsbrokenthrough,theproducersweremoreandmoreturnedintoindependent,isolatedproducersofcommodities。Itbecameapparentthattheproductionofsocietyatlargewasruledbyabsenceofplan,byaccident,byanarchy;

  andthisanarchygrewtogreaterandgreaterheight。Butthechiefmeansbyaidofwhichthecapitalistmodeofproductionintensifiedthisanarchyofsocializedproductionwastheexactoppositeofanarchy。Itwastheincreasingorganizationofproduction,uponasocialbasis,ineveryindividualproductiveestablishment。Bythis,theold,peaceful,stableconditionofthingswasended。Whereverthisorganizationofproductionwasintroducedintoabranchofindustry,itbrookednoothermethodofproductionbyitsside。Thefieldoflaborbecameabattle—ground。Thegreatgeographicaldiscoveries,andthecolonizationfollowingthem,multipliedmarketsandquickenedthetransformationofhandicraftintomanufacture。Thewardidnotsimplybreakoutbetweentheindividualproducersofparticularlocalities。

  Thelocalstrugglesbegat,intheirturn,nationalconflicts,thecommercialwarsofthe17thand18thcenturies。

  Finally,modernindustryandtheopeningoftheworld—marketmadethestruggleuniversal,andatthesametimegaveitanunheard—ofvirulence。

  Advantagesinnaturalorartificialconditionsofproductionnowdecidetheexistenceornon—existenceofindividualcapitalists,aswellasofwholeindustriesandcountries。Hethatfallsisremorselesslycastaside。

  ItistheDarwinianstruggleoftheindividualforexistencetransferredfromNaturetosocietywithintensifiedviolence。Theconditionsofexistencenaturaltotheanimalappearasthefinaltermofhumandevelopment。Thecontradictionbetweensocializedproductionandcapitalisticappropriationnowpresentsitselfasanantagonismbetweentheorganizationofproductionintheindividualworkshopandtheanarchyofproductioninsocietygenerally。

  Thecapitalisticmodeofproductionmovesinthesetwoformsoftheantagonismimmanenttoitfromitsveryorigin。Itisneverabletogetoutofthat\"viciouscircle\"whichFourierhadalreadydiscovered。WhatFouriercouldnot,indeed,seeinhistimeisthatthiscircleisgraduallynarrowing;thatthemovementbecomesmoreandmoreaspiral,andmustcometoanend,likethemovementofplanets,bycollisionwiththecentre。

  Itisthecompellingforceofanarchyintheproductionofsocietyatlargethatmoreandmorecompletelyturnsthegreatmajorityofmenintoproletarians;

  anditisthemassesoftheproletariatagainwhowillfinallyputanendtoanarchyinproduction。Itisthecompellingforceofanarchyinsocialproductionthatturnsthelimitlessperfectibilityofmachineryundermodernindustryintoacompulsorylawbywhicheveryindividualindustrialcapitalistmustperfecthismachinerymoreandmore,underpenaltyofruin。

  Buttheperfectingofmachineryismakinghumanlaborsuperfluous。Iftheintroductionandincreaseofmachinerymeansthedisplacementofmillionsofmanualbyafewmachine—workers,improvementinmachinerymeansthedisplacementofmoreandmoreofthemachine—workersthemselves。Itmeans,inthelastinstance,theproductionofanumberofavailablewageworkersinexcessoftheaverageneedsofcapital,theformationofacompleteindustrialreservearmy,asIcalleditin1845[3],availableatthetimeswhenindustryisworkingathighpressure,tobecastoutuponthestreetwhentheinevitablecrashcomes,aconstantdeadweightuponthelimbsoftheworking—classinitsstruggleforexistencewithcapital,aregulatorforkeepingofwagesdowntothelowlevelthatsuitstheinterestsofcapital。

  Thusitcomesabout,toquoteMarx,thatmachinerybecomesthemostpowerfulweaponinthewarofcapitalagainsttheworking—class;

  thattheinstrumentsoflaborconstantlytearthemeansofsubsistenceoutofthehandsofthelaborer;thattheyveryproductoftheworkeristurnedintoaninstrumentforhissubjugation。

  Thusitcomesaboutthattheeconomizingoftheinstrumentsoflaborbecomesatthesametime,fromtheoutset,themostrecklesswasteoflabor—power,androbberybaseduponthenormalconditionsunderwhichlaborfunctions;thatmachinery,\"themostpowerfulinstrumentforshorteninglabortime,becomesthemostunfailingmeansforplacingeverymomentofthelaborer’stimeandthatofhisfamilyatthedisposalofthecapitalistforthepurposeofexpandingthevalueofhiscapital。\"(Capital,Englishedition,p。406)

  Thusitcomesaboutthattheoverworkofsomebecomesthepreliminaryconditionfortheidlenessofothers,andthatmodernindustry,whichhuntsafternewconsumersoverthewholeworld,forcestheconsumptionofthemassesathomedowntoastarvationminimum,andindoingthusdestroysitsownhomemarket。

  \"Thelawthatalwaysequilibratestherelativesurplus—

  population,orindustrialreservearmy,totheextentandenergyofaccumulation,thislawrivetsthelaborertocapitalmorefirmlythanthewedgesofVulcandidPrometheustotherock。Itestablishesanaccumulationofmisery,correspondingwiththeaccumulationofcapital。Accumulationofwealthatonepoleis,therefore,atthesametimeaccumulationofmisery,agonyoftoil,slavery,ignorance,brutality,mentaldegradation,attheoppositepole,i。e。,onthesideoftheclassthatproducesitsownproductintheformofcapital(Marx’sCapital,p。661)

  Andtoexpectanyotherdivisionoftheproductsfromthecapitalistmodeofproductionisthesameasexpectingtheelectrodesofabatterynottodecomposeacidulatedwater,nottoliberateoxygenatthepositive,hydrogenatthenegativepole,solongastheyareconnectedwiththeybattery。

  Wehaveseenthattheever—increasingperfectibilityofmodernmachineryis,bytheanarchyofsocialproduction,turnedintoacompulsorylawthatforcestheindividualindustrialcapitalistalwaystoimprovehismachinery,alwaystoincreaseitsproductiveforce。Thebarepossibilityofextendingthefieldofproductionistransformedforhimintoasimilarlycompulsorylaw。Theenormousexpansiveforceofmodernindustry,comparedwithwhichthatofgasesismerechild’splay,appearstousnowasanecessityforexpansion,bothqualitativeandquantative,thatlaughsatallresistance。

  Suchresistanceisofferedbyconsumption,bysales,bythemarketsfortheproductsofmodernindustry。Butthecapacityforextension,extensiveandintensive,ofthemarketsisprimarilygovernedbyquitedifferentlawsthatworkmuchlessenergetically。Theextensionofthemarketscannotkeeppacewiththeextensionofproduction。Thecollisionbecomesinevitable,andasthiscannotproduceanyrealsolutionsolongasitdoesnotbreakinpiecesthecapitalistmodeofproduction,thecollisionsbecomeperiodic。

  Capitalistproductionhasbegottenanother\"viciouscircle\"。

  Asamatteroffact,since1825,whenthefirstgeneralcrisisbrokeout,thewholeindustrialandcommercialworld,productionandexchangeamongallcivilizedpeoplesandtheirmoreorlessbarbarichangers—on,arethrownoutofjointaboutonceevery10years。Commerceisatastand—still,themarketsareglutted,productsaccumulate,asmultitudinousastheyareunsaleable,hardcashdisappears,creditvanishes,factoriesareclosed,themassoftheworkersareinwantofthemeansofsubsistence,becausetheyhaveproducedtoomuchofthemeansofsubsistence;bankruptcyfollowsuponbankruptcy,executionuponexecution。Thestagnationlastforyears;

  productiveforcesandproductsarewastedanddestroyedwholesale,untiltheaccumulatedmassofcommoditiesfinallyfilteroff,moreorlessdepreciatedinvalue,untilproductionandexchangegraduallybegintomoveagain。

  Littlebylittle,thepacequickens。Itbecomesatrot。Theindustrialtrotbreaksintoacanter,thecanterinturngrowsintotheheadlonggallopofaperfectsteeplechaseofindustry,commercialcredit,andspeculation,whichfinally,afterbreakneckleaps,endswhereitbegan?intheditchofacrisis。Andsooverandoveragain。Wehavenow,sincetheyear1825,gonethroughthisfivetimes,andatthepresentmoment(1877),wearegoingthroughitforthesixthtime。AndthecharacterofthesecrisesissoclearlydefinedthatFourierhitallofthemoffwhenhedescribedthefirst\"criseplethorique\",acrisisfromplethora。

  Inthesecrises,thecontradictionbetweensocializedproductionandcapitalistappropriationendsinaviolentexplosion。Thecirculationofcommoditiesis,forthetimebeing,stopped。Money,themeansofcirculation,becomesahindrancetocirculation。Allthelawsofproductionandcirculationofcommoditiesareturnedupsidedown。Theeconomiccollisionhasreacheditsapogee。Themodeofproductionisinrebellionagainstthemodeofexchange。

  Thefactthatthesocializedorganizationofproductionwithinthefactoryhasdevelopedsofarthatithasbecomeincompatiblewiththeanarchyofproductioninsociety,whichexistssidebysidewithanddominatesit,isbroughthometothecapitalistthemselvesbytheviolentconcentrationofcapitalthatoccursduringcrises,throughtheruinofmanylarge,andastillgreaternumberofsmall,capitalists。Thewholemechanismofthecapitalistmodeofproductionbreaksdownunderthepressureoftheproductiveforces,itsowncreations。Itisnolongerabletoturnallthismassofmeansofproductionintocapital。Theyliefallow,andforthatveryreasontheindustrialreservearmymustalsoliefallow。Meansofproduction,meansofsubsistence,availablelaborers,alltheelementsofproductionandofgeneralwealth,arepresentinabundance。But\"abundancebecomesthesourceofdistressandwant\"(Fourier),becauseitistheverythingthatpreventsthetransformationofthemeansofproductionandsubsistenceintocapital。Forincapitalisticsociety,themeansofproductioncanonlyfunctionwhentheyhaveundergoneapreliminarytransformationintocapital,intothemeansofexploitinghumanlabor—power。Thenecessityofthistransformationintocapitalofthemeansofproductionandsubsistencestandslikeaghostbetweentheseandtheworkers。Italonepreventsthecomingtogetherofthematerialandpersonalleversofproduction;italoneforbidsthemeansofproductiontofunction,theworkerstoworkandlive。

  Ontheonehand,therefore,thecapitalisticmodeofproductionstandsconvictedofitsownincapacitytofurtherdirecttheseproductiveforces。

  Ontheother,theseproductiveforcesthemselves,withincreasingenergy,pressforwardtotheremovaloftheexistingcontradiction,totheabolitionoftheirqualityascapital,tothepracticalrecognitionoftheircharacterassocialproductionforces。

  Thisrebellionoftheproductiveforces,astheygrowmoreandmorepowerful,againsttheirqualityascapital,thisstrongerandstrongercommandthattheirsocialcharactershallberecognized,forcesthecapitalclassitselftotreatthemmoreandmoreassocialproductiveforces,sofarasthisispossibleundercapitalistconditions。Theperiodofindustrialhighpressure,withitsunboundedinflationofcredit,notlessthanthecrashitself,bythecollapseofgreatcapitalistestablishments,tendstobringaboutthatformofthesocializationofgreatmassesofthemeansofproductionwhichwemeetwithinthedifferentkindsofjoint—stockcompanies。Manyofthesemeansofproductionandofdistributionare,fromtheoutset,socolossalthat,liketherailways,theyexcludeallotherformsofcapitalisticexpansion。Atafurtherstageofevolution,thisformalsobecomesinsufficient。Theproducersonalargescaleinaparticularbranchofanindustryinaparticularcountryuniteina\"Trust\",aunionforthepurposeofregulatingproduction。Theydeterminethetotalamounttobeproduced,parcelitoutamongthemselves,andthusenforcethesellingpricefixedbeforehand。Buttrustsofthiskind,assoonasbusinessbecomesbad,aregenerallyliabletobreakup,andonthisveryaccountcompelayetgreaterconcentrationofassociation。Thewholeofaparticularindustryisturnedintoonegiganticjoint—stockcompany;internalcompetitiongivesplacetotheinternalmonopolyofthisonecompany。Thishashappenedin1890withtheEnglishalkaliproduction,whichisnow,afterthefusionof48largeworks,inthehandsofonecompany,conducteduponasingleplan,andwithacapitalof6,000,000pounds。

  Inthetrusts,freedomofcompetitionchangesintoitsveryopposite?intomonopoly;andtheproductionwithoutanydefiniteplanofcapitalisticsocietycapitulatestotheproductionuponadefiniteplanoftheinvadingsocialisticsociety。Certainly,thisissofarstilltothebenefitandadvantageofthecapitalists。But,inthiscase,theexploitationissopalpable,thatitmustbreakdown。Nonationwillputupwithproductionconductedbytrusts,withsobarefacedanexploitationofthecommunitybyasmallbandofdividend—mongers。

  Inanycase,withtrustsorwithout,theofficialrepresentativeofcapitalistsociety?thestate?willultimatelyhavetoundertakethedirectionofproductiop;[4]ThisnecessityforconversionintoStatepropertyisfeltfirstinthegreatinstitutionsforintercourseandcommunication?thepostoffice,thetelegraphs,therailways。

  Ifthecrisesdemonstratetheincapacityofthebourgeoisieformanaginganylongermodernproductiveforces,thetransformationofthegreatestablishmentsforproductionanddistributionintojoint—stockcompanies,trusts,andStateproperty,showhowunnecessarythebourgeoisieareforthatpurpose。

  Allthesocialfunctionsofthecapitalisthasnofurthersocialfunctionthanthatofpocketingdividends,tearingoffcoupons,andgamblingontheStockExchange,wherethedifferentcapitalistsdespoiloneanotheroftheircapital。Atfirst,thecapitalisticmodeofproductionforcesouttheworkers。Now,itforcesoutthecapitalists,andreducesthem,justasitreducedtheworkers,totheranksofthesurplus—population,althoughnotimmediatelyintothoseoftheindustrialreservearmy。

  But,thetransformation?eitherintojoint—stockcompaniesandtrusts,orintoState—ownership?doesnotdoawaywiththecapitalisticnatureoftheproductiveforces。Inthejoint—stockcompaniesandtrusts,thisisobvious。AndthemodernState,again,isonlytheorganizationthatbourgeoissocietytakesoninordertosupporttheexternalconditionsofthecapitalistmodeofproductionagainsttheencroachmentsaswelloftheworkersasofindividualcapitalists。Themodernstate,nomatterwhatitsform,isessentiallyacapitalistmachine?thestateofthecapitalists,theidealpersonificationofthetotalnationalcapital。Themoreitproceedstothetakingoverofproductiveforces,themoredoesitactuallybecomethenationalcapitalist,themorecitizensdoesitexploit。Theworkersremainwage—workers?proletarians。Thecapitalistrelationisnotdoneawaywith。Itis,rather,broughttoahead。But,broughttoahead,ittopplesover。State—ownershipoftheproductiveforcesisnotthesolutionoftheconflict,butconcealedwithinitarethetechnicalconditionsthatformtheelementsofthatsolution。

  Thissolutioncanonlyconsistinthepracticalrecognitionofthesocialnatureofthemodernforcesofproduction,andthereforeintheharmonizingwiththesocializedcharacterofthemeansofproduction。Andthiscanonlycomeaboutbysocietyopenlyanddirectlytakingpossessionoftheproductiveforceswhichhaveoutgrownallcontrol,exceptthatofsocietyasawhole。Thesocialcharacterofthemeansofproductionandoftheproductstodayreactsagainsttheproducers,periodicallydisruptsallproductionandexchange,actsonlylikealawofNatureworkingblindly,forcibly,destructively。But,withthetakingoverbysocietyoftheproductiveforces,thesocialcharacterofthemeansofproductionandoftheproductswillbeutilizedbytheproducerswithaperfectunderstandingofitsnature,andinsteadofbeingasourceofdisturbanceandperiodicalcollapse,willbecomethemostpowerfulleverofproductionitself。

  Activesocialforcesworkexactlylikenaturalforces:blindly,forcibly,destructively,solongaswedonotunderstand,andreckonwith,them。

  But,whenonceweunderstandthem,whenoncewegrasptheiraction,theirdirection,theireffects,itdependsonlyuponourselvestosubjectthemmoreandmoretoourownwill,and,bymeansofthem,toreachourownends。Andthisholdsquiteespeciallyofthemightyproductiveforcesoftoday。Aslongasweobstinatelyrefusetounderstandthenatureandthecharacterofthesesocialmeansofaction?andthisunderstandinggoesagainstthegrainofthecapitalistmodeofproduction,anditsdefenders?solongtheseforcesareatworkinspiteofus,inoppositiontous,solongtheymasterus,aswehaveshownaboveindetail。

  Butwhenoncetheirnatureisunderstood,theycan,inthehandworkingtogether,betransformedfrommasterdemonsintowillingservants。Thedifferenceisasthatbetweenthedestructiveforceofelectricityinthelightninginthestorm,andelectricityundercommandinthetelegraphandthevoltaicarc;thedifferencebetweenaconflagration,andfireworkingintheserviceofman。Withthisrecognition,atlast,oftherealnatureoftheproductiveforcesoftoday,thesocialanarchyofproductiongivesplacetoasocialregulationofproductionuponadefiniteplan,accordingtotheneedsofthecommunityandofeachindividual。Thenthecapitalistmodeofappropriation,inwhichtheproductenslavesfirsttheproducer,andthentheappropriator,isreplacedbythemodeofappropriationoftheproductsthatisbaseduponthenatureofthemodernmeansofproduction;

  upontheonehand,directsocialappropriation,asmeanstothemaintenanceandextensionofproduction?ontheother,directindividualappropriation,asmeansofsubsistenceandofenjoyment。

  Whilstthecapitalistmodeofproductionmoreandmorecompletelytransformsthegreatmajorityofthepopulationintoproletarians,itcreatesthepowerwhich,underpenaltyofitsowndestruction,isforcedtoaccomplishthisrevolution。Whilstitforcesonmoreandmoreofthetransformationofthevastmeansofproduction,alreadysocialized,intoStateproperty,itshowsitselfthewaytoaccomplishingthisrevolution。TheproletariatseizespoliticalpowerandturnsthemeansofproductionintoStateproperty。

  But,indoingthis,itabolishesitselfasproletariat,abolishesallclassdistinctionandclassantagonisms,abolishesalsotheStateasState。

  Society,thusfar,baseduponclassantagonisms,hadneedoftheState。

  Thatis,ofanorganizationoftheparticularclasswhichwas,protempore,theexploitingclass,anorganizationforthepurposeofpreventinganyinterferencefromwithoutwiththeexistingconditionsofproduction,and,therefore,especially,forthepurposeofforciblykeepingtheexploitedclassesintheconditionofoppressioncorrespondingwiththegivenmodeofproduction(slavery,serfdom,wage—labor)。TheStatewastheofficialrepresentativeofsocietyasawhole;thegatheringofittogetherintoavisibleembodiment。But,itwasthisonlyinsofarasitwastheStateofthatclasswhichitselfrepresented,forthetimebeing,societyasawhole:

  inancienttimes,theStateofslaveowningcitizens;

  intheMiddleAges,thefeudallords;

  inourowntimes,thebourgeoisie。

  When,atlast,itbecomestherealrepresentativeofthewholeofsociety,itrendersitselfunnecessary。Assoonasthereisnolongeranysocialclasstobeheldinsubjection;assoonasclassrule,andtheindividualstruggleforexistencebaseduponourpresentanarchyinproduction,withthecollisionsandexcessesarisingfromthese,areremoved,nothingmoreremainstoberepressed,andaspecialrepressiveforce,aState,isnolongernecessary。ThefirstactbyvirtueofwhichtheStatereallyconstitutesitselftherepresentativeofthewholeofsociety?thetakingpossessionofthemeansofproductioninthenameofsociety?thisis,atthesametime,itslastindependentactasaState。Stateinterferenceinsocialrelationsbecomes,inonedomainafteranother,superfluous,andthendiesoutofitself;thegovernmentofpersonsisreplacedbytheadministrationofthings,andbytheconductofprocessesofproduction。TheStateisnot\"abolished\"。Itdiesout。Thisgivesthemeasureofthevalueofthephrase:\"afreeState\",bothastoitsjustifiableuseattimesbyagitators,andastoitsultimatescientificinefficiency;andalsoofthedemandsoftheso—calledanarchistsfortheabolitionoftheStateoutofhand。

  Sincethehistoricalappearanceofthecapitalistmodeofproduction,theappropriationbysocietyofallthemeansofproductionhasoftenbeendreamedof,moreorlessvaguely,byindividuals,aswellasbysects,astheidealofthefuture。Butitcouldbecomepossible,couldbecomeahistoricalnecessity,onlywhentheactualconditionsforitsrealizationwerethere。Likeeveryothersocialadvance,itbecomespracticable,notbymenunderstandingthattheexistenceofclassesisincontradictiontojustice,equality,etc。,notbythemerewillingnesstoabolishtheseclasses,butbyvirtueofcertainneweconomicconditions。Theseparationofsocietyintoanexploitingandanexploitedclass,arulingandanoppressedclass,wasthenecessaryconsequencesofthedeficientandrestricteddevelopmentofproductioninformertimes。Solongasthetotalsociallaboronlyyieldsaproducewhichbutslightlyexceedsthatbarelynecessaryfortheexistenceofall;solong,therefore,aslaborengagesalloralmostallthetimeofthegreatmajorityofthemembersofsociety?solong,ofnecessity,thissocietyisdividedintoclasses。Sidebysidewiththegreatmajority,exclusivelybondslavestolabor,arisesaclassfreedfromdirectlyproductivelabor,whichlooksafterthegeneralaffairsofsociety:thedirectionoflabor,Statebusiness,law,science,art,etc。Itis,therefore,thelawofdivisionoflaborthatliesatthebasisofthedivisionintoclasses。

  Butthisdoesnotpreventthisdivisionintoclassesfrombeingcarriedoutbymeansofviolenceandrobbery,trickeryandfraud。itdoesnotpreventtherulingclass,oncehavingtheupperhand,fromconsolidatingitspowerattheexpenseoftheworking—class,fromturningitssocialleadershipintoanintensifiedexploitationofthemasses。

  Butif,uponthisshowing,divisionintoclasseshasacertainhistoricaljustification,ithasthisonlyforagivenperiod,onlyundergivensocialconditions。Itwasbasedupontheinsufficiencyofproduction。Itwillbesweptawaybythecompletedevelopmentofmodernproductiveforces。

  And,infact,theabolitionofclassesinsocietypresupposesadegreeofhistoricalevolutionatwhichtheexistence,notsimplyofthisorthatparticularrulingclass,butofanyrulingclassatall,and,therefore,theexistenceofclassdistinctionitself,hasbecomeaobsoleteanachronism。

  Itpresupposes,therefore,thedevelopmentofproductioncarriedouttoadegreeatwhichappropriationofthemeansofproductionandoftheproducts,and,withthis,ofpoliticaldomination,ofthemonopolyofculture,andofintellectualleadershipbyaparticularclassofsociety,hasbecomenotonlysuperfluousbuteconomically,politically,intellectually,ahindrancetodevelopment。

  Thispointisnowreached。Theirpoliticalandintellectualbankruptcyisscarcelyanylongerasecrettothebourgeoisiethemselves。Theireconomicbankruptcyrecursregularlyevery10years。Ineverycrisis,societyissuffocatedbeneaththeweightofitsownproductiveforcesandproducts,whichitcannotuse,andstandshelpless,face—to—facewiththeabsurdcontradictionthattheproducershavenothingtoconsume,becauseconsumersarewanting。Theexpansiveforceofthemeansofproductionburstthebondsthatthecapitalistmodeofproductionhadimposeduponthem。Theirdeliverancefromthesebondsistheonepreconditionforanunbroken,constantly—accelerateddevelopmentoftheproductiveforces,andtherewithforapracticallyunlimitedincreaseofproductionitself。Noristhisall。Thesocializedappropriationofthemeansofproductiondoesaway,notonlywiththepresentartificialrestrictionsuponproduction,butalsowiththepositivewasteanddevastationofproductiveforcesandproductsthatareatthepresenttimetheinevitableconcomitantsofproduction,andthatreachtheirheightinthecrises。

  Further,itsetsfreeforthecommunityatlargeamassofmeansofproductionandofproducts,bydoingawaywiththesenselessextravaganceoftherulingclassesoftoday,andtheirpoliticalrepresentatives。Thepossibilityofsecuringforeverymemberofsociety,bymensofsocializedproduction,anexistencenotonlyfullysufficientmaterially,andbecomingday—by—daymorefull,butanexistenceguaranteeingtoallthefreedevelopmentandexerciseoftheirphysicalandmentalfaculties?thispossibilityisnow,forthefirsttime,here,butitishere。[5]

  Withtheseizingofthemeansofproductionbysociety,productionofcommoditiesisdoneawaywith,and,simultaneously,themasteryoftheproductovertheproducer。Anarchyinsocialproductionisreplacedbysystematic,definiteorganization。Thestruggleforindividualexistencedisappears。Then,forthefirsttime,man,inacertainsense,isfinallymarkedofffromtherestoftheanimalkingdom,andemergesfrommereanimalconditionsofexistenceintoreallyhumanones。Thewholesphereoftheconditionsoflifewhichenvironman,andwhichhavehithertoruledman,nowcomesunderthedominionandcontrolofman,whoforthefirsttimebecomesthereal,consciouslordofnature,becausehehasnowbecomemasterofhisownsocialorganization。Thelawsofhisownsocialaction,hithertostandingface—to—facewithmanaslawsofNatureforeignto,anddominatinghim,willthenbeusedwithfullunderstanding,andsomasteredbyhim。

  Man’sownsocialorganization,hithertoconfrontinghimasanecessityimposedbyNatureandhistory,nowbecomestheresultofhisownfreeaction。

  Theextraneousobjectiveforcesthathave,hitherto,governedhistory,passunderthecontrolofmanhimself。Onlyfromthattimewillmanhimself,moreandmoreconsciously,makehisownhistory?onlyfromthattimewillthesocialcausessetinmovementbyhimhave,inthemainandinaconstantlygrowingmeasure,theresultsintendedbyhim。Itistheascentofmanfromthekingdomofnecessitytothekingdomoffreedom。

  Letusbrieflysumupoursketchofhistoricalevolution。

  I。MediaevalSociety?Individualproductiononasmallscale。Meansofproductionadaptedforindividualuse;henceprimitive,ungainly,petty,dwarfedinaction。Productionforimmediateconsumption,eitheroftheproducerhimselforhisfeudallord。

  Onlywhereanexcessofproductionoverthisconsumptionoccursissuchexcessofferedforsale,entersintoexchange。Productionofcommodities,therefore,onlyinitsinfancy。Butalreadyitcontainswithinitself,inembryo,anarchyintheproductionofsocietyatlarge。

  II。CapitalistRevolution?transformationofindustry,atfirstbemeansofsimplecooperationandmanufacture。Concentrationofthemeansofproduction,hithertoscattered,intogreatworkshops。Asaconsequence,theirtransformationfromindividualtosocialmeansofproduction?atransformationwhichdoesnot,onthewhole,affecttheformofexchange。Theoldformsofappropriationremaininforce。Thecapitalistappears。Inhiscapacityasownerofthemeansofproduction,healsoappropriatestheproductsandturnsthemintocommodities。Productionhasbecomeasocialact。Exchangeandappropriationcontinuetobeindividualacts,theactsofindividuals。Thesocialproductisappropriatedbytheindividualcapitalist。Fundamentalcontradiction,whenceariseallthecontradictionsinwhichourpresent—daysocietymoves,andwhichmodernindustrybringstolight。

  A。Severanceoftheproducerfromthemeansofproduction。

  Condemnationoftheworkertowage—laborforlife。Antagonismbetweentheproletariatandthebourgeoisie。

  B。Growingpredominanceandincreasingeffectivenessofthelawsgoverningtheproductionofcommodities。Unbridledcompetition。

  Contradictionbetweensocializedorganizationintheindividualfactoryandsocialanarchyintheproductionasawhole。

  C。Ontheonehand,perfectingofmachinery,madebycompetitioncompulsoryforeachindividualmanufacturer,andcomplementedbyaconstantlygrowingdisplacementoflaborers。Industrialreserve—army。

  Ontheotherhand,unlimitedextensionofproduction,alsocompulsoryundercompetition,foreverymanufacturer。Onbothsides,unheard—ofdevelopmentofproductiveforces,excessofsupplyoverdemand,over—productionandproducts?excessthere,oflaborers,withoutemploymentandwithoutmeansofexistence。Butthesetwoleversofproductionandofsocialwell—beingareunabletoworktogether,becausethecapitalistformofproductionpreventstheproductiveforcesfromworkingandtheproductsfromcirculating,unlesstheyarefirstturnedintocapital?whichtheirverysuperabundanceprevents。Thecontradictionhasgrownintoanabsurdity。Themodeofproductionrisesinrebellionagainsttheformofexchange。

  D。Partialrecognitionofthesocialcharacteroftheproductiveforcesforceduponthecapitaliststhemselves。Takingoverofthegreatinstitutionsforproductionandcommunication,firstbyjoint—stockcompanies,laterinbytrusts,thenbytheState。Thebourgeoisiedemonstratedtobeasuperfluousclass。Allitssocialfunctionsarenowperformedbysalariedemployees。

  III。ProletarianRevolution?Solutionofthecontradictions。Theproletariatseizesthepublicpower,andbymeansofthistransformsthesocializedmeansofproduction,slippingfromthehandsofthebourgeoisie,intopublicproperty。Bythisact,theproletariatfreesthemeansofproductionfromthecharacterofcapitaltheyhavethusfarborne,andgivestheirsocializedcharactercompletefreedomtoworkitselfout。Socializedproductionuponapredeterminedplanbecomeshenceforthpossible。Thedevelopmentofproductionmakestheexistenceofdifferentclassesofsocietythenceforthananachronism。Inproportionasanarchyinsocialproductionvanishes,thepoliticalauthorityoftheStatediesout。Man,atlastthemasterofhisownformofsocialorganization,becomesatthesametimethelordoverNature,hisownmaster?free。

  Toaccomplishthisactofuniversalemancipationisthehistoricalmissionofthemodernproletariat。Tothoroughlycomprehendthehistoricalconditionsandthistheverynatureofthisact,toimparttothenowoppressedproletarianclassafullknowledgeoftheconditionsandofthemeaningofthemomentousactitiscalledupontoaccomplish,thisisthetaskofthetheoreticalexpressionoftheproletarianmovement,scientificSocialism。

  Footnotes(1MephistophelesinGoethe’sFaust[2]Itishardlynecessaryinthisconnectiontopointoutthat,eveniftheformofappropriationremainsthesame,thecharacteroftheappropriationisjustasmuchrevolutionizedasproductionisbythechangesdescribedabove。Itis,ofcourse,averydifferentmatterwhetherIappropriatetomyselfmyownproductorthatofanother。Noteinpassingthatwage—labor,whichcontainsthewholecapitalistmodeofproductioninembryo,isveryancient;inasporadic,scatteredform,itexistedforcenturiesalongsideslave—labor。Buttheembryocoulddulydevelopintothecapitalisticmodeofproductiononlywhenthenecessaryhistoricalpre—conditionshadbeenfurnished。

  [3]\"TheConditionsoftheWorking—ClassinEngland\"?Sonnenschein&Co。,p。84。

  [4]Isay\"haveto\"。Foronlywhenthemeansofproductionanddistributionhave_actually_outgrowntheformofmanagementbyjoint—stockcompanies,andwhen,therefore,thetakingthemoverbytheStatehasbecome_economically_

  inevitable,onlythen?evenifitistheStateoftodaythateffectsthis?isthereaneconomicadvance,theattainmentofanothersteppreliminarytothetakingoverofallproductiveforcesbysocietyitself。Butoflate,sinceBismarckwentinforState—ownershipofindustrialestablishments,akindofspuriousSocialismhasarisen,degenerating,nowandagain,intosomethingofflunkyism,thatwithoutmoreadodeclaresallState—ownership,evenoftheBismarkiansort,tobesocialistic。Certainly,ifthetakingoverbytheStateofthetobaccoindustryissocialistic,thenNapoleonandMetternichmustbenumberedamongthefoundersofSocialism。

  IftheBelgianState,forquiteordinarypoliticalandfinancialreasons,itselfconstructeditschiefrailwaylines;ifBismarck,notunderanyeconomiccompulsion,tookoverfortheStatethechiefPrussianlines,simplytobethebetterabletohavetheminhandincaseofwar,tobringuptherailwayemployeesasvotingcattlefortheGovernment,andespeciallytocreateforhimselfanewsourceofincomeindependentofparliamentaryvotes?thiswas,innosense,asocialisticmeasure,directlyorindirectly,consciouslyorunconsciously。Otherwise,theRoyalMaritimeCompany,theRoyalporcelainmanufacture,andeventheregimentaltailorofthearmywouldalsobesocialisticinstitutions,oreven,aswasseriouslyproposedbyaslydoginFrederickWilliamIII’sreign,thetakingoverbytheStateofthebrothels。

  [5]Afewfiguresmayservetogiveanapproximateideaoftheenormousexpansiveforceofthemodernmeansofproduction,evenundercapitalistpressure。

  AccordingtoMr。Giffen,thetotalwealthofGreatBritainandIrelandamounted,inroundnumbersin1814to£2,200,000,000,1865to£6,100,000,000,1875to£8,500,000,000。

  Asaninstanceofthesquanderingofmeansofproductionandofproductsduringacrisis,thetotallossintheGermanironindustryalone,inthecrisisof1873—78,wasgivenatthesecondGermanIndustrialCongress(Berlin,February21,1878),as22,750,000pounds。

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