Thebookswhenrolledup，wereboundupwiththeseumbilici，andweregenerallykeptincylindricalboxesorcapsae，atermfromwhichtheMediaeval“capsula。”
orbook-coverwasderived。“ThemodeinwhichthestudentsheldtherollsinordertoreadfromthemiswellshowninapaintinginthehouseofasurgeonatPompeii。Oneofthestaves，withthepapyrusrolledroundit，washeldineachhand，atadistanceapartequaltothewidthofoneormoreofthetransversecolumnsofwriting。Assoonastheeyewascarrieddowntothebottomofacolumn，onehandrolledupandtheotherunrolledsufficientofthepapyrustobringafreshcolumnoppositetothereader’seye，andsoonuntilthewholewaswoundroundoneofthestaves，when，ofcourse，thestudenthadarrivedattheendofhisbook。”
Eumenes，kingofPergamus，beingunabletoprocuretheEgyptianpapyrus，throughthejealousyofoneofthePtolemies，whooccupiedhimselfinformingarivallibrarytotheonewhichsubsequentlybecamesocelebratedatPergamus，introducedtheuseofParchmentproperly“dressed“fortakinginkandpigmentsandhencethederivationoftheword“pergamena“asappliedtoparchmentorvellum，theformersubstancebeingthepreparedskinofsheep，andthelatterofcalves。
Thesheetsofparchmentwerejoinedendtoend，asthesheetsofpapyrushadbeen，andwhenwrittenupon，ononesideonly，andinnarrowcolumnsacrossthebreadthofthescroll，wererolleduparoundstavesandboundwithstrings，towhichsealsofwaxwereoccasionallyattached，inplaceofthemorecommonleadenbullae。
Thecustomofdividingwax，ivory，woodandmetalMSS。intopagesandinthiswayintobookformissaidbySuetoniustohavebeenintroducedbyJuliusCaesar，whoseletterstotheSenateweresomadeup，andafterwhosetimethepracticebecameusualforalldocumentseitheraddressedto，orissuingfromthatbody，ortoorfromtheEmperors。Asthatformsubsequentlycreptintogeneraluse，thebookswereknownas“codices；“andhencetheordinarytermasappliedtomanuscriptvolumes。
Allclassesof“books。”thereedsforwritinginthem，theinkstands，andthe“capsae“or“scrinia。”
theboxesinwhichthe“scapi“orrollswerekept，areminutelyportrayedinancientwall-paintingsandivorydiptychsdoubletablets，andwhichmaybelongtoaperiodnearthebeginningoftheChristianera。
PlinyandDioscorideshavegiventheformulasforthewritinginksusedbytheGreekandRomanscribesimmediatelybeforeandduringtheirtime。Plinydeclaresthattheinkofthebookmakerswasmadeofsoot，charcoalandgum，althoughhedoesnotstatewhatfluidwasemployedtocomminglethem。Hedoes，however，mentiontoanoccasionaluseofsomeacidvinegartogivetheinkabindingpropertyonthepapyrus。
Dioscorides，however，specifiestheproportionsofthis“soot“ink。Anotherformulaalludedtobythesameauthorcallsforahalfounceeachofcopperasblueandox-glue，withhalfpoundofsmokeblackmadefromburnedresin。Headds，“isagoodapplicationincasesofgangreneandisusefulinscalds，ifalittlethickenedandemployedasasalve。”DeVinnespeaksofthisasa“crude“receiptwhichwillenableonetoformacorrectopinionofthequalityofscientificknowledgethenappliedtomedicineandthemechanicalarts；alsothatthesemixtureswhicharemorelikeshoeblackingthanwritingfluidwereusedwithimmaterialmodificationsbythescribesofthedarkages。
TheoldGreeksandRomanshadnosubstituteforthepapyrus，whichwassobrittlethatitcouldnotbefoldedorcreased。Itcouldnotbeboundupinbooks，norcoulditberolledupunsupported。Itwassecureonlywhenithadbeenwoundaroundawoodenormetalroller。
Afterthewholesaledestructionofthelibrariesofink-writtenMSS。，theblackinksbegantofallintodisuse；
theirvalueinrespecttoqualitygraduallydeteriorated，causedbythedisplacementofgummyvehicles，andaconsequentabsenceofanychanceofunionbetweentheparchmentorpapyrusandthedryblackparticles，whichcouldbe“blown“orwashedoff。Toemployanyotherkindofinkexceptoneofnaturaloriginlikethejuiceofberrieswhichsoondisappeared，wasforbiddenbyprevailingreligiouscustoms。Suchconditionsnaturallymergedintoothers，intheshapeof“ink“substitutesforwriting；
thestylus，withitsaccompanyingsheetsortabletsofivory，wood，metalandwaxcameintopopularvogueandsocontinuedformanycenturies，evenaftertheemploymentofinkforwritingpurposeshadbeenresumed。
Ovid，inhisstoryofCaunusandByblis，illustratestheuseofthetablestablets，andhelivedatthetimeofthebirthofChrist，thustranslated：
“ThenfitshertremblinghandstoWrite：
OneholdstheWax，theStyletheotherguides，Begins，doubts，writes，andattheTablechides；
Notes，razes，changesoft，dislikes，approves，Throwsallaside，resumeswhatsheremoves。
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“TheWaxthusfilledwithhersuccesslesswit，SheVersesintheutmostmarginwrit。”
Healsomakesreferencetoinks，inthepassagetakenfromhisfirstelegy，“AdLibrum：“
“Nectepurpureovelentvacciniasucco；
Nonestconveniensluctibusillecolor。
Nectitulusminio，neccedrochartanotetur。
Candidanecnigracornuafrontegeras。”
whichDavidstranslatesasfollows：
“TOHISBOOK。
“Norshallhuckleberriesstainliterallyveiltheewithpurplejuice：
Thatcolorisnotbecomingtolamentations。
Norshalltitleorhead-letterbemarkedwithvermillion，orpaperwithcedar，Thoushaltcarryneitherwhitenorblackhornsonthyforeheadorfront，orfrontispiece。”
Thetraditionshandeddownasofthiserarelatingtotheeffortstofindsomesubstitutefor“Indian“
inkwhichwouldnotonly“bind“toparchmentandvellumbutalsowouldbesatisfactorytothepriests，aremoreorlessconfirmedbytheyoungerPliny，andmakesitsafetoassumethatseveralwereinventedandemployedinwriting，thoughpossessingbutlittlelastingqualities。TheiruseandnaturaldisappearanceisperhapstherealcauseofthefactthattherearenooriginalMSS。extantdatingasoforbelongingtothetimeimmediatelyprecedingorfollowingthebirthofChrist，orindeeduntillongafterhisdeath。
Thereissomeauthoritythoughforthestatementthatatthistimetwovitriolicsubstanceswereusedinthepreparationofblackink，——aslimeorsedimentSalsugoandayellowvitriolicearthMisy。Thislast-namedmineral，isunquestionablythesamenaturalchemicalmentionedbywriters，whichabouttheendofthefirstcenturywasdesignated“kalkanthum“or“chalkanthum“andpossessednotonlytheappearanceof，butthevirtuesofwhatweknowasbluecopperasorsulphateofcopper。Itcontinuedinuseaslongasmenwereunacquaintedwiththeartoflixiviatingsalt，or，inotherwords，aslongastheyhadnovitriolmanufactories。Commingledwithlampblack，bitumenorlikeblacksubstancesingummywater，itwasacceptabletothepriestsforritualisticwritingsandwasingeneralvogueforseveralcenturiesthereafterunderthenameofblue“vitriolic“
ink，notwithstandingthefactthattherecouldnotbeanylastingchemicalunionbetweensuchmaterials。
Itwastheso-called“vitriolic“ink，whichissaidtohave“corrodedthedelicateleavesofthepapyrusandtohaveeatenthroughbothparchmentandvellum。”
Thesedeductions，however，donotagreewithsomeofthehistoriansandscholarslikeNoelHumphreys，authorofthe“OriginandProgressoftheArtofWriting。”London，1855，arecognizedauthorityonthesubjectofancientMSS。，whobutrepeatsinpartthetextofearlierwriters，whenhesays，p。101：
“ExamplesofearlyGreekMSS。ofthelastcenturyprevioustotheChristianeraarenotconfinedtoEgyptiansources；theburiedcityofHerculaneum，inItaly，partiallydestroyedaboutseventy-
nineyearsbeforetheChristianera，andinjuredbysubsequeuteruptions，tilltotallydestroyedbythemostviolenteruptionofVesuviusonrecord，thatoftheyear471A。D。havingyieldedseveralspecimens。”
TheMSS。examplesmentionedinthecitation，mustofnecessityrefertospecimensofwritingmadewith“vitriolic“andevenmoreancientinks。Theyaretobeconsideredinconjunctionwiththehistoricalfactthatthesecitieswereburiedformorethansixteenhundredyears，countingfromthefirsteruption，beforetheywerebroughttolightHerculaneumwasdiscoveredA。D。1713andPompeii，fortyyearslater；
alsothattheymusthavebeensubjectedtointenseheatandalongperiodofdecaywhichcouldonlyoperatetorobthemofalltracesofnaturalinkphenomena。
Furthermore，theinformationMr。Humphreysseekstoconvey，datescontemporaneouslywiththefirsteruptionofVesuvius，whichoccurredseventy-nineyearsAFTERtheChristianeraandnotseventy-nineyearsBEFOREit。
Thisstupendousblunderinvolvesaperiodofonehundredandfifty-eightyears；ifitisrectified，the“earlyGreekMSS。”areshowntoemanatefromthesecondhalfofthefirstcenturyfollowingthebirthofChristandconfirmingtosomeextentthedeductionshereinbeforemade，althoughtheprobabilitiesarethattheybelongtolaterperiods，includedinthethirdandfourthcenturies。
ItisaffirmedthattheeruptionofMt。VesuviusA。D。79，didnotentirelydestroythecitiesofHerculaneumandPompeii，andthattheyemergedfromtheirruinsinthereignoftheEmperorTitus。TheyarealsomentionedasinhabitedcitiesinthechartofPeutinger，whichisofthedateofConstantine。
Thenexteruption，A。D。471，wasprobablythemostfrightfulonrecordifweexcludethevolcaniceruptionofMt。Pelee，whichoccurredinMartinique，WestIndies，in1902，destroyingthirtythousandhumanbeingsinfifteenminutesanddevastatingnearlytheentireisland。FromMarcellinuswelearnthattheashesoftheVesuviusvolcanowerevomitedoveragreatportionofEurope，reachingtoConstantinople，whereafestivalwasinstitutedincommemorationofthestrangephenomenon。Afterthis，wehearnomoreofthesecities，buttheportionoftheinhabitantswhoescapedbuiltoroccupiedsuburbsatNolainCampaniaandatNaples。Inthelattercity，theRegioHerculanensium，orQuarteroftheHerculaneans，aninscriptionmarkedonseverallapidarymonuments，indicatesthepartdevotedtothepopulationdrivenfromthedoomedcity。
TheancientinkstandfoundatHerculaneum，saidtocontainasubstanceresemblingathickoilorpaintcharacteristicofamaterialwhichitisalleged，“someofthemanuscriptshavebeenwritteninasortofrelievo，visibleintheletterswhena’leaf’isheldtothelightinahorizontaldirection。”itisnotimpossible，indeeditisquiteprobable，belongedtoaneracenturieslaterthantheperiodtowhichithasbeenassigned。
“Noperfectpapyri，butonlyfragments，havebeenfoundatPompeii。AtHerculaneum，uptotheyear1825，1，756hadbeenobtained，besidesmanyothersdestroyedbytheworkmen，whoimaginedthemtobemeresticksofcharcoal。Mostofthemwerefoundinasuburbanvilla，inaroomofsmalldimensions，rangedinpressesroundthesidesoftheroom，inthecenterofwhichstoodasortofrectangularbookcase。
“SirHumphryDavy，afterinvestigatingtheirchemicalnature，arrivedattheconclusionthattheyhadnotbeencarbonizedbyheat，butchangedbythelongactionofairandmoisture；andhevisitedNaplesinhopesofrenderingtheresourcesofchemistryavailabletowardsdecipheringtheselong-lostliterarytreasures。Hisexpectations，however，werenotfullycrownedwithsuccess，althoughthepartialefficacyofhismethodswasestablished；andherelinquishedthepursuitattheendofsixmonths，partlyfromdisappointment，partlyfromabeliefthatvexatiousobstacleswerethrowninhiswaybythejealousyofthepersonstowhomthetaskofunrollinghadbeenintrusted。
Aboutfivehundredvolumeshavebeenwellandneatlyunrolled。Itisratherremarkablethat，asfarascanbelearned，nomanuscriptofanyknownstandardworkhasbeenfound，nor，indeed，anyproductionofanyofthegreatluminariesoftheancientworld。ThemostcelebratedpersonofwhomanyworkhasbeenfoundisEpicurus，whosetreatise，DeNatura，hasbeensuccessfullyunrolled。Thisandafewothertreatiseshavebeenpublished。ThelibraryinwhichthiswasfoundappearstohavebeenrichintreatisesontheEpicureanphilosophy。TheonlyLatinworkwhichitcontainedwasapoem，attributedtoRabirius，onthewarofCaesarandAntony。”
BeginningwithA。D。200，theemploymentofinksbecamemoreandmoreconstantandpopular。Rediscoveriesofancientformulasbelongingtoamoreremoteantiquitymultipliedinnumber。Silverinkwasagainquitecommoninmostcountries。Redinkmadeofvermilionacompositionofmercury，sulphurandpotashandcinnabarnativemercuricsulphide
wereemployedinthewritingofthetitlesaswasblueinkmadeofindigo，cobaltoroxideofcopper。Tyrianpurplewasusedforcoloringtheparchmentorvellum。
The“Indian“inksmadebytheChinesewereimportedandusedinpreferencetothoseofsimilarcharactermanufacturedathome。Thestylusandwaxedtabletsthoughstillused，inameasuregavewaytothereawakenedinterestininkandinkwritings。
Agreaterfacilityinwriting，duetothegradualreductioninsizeoftheuncialinchletterswastherebyattained。
Therewere“writersingold“and“writersinsilver“whotravelledfromtheEastintoGreeceandwhobadfoundtheirwaybeforethethirdcenturyintotheveryheartofRome。Theirbusinesswastoembellishthemanuscriptwritingsofthosetimes。Itwasconsideredenregaleforauthorsto“illuminate“
theirMSS。andthosewhofailedtodososufferedinpopularity。
Theseauthorsfrequentlyalludetotheiruseofred，blackandsecretinks。
Martialinhisfirstepistlepointsoutthebookseller’sshopoppositetheJulianForumwherehisworksmaybeobtained“smoothedwithpumicestoneanddecoratedwithpurple。”Senecamentionsbooksornamented“cumimaginabus。”VarroisrelatedbytheyoungerPlinytohaveillustratedhisworksbypicturesofmorethansevenhundredillustriouspersons。
MartialdwellsontheeditionofVirgil，withhisportraitasafrontispiece。
Theearliestrecordedinstanceofthericheradornmentsofgoldenletteringonpurpleorrose-stainedvellumisgivenbyJuliusCapitolinusinhislifeoftheEmperorMaximinustheyounger。Hethereinmentionsthatthemotheroftheemperorpresentedtohimonhisreturntohistutorearlyinthethirdcentury，acopyoftheworksofHomer，writteningolduponpurplevellum。
Thefugitivecharacter，asbeforestated，ofagreatmanyofthecoloredinks，andindeedmostoftheblackoneswhichwereundoubtedlyemployed，istheprincipalreasonwhysofewspecimensofthemremaintous。Thosewhichhaveprovedthemselvessolastingincharacterastobestillextant，bearevidenceofextremecareinthepreparationofboththeinksandthematerialsonwhichthewritingsappear。PerhapsoneofthefinestillustrationsofthispracticeistobefoundinabookoftheFourGospelsofItalianorigin，discoveredinthetenthcenturyaworkofthefourthcenturyanddepositedintheHarleinLibrary。
Thisbookiswrittenin“Indian“inkandpossessesmagnificentlyembellishedandilluminatedlettersatthebeginningofeachGospel，whichareonvellumstainedindifferentcolors。
St。Jeromecallsattentiontothisclassofbooksinawell-knownpassageofhisprefacetotheBookofJob，alsowritteninthefourthcentury，whereheexplainsastranslated：
“Letthosewhowillhaveoldbookswritteningoldandsilveronpurpleparchment，or，astheyarecommonlycalled，inuncial-letters，——ratherponderousloadsthanbooks，——solongastheypermitmeandminetohavecopies，andrathercorrectthanbeautifulbooks。”
IthasbeensaidthattheTanno-gallateofIronInksironsalts，nut-gallsandgumwerefirstusedinthefourthcentury。Thereispositivelynocredibleauthorityforsuchastatement，noristhereasinglemonumentintheshapeofadocumentaryspecimenofinkwritingofthatoneoranearliercenturymadewithsuchaninkinanypublicorprivatelibraryandasfarasknowninexistence。
AboutA。D。390theinspiredwritingsoftentermedpaganoftheclassicalcountries，oratleastthecopiesorextractsofthem，uponaspecialsearchmadebyorderoftheRomanSenate，includingthosealreadymentionedasofthetimeofTarquinsomeninehundredyearsearlier，weregatheredupinGreece，Italyandotherpartsanddestroyed，because，asweareinformed，thisRomanSenatehadembracedtheChristianfaithandfurthermore“suchvanitiesbegantogrowoutoffashion；tillatlastStilichoburntthemallunderHonoriusasonofTheodosiustheGreat，forwhichheissoseverelycensuredbythenoblepoetRutilius，inhisingeniousitinerary。”
NotonlyRomanArmstheWretchbetrayedTobarbarousFoes；beforethatcursedDeed，HeburnttheWritingsofthesacredMaid，WehateAlthaeaforthefatalBrand；
WhenNisiusfell，theweepingBirdscomplained：
MorecruelhethantherevengefulFair；
MorecruelhethatNisius’Murderer。
WhoseimpiousHandsintotheFlameshavethrownTheHeavenlyPledgesoftheRomanCrown，Unrav’llingalltheDoomthatcarefulFatehadspun。”
ThedestructionofRomebyAlaric，KingoftheWesternGoths，A。D。410，andthesubsequentdismembermentoftheentireRomanEmpirebythebarbariansoftheNorthwhofollowedinhiswake，announcedthatancienthistoryhadcometoanend。
Itmaybetrulysaidaswellthattheendingoftheancienthistoryoftheblackandcoloredwritinginkswhichbeganintheobscurityoftraditionbetween2000and1800B。C。，aperiodofsome2200years，wasalsocontemporaneouswiththeseevents。
Theeclipseofink-writtenliteratureforatleast500ofthe1000yearswhichfollowed，andknownastheMiddleor“Dark“Ages，exceptintheChurchalone，whoseemtohavekeptuptheproductionofmanuscriptbooksprincipallyforecclesiasticalandmedicalpurposeswascomplete。Hence，anyinformationpertainingtothoseepochsaboutink，writingmaterialsandinkwritings，mustbesoughtforintheundestroyedrecordsandtheinkwritingsthemselvesleftbythefathersoftheChurch。Allelseistaintedandofdoubtfulauthority。
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“WhenwanedthestarofGreecewastherenocry，Torouseherpeoplefromtheirlethargy？
WastherenosentryontheParthenon——
Nowatch-fireonthefieldofMarathon，WhensciencelefttheAtheniancity’sgate，Toseekprotectionfromanamelessfate？
Thesluggishsentryslept——nocrywasheardNohandstheglimm’ringwatch-fire’sembersstirr’d。
Fairscienceunmolestedlefttheland，Thatshehadnurturedwithmaternalhand；
Andwanderedforthsomegenialspottofind，Whereshemightrearheraltartothemind。
“Longthro’thedarken’dagesofaworld，Backtoprimevalchaosrudelyhurled，Shejourney’donamidthegath’ringgloom，Aspectreformemergingfromthetomb。
Earthhadnorestingplace——noworshipper——
Nodovereturnedwitholivebranchtoher：
Herlampburneddimly，yetitsflick’ringlight，Guidedthewandererthro’thelengthen’dnight。
Oftinherwearysearch，shepausedthewhile，Tocatchonegleamofhope——onefavour’dsmile；
Butthedimmistsofignorancestillthrew，Theirblightinginfluenceo’erthefamish’dfew，Whodeignedtolookuponthatlustrouseye，Whichpiercedtheagesoffuturity。
“Fortenlongcenturiesshegropedherway，Throughgloom，anddarkness，ruinanddecay；
Yetcameatlastthemorning’srosylight，Athousandechoeshail’dtheglorioussight——
Joythrill’dtheuniverse——oneiningledcryOfexultation，pealedalongthesky！
SciencecameforthinricherrobesarrayedShetrodapathwayne’erbeforeessayed；
Upthesteepmountoffameshefleetlypressed，Andhunghertrophiesonitsgildedcrest。”
CHAPTERIV。
CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUSCONTINUED。
DESTRUCTIONOFTHEPERGAMUSLIBRARYOFALEXANDRIA——
SOMEOBSERVATIONSBYSIRTHOMASASTLE——
COMPARISONOFHISSTATEMENTSWITHTHOSEOF
PROFESSORANTHONRELATIVETOFRAGMENTSOF
ANTIQUITYWHICHREMAIN——AUTHENTICITYOF
THEMNOTDISTURBEDIFTHEYAREOFPROPERAGE——
TAYLOR’SVIEWSONTHISSUBJECT。
THEstormingofAlexandriaandthedestructionofthePergamuslibrary，composedlargelyofink-writtenvolumes，bytheSaracens，A。D。642，hasalreadybeenrevertedto。Astleobserves：
“Thusperishedbyfanaticalmadness，theinestimableAlexandrianlibrary，whichissaidtohavecontainedatthattimeupwardsoffivehundredthousandvolumes；andfromthisperiod，barbarityandignoranceprevailedforseveralcenturies。InItalyandalloverthewestofEuropelearningwasinameasureextinguished，exceptsomesmallremainswhichwerepreservedinConstantinople。
“Theodosious，theyounger，wasveryassiduousinaugmentingthislibrary，bywhom，inthelatterendofthefourthcentury，itwasenlargedtoonehundredthousandvolumes，aboveone-halfofwhichwereburntinthefifthcenturybytheEmperorLeotheFirst，sofamousforhishatredtoimages。
“TheinhabitantsofConstantinoplehadnotlosttheirtasteforliteratureinthebeginningofthethirteenthcentury，whenthiscitywassackedbytheCrusaders，intheyear1205；thedepredationsthencommittedarerelatedinMr。Harris’sposthumousworks，vol。ii，p。301，fromNicetastheChoniate，whowaspresentatthesackingofthisplace。Hisaccountofthestatues，bustos，bronzes，manuscripts，andotherexquisiteremainsofantiquity，whichthenperished，cannotbereadbyanyloverofartsandlearningwithoutemotion。
“TheravagescommittedbytheTurkswhoplunderedConstantinople，intheyear1453，arerelatedbyPhilelphus，whowasamanoflearning，andwastutortoaeneasSylviusafterwardspope，underthenameofPiustheSecondandwasaneye-witnesstowhatpassedatthattime。Thistutorsays，thatthepersonsofquality，especiallythewomen，stillpreservedtheGreeklanguageuncorrupted。Heobserves，thatthoughthecityhadbeentakenbefore，itneversufferedsomuchasatthattime；andadds，that，tillthatperiod，theremembranceofancientwisdomremainedatConstantinople，andthatnooneamongtheLatinswasdeemedsufficientlylearned，whohadriotstudiedforsometimeatthatplace；heexpressedhisfearthatalltheworksoftheancientswouldbedestroyed。
“Still，however，therearetheremainsofthreelibrariesatConstantinople：thefirstiscalledthatofConstantinetheGreat；thesecondisforallranksofpeoplewithoutdistinction；thethirdisinthepalace，andiscalledtheOttomanlibrary；butafireconsumedagreatpartofthepalace，andalmostthewholelibrary，whenasissupposed，Livyandagreatmanyvaluableworksoftheancientsperished。FatherPosseviushasgivenanaccountofthelibrariesatConstantinople，andinotherpartsoftheTurkishdominions，inhisexcellentworkentitled，ApparatusSacer。Hecallsattentiontonolessthansixthousandauthors。
ManyotherlossesofthewritingsoftheancientshavebeenattributedtothezealoftheChristians，whoatdifferentperiodsmadegreathavockamongsttheHeathenauthors。NotasinglecopyoftheworkofCelsusisnowtobefound，andwhatweknowofthatworkisfromOrigen，hisopponent。Thevenerablefathers，whoemployedthemselvesinerasingthebestworksofthemosteminentGreekorLatinauthors，inordertotranscribethelivesofsaintsorlegendarytalesupontheobliteratedvellum，possiblemistooktheselamentabledepredationsforworksofpiety。Theancientfragmentofthe91stbookofLivy，discoveredbyMr。Bruns，intheVatican，in1772，wasmuchdefacedbythepiouslaboursofsomewell-intentioneddivine。TheMonksmadewaronbooksastheGothshaddonebeforethem。GreatnumbersofmanuscriptshavealsobeendestroyedinthiskingdomGreatBritainbyitsinvaders，thePaganDanes，andtheNormans，bythecivilcommotionsraisedbythebarons，bythebloodycontestsbetweenthehousesofYorkandLancaster，andespeciallybythegeneralplunderanddevastationsofmonasteriesandreligioushousesinthereignofHenrytheEighth；bytheravagescommittedinthecivilwarinthetimeofCharlestheFirst，andbythefirethathappenedintheCottonianlibrary，October23，1731。”
Mr。Astle’scommentsonthevolumesorremnantsofvolumeswhichremaintous，becomesmostinterestinginthelightsthrownonthembyProfessorAnthoninhis“ClassicalDictionary。”1841，whicharequotedinpartfollowingthoseofMr。Astle。
Mr。Astleremarks：
“ThehistoryofPhoeniciabySanconiatho，whowasacontemporarywithSolomon，wouldhavebeenentirelylosttous，haditnotbeenforthevaluablefragmentspreservedbyEusebius。”
SaysProf。Anthon：
“Sanchoniathon，aPhoenicianauthor，whoifthefragmentsofhisworksthathavereachedusbegenuine，andifsuchapersoneverexisted，mustberegardedasthemostancientwriterofwhomwehaveanyknowledgeafterMoses。Astotheperiodwhenbeflourished，allisuncertain。Heistheauthorofthreeprincipalworks，whichwerewritteninPhoenician。TheyweretranslatedintotheGreeklanguagebyHerenniusPhilo，wholivedinthesecondcenturyofourera。ItisfromthistranslationwhichweobtainallthefragmentsofSanchoniathonthathavereachedourtimes。Philohaddividedhistranslationintoninebooks，ofwhichPorphyrymadeuseinhisdiatribeagainsttheChristians。
ItisfromthefourthbookofthislostworkthatEusebiustook，foranenddirectlyoppositetothis，thepassageswhichhavecomedowntous。
AndthuswehavethosedocumentsrelatingtothemythologyandhistoryofthePhoeniciansfromthefourthhand。”
Mr。Astlecontinues：
“Manetho’sHistoryofEgypt，andtheHistoryofChaldea，byBerosus，havenearlymetwiththesamefate。”
FromAnthon：
“Berosus；aBabylonianhistorian。HewasapriestofthetempleofBelusinthetimeofAlexander。
TheancientsmentionthreebooksofhisofwhichJosephusandEusebiushavepreservedfragments。AnniusofViterbopublishedaworkunderthenameofBerosus，whichwassoondiscoveredtobeaforgery。”
ByAstle：
“TheHistoricalLibraryofDiodorusSiculusconsistedlikewiseoffortybooks，butonlyfifteenarenowextant；thatis，fivebetweenthefifthandtheeleventh，andthelastten，withsomefragmentscollectedoutofPhotiusandothers。”
ByAnthon：
“Diodorus，surnamedSiculus，acontemporaryofJuliusCaesarandAgustus。Hepublishedageneralhistoryinfortybooks，underthetitle’HistoricalLibrary，’whichcoveredaperiodof1138years。Wehaveonlyasmallpartremainingofthisvastcompilation。TheserescuedportionsweowetoEusebius，toJohnMalalaandotherwritersofthelowerempire，whohavecitedtheminthecourseoftheirworks。Heisthereputedauthorofthefamoussophismagainstmotion。’Ifanybodybemoved，itismovedintheplacewhereitis，orinaplacewhereitisnot，fornothingcanactorsufferwhereitisnot，andthereforethereisnosuchthingasmotion。’“
ByAstle：
“TheGeneralHistoryofPolybiusoriginallycontainedfortybooks；butthefirstfiveonly，withsomeextractsorfragments，aretransmittedtous。”
ByAnthon：
“Polybius，aneminentGreekhistorian，bornabout，B。C。203。Polybiusgavetotheworldvarioushistoricalwritings，whichareentirelylostwiththeexceptionofhisGeneralHistory。Itembracedaperiodof53years。Ofthefortybookswhichitoriginallycomprehended，timehassparedonlythefirstfiveentire。Oftherest，asfarastheseventeenth，wehavemerelyfragmentsthoughofconsiderablesize。OftheremainingbookswehavenothingleftexceptwhatisfoundintwomergerabridgmentswhichtheEmperorConstantinePorphyrogenitus，inthetenthcenturycausedtobemadeofthewholework。”
FromAstle：
“DionysiusHalicarnassensiswrotetwentybooksofRomanantiquities，extendingfromthesiegeofTroy，tothePunicwarA。U。C。488；butonlyelevenofthemarenowremaining，whichreachnofurtherthantheyearofRome312。”
FromAnthon：
“HewasborninthefirstcenturyB。C。Hisprincipalworkwas’RomanAntiquities。’Itoriginallyconsistedoftwentybooks，ofwhichthefirsttenremainentire。DionysiuswrotefortheGreeks，andhisobjectwastorelievethemfromthemortificationwhichtheyfeltatbeingconqueredbyaraceofbarbarians，astheyconsideredtheRomanstobe。
Andthisheendeavoredtoeffectbytwistingandforgingtestimonies，andbotchinguptheoldlegends，soastomakeoutaprimafacieproofoftheGreekoriginofthecityofRome。Valuableadditionsweremadein1816，byMai，fromanoldMSS。”
ByAstle：
“AppianissaidtohavewrittentheRomanHistoryintwenty-fourbooks；butthegreatestpartoftheworksofthatauthorislost。”
ByAnthon：
“HewastheauthorofaRomanHistoryintwenty-fourbookswhichnolongerexistentire；
thepartsmissinghavebeensuppliedbutwasnotwrittenbyAppianbutisamerecompilationfromPlutarch’sLivesofCrassusandAntony。”
ByAstle：
“DionCassiuswroteeightybooksofhistory，butonlytwenty-fiveareremaining，withsomefragments，andanepitomeofthelasttwentybyXiphilinus。”
ByAnthon：
“HistruenamewasCassius，bornA。D。155；——
wehavefragmentsremainingofthefirstthirty-
sixbooks，theycomprehendaperiodfromB。C。65
toB。C。10；——theywerefoundbyMaiintwoVaticanMSS。，whichcontainasyllogeorcollectionmadebyMaximusPlanudeswholivedinthefourteenthcentury。HewasthefirstGreekthatmadeuseoftheArabicnumeralsastheyarecalled。”
Mr。Astlefurtherobserves：
“TheEmperorTacitusorderedtencopiesoftheworksofhisrelation，thehistorian，tobemadeeveryyearwhichhesentintothedifferentprovincesoftheempire；andyet，notwithstandinghisendeavourstoperpetuatetheseinestimableworks，theywereburiedinoblivionformanycenturies。
SincetherestorationoflearninganancientMSS。
wasdiscoveredinamonasteryinWestphalia，whichcontainedthemostvaluablepartofhisannals；
butinthisuniquemanuscript，partofthefifth，seventh，ninthandtenthbooksaredeficient，asarepartoftheeleventh，andthelatterpartofthesixteenth。ThisMSS。wasprocuredbythatgreatrestoreroflearningPopeLeoX。，underwhosepatronageitwasprintedatRomein1515；heafterwardsdepositeditintheVaticanlibrary，whereitisstillpreserved。ThusposterityisprobablyindebtedtotheabovemagnificentPontiff，forthemostvaluablepartoftheworksofthisinimitablehistorian。”
Accountswhichdifferentiateintheirdescriptivedetailsofquestionedink-writtenfragmentsofantiquityandonthegenuinenessorauthenticityofwhichreststhetruthorfalsityofancienthistoryorotherliterature，servetotaintsuchremainswithacertaindegreeofsuspicionanddoubt。When，however，inthelightofinvestigation，thematerialsofwhichtheyarecomposedarefoundtoapproachcloselytheagetheypurporttorepresent，thenitisthatsuchfragmentscanbesaidtohavefairlyestablishedtheirownidentity。
Taylorasserts：
“TheremoteantiquityofamanuscriptisoftenestablishedbythepeculiarcircumstanceofitsexistingBENEATHanotherwriting。SomeinvaluablemanuscriptsoftheHolyScriptures，andnotafewpreciousfragmentsofclassicliterature，havebeenthusbroughttolight。
“Theageofamanuscriptmayoftenbeascertainedwithlittlechanceoferror，bysomesuchindicationsasthefollowing：——thequalityorappearanceoftheINK，thenatureofthematerial；
thatistosay，whetheritbesoftleather，orparchment，orthepapyrusofEgypt，orthebombycinepaper；forthesematerialssucceededeachother，incommonuse，atperiodsthatarewellknown；——
thepeculiarform，size，andcharacterofthewriting；
foraregularprogressioninthemodesofwritingmaybetracedbyabundantevidencethrougheveryagefromtheremotesttimes；——thestyleoftheornamentsorilluminations，astheyaretermed，oftenservestoindicatetheageofthebookwhichtheydecorate。
“Fromsuchindicationsasthese，moreorlessdefiniteandcertain，ancientmanuscripts，nowextant，areassignedtovariousperiods，extendingfromthesixteenth，tothefourthcenturyoftheChristianera；orperhaps，inoneortwoinstances，tothethirdorsecond。Veryfewcanclaimanantiquitysohighasthefourthcentury；butnotafewaresafelyattributedtotheseventh；andagreatproportionofthoseextantwereunquestionablyexecutedinthetenth；whilemanybelongtothefollowingfourhundredyears。Itis，however，tobeobserved，thatsomemanuscripts，executedatsolateatimeasthethirteenth，oreventhefifteenthcentury，affordclearinternalevidencethat，byasingleremoveonly，thetexttheycontainclaimsaREALantiquity，higherthanthatevenoftheoldestexistingcopyofthesamework。Fortheseoldercopiessometimesprove，bythepeculiarnatureofthecorruptionswhichhavecreptintothetext，thattheyhavebeenderivedthroughalongseriesofcopies；whileperhapsthetextofthemoremodernmanuscriptspossessessuchadegreeofpurityandfreedomfromalltheusualconsequencesoffrequenttranscription，astomakeitmanifestthatthecopyfromwhichitwastaken，wassoancientasnottobefardistantfromthetimeofthefirstpublicationofthework。”
CHAPTERV。
REVIVALOFINK。
THEDISAPPEARANCEANDPRESERVATIONOFINKWRITINGS，ASESTIMATEDBYLACROIX——COMMENTSOF
OTHERWRITERS——DEVINNE’SINTERESTINGEXPLANATIONS
OFTHESTATUSQUOOFMANUSCRIPTWRITINGS
DURINGTHEDARKAGESWHICHPRECEDEDTHEINVENTION
OFPRINTING——PRICESPAIDFORBOOKSIN
ANCIENTTIMES——LIMITATIONSOFHANDWRITINGAND
HANDWRITINGMATERIALSATTHEBEGINNINGOF
THEFIFTHCENTURY——WHOCONTROLLEDTHERECORDS
ABOUTTHEM——INVENTIONOFTHEQUILL
PEN——THECAUSEOFINCREASEDFLUIDITYOF
INKS——ORIGINOFTHESECRETA——CHARACTEROF
INFORMATIONOBTAINEDFROMTHEM——IMPROVEMENT
OFBLACKINKSINTHEEIGHTHCENTURYANDEMPLOYMENT
OFPOMEGRANITEINK。
LACROIX’prefacetohis“ScienceandLiteratureoftheMiddleAgesandtheRenaissance。”referstotheDarkAges：
“InthebeginningoftheMiddleAges，atthecommencementofthefifthcentury，theBarbariansmadeaninroadupontheoldworld；theirrenewedinvasionscrushedout，inthecourseofafewyears，theGreekandRomancivilization；andeverywheredarknesssucceededtolight。ThereligionofJesusChristwasalonecapableofresistingthisbarbarianinvasion，andscienceandliterature，togetherwiththearts，disappearedfromthefaceoftheearth，takingrefugeinthechurchesandmonasteries。Itwastherethattheywerepreservedasasacreddeposit，anditwasthencethattheyemergedwhenChristianityhadrenovatedpagansociety。ButcenturiesandcenturieselapsedbeforethesumofhumanknowledgewasequaltowhatithadbeenatthefalloftheRomanempire。Anewsociety，moreover，wasneededfortheneweffortsofhumanintelligenceasitresumeditsrights。Schoolsanduniversitieswerefoundedundertheauspicesoftheclergyandofthereligiouscorporations，andthusscienceandliteraturewereenabledtoemergefromtheirtombs。Europe，amidstthetumultuousconflictsofthepolicywhichmadeandunmadekingdoms，witnessedageneralrevivalofthescholasticzeal；poets，orators，novelists，andwritersincreasedinnumbersandgrewinfavour；savants，philosophers，chemistsandalchemists，mathematiciansandastronomers，travellersandnaturalists，wereawakened，sotospeak，bythelife-givingbreathoftheMiddleAges；andgreatscientificdiscoveriesandadmirableworksoneveryimaginablesubjectshowedthatthegeniusofmodernsocietywasnotawhitinferiortothatofantiquity。Printing，wasinvented，andwiththatbrilliantdiscovery，theMiddleAges，whichhadaccomplishedtheirworkofsocialrenovation，madewayfortheRenaissance，whichscatteredabroadinprofusiontheprolificandbrilliantcreationsofArt，Science，andLiterature。”
Thisauthortosomeextentdiscreditshimself，however，p。455，whereheremarks：
“LongbeforetheinvasionsoftheBarbariansthehistorieswrittenbyGreekandLatinauthorsconcerningtheannalsoftheancientpeopleshadbeenfallingintodisfavor。Eventhebestofthemwerelittleread，fortheChristiansfeltbutslightinterestinthesepagannarratives，andthatiswhyworksrelatingtothehistoryofantiquitywerealreadysoscarce。”
Anotherauthoritywritingonthesamesubjectdiscussesitfromadifferentstandpoint，remarking：
“Asinthemiddleagesinventionbusieditselfwithinstrumentsoftorture，andasinourdaysitistakenupalmostasmuchwiththedestructiveenginesofwaraswiththeproductiveartsofpeace，sointhoseearlyagesitapplieditselftothefabricationofidols，tothemechanismandtheatricalcontrivancesformysteriesandreligiousceremonies。
Therewasthennodesiretocommunicatediscoveries，sciencewasasortoffreemasonry，andsilencewaseffectuallysecuredbypriestlyanathemas；menofsciencewereasjealousofoneanotherastheywereofallotherclassesofsociety。
Ifwewishtoformaclearpictureofthisearlieststageofcivilization，anagewhichrepresentsatoncethenaiveteofchildhoodandthesuspiciousreticenceofsenility，wemustturnoureyestothepriest，ontheonehand，claimingashisownallartandscience，andcommandingrespectbyhiscontemptuoussilence；and，ontheotherhand，tothemechanicplyingtheloom，extractingtheTyriandye，practisingchemistry，thoughignorantofitsveryname，despisedandoppressed，andonlytoleratedwhenhefurnishedReligionwithhertrappingsorWarwitharms。Thusthegrowthofchemistrywasslow，andbyreasonofitsbackwardnessitwaslongerthananyotherartinriddingitselfoftheleading-stringsofmagicandastrology。Practicaldiscoveriesmusthavebeenmademanytimeswithoutscienceacquiringtherebyanynewfact。Fortopreventanewdiscoveryfrombeinglosttheremustbesuchacombinationoffavorablecircumstancesaswasrareinthatageandformanysucceedingages。Theremustbepublicity，andpublicityisofquiterecentgrowth；theapplicationofthediscoverymustbenotonlypossiblebutobvious，assatisfyingsomewant。Butwantsareonlyfeltascivilizationprogresses。Noristhatall；forapracticaldiscoverytobecomeascientificfactitmustservetodemonstratetheerrorofonehypothesis，andtosuggestanewone，betterfittedforthesynthesisofexistingfacts。Butsomeoldbeliefsareproverbiallyobstinateandvirulentintheiroppositiontonewerandtruertheorieswhicharedestinedtoejectandreplacethem。Tosumup，eveninourownday，chemistryrestsonalesssoundbasisthaneitherphysics，whichhadtheadvantageoforiginatingaslateasthe17thcentury，orastronomy，whichdatesfromthetimewhentheChaldeanshepherdhadsufficientlyprovidedforhisdailywantstofindleisureforgazingintothestarryHeavens。”
Theobservationsofastillearliercommentatorareofthesamegeneralnature。Hesays：
“InthefirstagesofChristianity，whenthefathersoftheChurch，theJews，andtheHeathenphilosophersweresowarmlyengagedincontroversy，thereisreasontobelievethatpiousfraudswerenotuncommon：andthatwhenonepartysuspectedforgeries，insteadofanattemptatconfutation，whichmighthavebeendifficult，theyhadrecourseperhapstoacountermine：andeitherinventedaltogether，orekedoutsomeobscuretraditionalscrapsbytheembellishmentsoffancy。
Whenweconsider，amongstmanyliteraryimpositionsoflatertimes，thatPsalmanazar’shistoryofFormosawas，eveninthisenlightenedageandcountryEngland，about1735，consideredbyourmostlearnedmenasunquestionablyauthentic，tilltheconfessionoftheauthordiscoveredthesecret，Ithinkitisnotdifficulttoconceivehowforgeriesofremoteevents，beforetheinventionofprintingandthegeneraldiffusionofknowledgemightgainanauthority，andespeciallywiththezealous，hardlyinferiortothatofthemostgenuinehistory。”
DeVinne，however，inhis“InventionofPrinting。”
NewYork，1878，bestexplainsthestatusquoofthosetimes，relativenotonlytobookMSS。making，andmethodsofcirculation，butthecauseswhichleduptotheireventualdisappearanceandtheliterarydarknesswhichensued。Hisremarksaresopertinentthattheyarequotedatlength：
“ThecivilizationofancientRomedidnotrequireprinting。Ifalltheprocessesoftypographyhadbeenrevealedtoitsscholarstheartwouldnothavebeenused。Thewantsofreadersandwriterswereabundantlysuppliedbythepen。Papyruspaperwascheap，andscribeswerenumerous；Romehadmorebooksellersthanitneeded，andbooksweremadefasterthantheycouldbesold。Theprofessionalscribeswereeducatedslaves，who，fedandclothedatnominalexpense，andorganizedunderthedirectionofwealthypublishers，weremadesoefficientintheproductionofbooks，thattypography，inanopencompetition，couldhaveofferedfewadvantages。
“OurknowledgeoftheRomanorganizationoflaborinthefieldofbookmakingisnotaspreciseascouldbewished；butthefrequentnoticesofbooks，copyistsandpublishers，madebymanyauthorsduringthefirstcentury，teachusthatbookswereplentiful。Horace，theelegantandfastidiousmanofletters，complainedthathisbooksweretoocommon，andthattheyweresometimesfoundinthehandsofvulgarsnobsforwhoseentertainmenttheywerenotwritten。Martial，thejovialmanoftheworld，boastedthathisbooksofstingingepigramsweretobefoundineverybody’shandsorpockets。Bookswerereadnotonlyinthelibraries，butatthebaths，intheporticoesofhouses，atprivatedinnersandinmixedassemblies。Thebusinessofbookmakingwaspractisedbytoomanypeople，andsomewereincompetent。Lucian，whohadakeenperceptionofpretenseineveryform，ridiculesthepublishersasignoramuses。Strabo，whoprobablywroteillegibly，saysthatthebooksofbooksellerswereincorrect。
“Thepriceofbooksmadebyslavelaborwasnecessarilylow。Martialsaysthathisfirstbookofepigramswassoldinplainbindingforsixsesterces，abouttwenty-fourcentsofAmericanmoney；thesamebookinsumptuousbindingwasvaluedatfivedenarii，abouteightycents。Hesubsequentlycomplainedthathisthirteenthbookwassoldforonlyfoursesterces，aboutsixteencents。Hefranklyadmitsthathalfofthissumwasprofit，butintimates，somewhatungraciously，thatthepublisherTryphongavehimtoosmallashare。Ofthemeritsofthisolddisagreementbetweentheauthorandpublisherwehavenotenoughoffactstojustifyanopinion。
Welearnthatsomepublishers，likeTryphonandthebrothersSosii，acquiredwealth，buttherearemanyindicationsthatpublishingwasthen，asitisnow，oneofthemostspeculativekindsofbusiness。
Onewriterchucklesovertheunkindfatethatsentsomanyoftheunsoldbooksofrivalauthorsfromthewarehousesofthepublisher，totheshopsofgrocersandbakers，wheretheywereusedtowrapuppastryandspices；anotherwritersaysthattheunsoldstockofabooksellerwassometimesboughtbybutchersandtrunkmakers。
“TheRomansnotonlyhadplentyofbooksbuttheyhadamanuscriptdailynewspaper，theActaDiurna，whichseemstohavebeenarecordoftheproceedingsofthesenate。Wedonotknowhowitwaswritten，norhowitwaspublished，butitwasfrequentlymentionedbycontemporarywritersastheregularofficialmediumfortransmittingintelligence。Itwassenttosubscribersindistantcities，andwas，sometimes，readtoanassembledarmy。CiceromentionstheActaasasheetinwhichheexpectedtofindthecitynewsandgossipaboutmarriagesanddivorces。
“WiththedeclineofpowerintheRomanempirecamethedeclineofliteraturethroughouttheworld。Inthesixthcenturythebusinessofbookmakinghadfallenintohopelessdecay。Thebooksthathadbeenwrittenwereseldomread，andthenumberofreadersdiminishedwitheverysucceedinggeneration。Ignorancepervadedinallranksofsociety。TheEmperorJustinI，whoreignedbetweentheyears518and527，couldnotwrite，andwasobligedtosignstatepaperswiththeformofstencilplatethathadbeenrecommendedbyQuintilian。
Respectforliteraturewasdead。Intheyear，476，Zeno，theIsaurian，burned120，000volumesinthecityofConstantinople。Duringtheyear640，Amrou，theSaracen，fedthebathsofAlexandriaforsixmonthswiththe500，000booksthathadbeenaccumulatingforcenturiesinitsfamouslibraryoftheSerapion。YetbooksweresoscarceinRomeatthecloseoftheseventhcenturythatPopeMartinrequestedoneofhisbishopstosupplythem，ifpossible，fromGermany。Theignoranceofecclesiasticsinhighstationwasalarming。Duringthiscentury，andforcenturiesafterward，thereweremanybishopsandarchbishopsofthechurchwhocouldnotsigntheirnames。Itwasassertedatacouncilofthechurchheldintheyear992，thatscarcelyasinglepersonwastobefoundinRomeitselfwhoknewthefirstelementsofletters。Hallamsays，’Tosumuptheaccountofignoranceinaword，itwasrareforalaymanofanyranktoknowbowtosignhisname。’HerepeatsthestatementsthatCharlemagnecouldnotwrite，andFredericBarbarossacouldnotread。
John，kingofBohemia，andPhilip，theHardy，kingofFrance，wereignorantofbothaccomplishments。
Thegracesofliteratureweretoleratedonlyintheranksoftheclergy；thelaymanwhopreferredletterstoarmswasregardedasamanofmeanspirit。
WhentheCrusaderstookConstantinople，in1204，theyexposedtopublicridiculethepensandinkstandsthattheyfoundintheconqueredcityastheignoblearmsofacontemptibleraceofstudents。
“Duringthisperiodofintellectualdarkness，whichlastedfromthefifthuntilthefifteenthcentury，aperiodsometimesdescribed，andnotimproperly，asthedarkages，therewasnoneedforanyimprovementintheoldmethodofmakingbooks。Theworldwasnotthenreadyfortypography。
Theinventionwaitedforreadersmorethanitdidfortypes；themultitudeofbookbuyersuponwhichitssuccessdependedhadtobecreated。
Bookswereneededaswellasreaders。ThetreatisesoftheoldRomansophistsandrhetoricians，thedialecticsofAristotleandtheschoolmen，andthecommentariesonecclesiasticallawofthefathersofthechurch，weretheworkswhichengrossedtheattentionofmenoflettersformanycenturiesbeforetheinventionoftypography。Usefulasthesebooksmayhavebeentothesmallclassofreadersforwhosebenefittheywerewritten，theywereofnousetoapeoplewhoneededtheelementsofknowledge。”
Inthemoreancienttimes，however，whenMSS。booksrollswerenotquitesoplentifultherewasseeminglynodifficultyinobtaininglargesumsforthem。
Aristotle，diedB。C。322，paidforafewbooksofLeusippus，thephilosopher，threeAtticktalents，whichisabout$3，000。PtolemyPhiladelphusissaidtohavegiventheAtheniansfifteentalents，anexemptionfromtributeandalargesupplyofprovisionsfortheMSS。
ofaeschylus，SophoclesandEuripideswrittenbythemselves。
Arbuthnot，discussingthissubject，remarksthatCicero’shead，“whichshouldjustlycomeintotheaccountofEloquencebroughttwenty-fiveMyriadsofDrachms，whichistheequivalentof$40，000。Also，“thepricesofthemagicalbooksmentionedtobeburntintheActsoftheApostlesisfive。MyriadsofPiecesofSilverorDrachms。”
PicoliminirelatesthattheequivalentofeightygoldencrownswasdemandedforasmallpartoftheworksofPlutarch。
Ifwearetobelieveanyoftheaccounts，theenvironmentoftheartofhandwritingandhandwritingmaterialsatthebeginningofthefifthcenturyhadcontractedwithinasmallcompass，dueprincipallytothegeneralignoranceofthetimes。
Aspracticeditwasprettymuchunderthecontrolofthedifferentreligiousdenominationsandtheinformationobtainableaboutinksfromthesesourcesisbutfragmentary。WhathascomedowntousofthisparticulareraismostlyfoundontheoldwrittenHebrewrelics，showingthattheyatleasthadmadenoinnovationsinrespecttotheuseoftheirritualisticdeyo。
Theinventionofthequillpeninthesixthcenturypermittedadegreeoflatitudeinwritingneverbeforeknown，theinksweremadethinnerandnecessarilywerelessdurableincharacter。Greaterattentionwasgiventothestudyandpracticeofmedicineandalchemywhichwerelimitedtothewallsofthecloisterandsecretplaces。Themonkphysiciansendeavoredbyoralinstructionsandlaterbywrittenonestocommunicatetheirink-makingmethodsnotonlyoftheblackandcolored，butofsecretorsympatheticinks，totheiryoungerbrethren，thattheymightthusbeperpetuated。Allthetraditionalandpracticalknowledgetheypossessedwascondensedintomanuscriptforms；additionsfromotherhandswhichincludednumerouschemicalreceiptsfordyeingcausedthemtomultiply；sothatasoccasionrequiredfromtimetotime，theywerebounduptogetherbooklikeandthencirculatedamongfavoredsecularindividuals，underthenameof“Secreta。”
Themoreremoteofsuchtreatiseswhichhavecomedowntousseemtoindicatethetrendoftheresearchesrespectingwhatmusthavebeeninthosetimesunsatisfactoryinks。Scatteredthroughthemappearavarietyofformulaswhichspecifypyritesacombinationofsulphurandmetal，metals，stonesandotherminerals，soot，bluevitriol，calxeslimeorchalk，dye-woods，berries，plants，andanimalcolors，someofwhichifmadeintoinkcouldonlyhavebeenusedwithdisastrousresults，whenpermanencyisconsidered。
Theblackinkformulasoftheeighthcenturyarebutfew，andshowmarkedimprovementinrespecttotheconstituentstheycallfor，indicatingthatmanyofthoseofearliertimeshadbeentriedandfoundwanting。Oneinparticularisworthyofnoticeasitnamesbluevitriol，yeast，theleesdregsofwineandtherindofthepomegranateapple，whichifcommingledtogetherwouldgiveresultsnotaltogetherunlikethecharacteristicphenomenaof“gall“ink。
ConfirmationoftheemploymentofsuchaninkonadocumentofthereignofCharlemigneinthebeginningoftheninthcenturyonyellow-brownEspartoaSpanishrushpaper，isstillpreserved。Specimensof“pomegranate“ink，towhichlampblackandotherpigmentshadbeenaddedofvaryingdegreesofblackness，onMSS。，butlesseninginnumberaslateasthefourteenthcentury，arestillextantintheBritishMuseumandotherpubliclibraries。
CHAPTERVI。
INKOFTHEWEST。
REMARKSOFARCH-DEACONCARLISLE——WHENREADING
ANDWRITINGCEASEDTOBEMYSTERIES——ORIGIN
OFTHEWORDSCLERKANDSIGN——SCARCITYOFMANUSCRIPTS——
FOUNDINGOFIRISHSCHOOLSOFLEARNING
INTHESEVENTHCENTURY——MONKSNOTPERMITTED
TOUSEARTIFICIALLIGHTINPREPARING
MSS——OBSERVATIONSOFMADANABOUTTHEHISTORY
OFWRITINGDURINGTHEDARKAGES——INK-
WRITTENMSS。TREASURES。
THEancienthistoryoftheartofwritinginmorenorthernsectionsoftheWesternworld，WilliamNicolson，Arch-DeaconofCarlisle，authorof“TheEnglishHistoricalLibrary。”London，1696，tellsveryquaintly：
“TheDanesregister’dtheirmoreconsiderabletransactionsuponRocks；oronpartsofthem，hewenintovariousShapesandFigures。Onthesetheyengrav’dsuchInscriptionsaswereproperfortheirHeathenAlters，TriumphalArches，SepulchralMonumentsandGenealogicalHistoriesoftheirAncestors。TheirwritingsoflessconcernasLetters，Almanacks，&c。wereengravenuponWood：AndbecauseBeechwasmostplentifulinDemnark，thoFirrandOakbesoinNorwayandSwedenandmostcommonlyemploy’dintheseServices，formthewordBogwhichintheirLanguageistheNameofthatsortofWoodtheyandallotherNorthernNationshavetheNameofBook。
ThepoorersortusedBark；andtheHornsofRain-
DeerandElkswereoftenfinelypolish’dandshapedintoBooksofseveralLeaves。ManyoftheseoldCalendarsarelikewiseuponBonesofBeastsandFishes：ButtheInscriptionsonTapestry，Bells，ParchmentandPaper，areoflateruse。
“SomeotherMonumentsmaybeknowntobeofaDanishExtraction，thotheycarrynothingofaRunicInscription。FewoftheirTempleswerecover’d；andthelargestobserv’dbyWormiusatKialernesinIslandwas120footinlength，and60
inbreadth。
“ThenextMonumentofAgeistheirEddaIslandorum；themeaningofwhichAppellationtheythatpublishtheBookhardlypretendtounderstand。
AsfarasIcangivetheReaderanysatisfaction，heisto。knowthatIslandwasfirstinhabitedintheyear874byaColonyofNorwegians；whobroughthithertheTraditionsoftheirForefathers，incertainmetricalComposures，whichasisusualwithMentransplantedintoaForeignLandwereheremorezealouslyandcarefullypreserv’dandkeptinmemorythanbytheMenofNorwaythemselves。
About240yearsafterthisA。D。1114
theirHistorybegantobewrittenbyoneSaemund，surnam’dFrodeorthewise；whoinnineyears’
travelthroughItaly，GermanyandEnglandhadamass’dtogetheramightyCollectionofHistoricalTreatises。Withthesehereturn’dfullfraughtintoIsland；wherehealsodrewupanaccountoftheaffairsofhisownCountry。ManyofhisWorksarenowsaidtobelost：ButthereisstillanEdda，consistingofseveralOdeswhenceIsuspectitsNameisderivedwrittenbymanyseveralhands，andatdifferenttimes，whichbearshisName。
TheBookisaCollectionofMythologicalFables，relatingtotheancientStateandBehaviouroftheGreatWodenandhisfollowers，intermspoeticalandadaptedtotheServiceofthosethatwereemploy’dinthecomposureoftheiroldRhymesandSonnets。
“ThereislikewiseextantacoupleofNorwegianHistoriesofgoodAuthenticCredit；whichexplainsagreatmanyparticularsrelatingtotheExploitsoftheDanishKingsinGreatBritain，whichourownHistorianshaveeitherwhollyomittedorverydarklyrecorded。Theformerofthesewaswrittensoonaftertheyear1130，byoneTheodoricaMonk，whoacknowledgeshiswholeFabricktobebuiltuponTradition，andthattheoldNorthernHistoryisnowherenowtobehadsaveonlyabIslendingorumantiquisCarminibus。
“’TisaverydiscouragingCensurewhichSirWilliamTemplepassesuponalltheAccountsgivenusoftheAffairsofthisIsland，beforetheRomanscameandInvadedit。TheTalessayshewehaveofwhatpass’dbeforeCaesar’sTime，ofBruteandhisTrojans，ofmanyAdventuresandSuccessions，arecover’dwiththeRustofTime，orInvolv’dintheVanityofFablesorpretendedTraditions；
whichseemtoallMenobscureoruncertain，buttobeforgedatpleasurebytheWitorFollyoftheirfirstAuthors，andnottoberegarded。Andagain；
IknowfewancientAuthorsuponthisSubjectoftheBritishHistoryworththepainsofperusal，andofDividingorRefiningsolittleGoldoutofsomuchcourseOar，orfromsomuchDross。ButsomeotherInferiourPeoplemaythinkthisworththeirpains；sinceallMenarenotborntobeAmbassadors：
And，accordingly，wearetoldofaveryEminentAntiquarywhohasthoughtfittogivehisLaboursinthiskindtheTitleofAurum，exStercore。
There’sadealofServileDrudgeryrequir’dtotheDiscoveryoftheseriches，andsuchaseveryBodywillnotstoopto：forfewStatesmenandCourtiersasoneislatelysaidtohaveobserv’dinhisownCasecarefortravellinginIreland，orWales，purelytolearntheLanguage。
“AdiligentEnquirerintoouroldBritishAntiquitieswouldratherobservewithIndustriousLeland
thatthepoorBritains，beingharass’dbythoseRomanConquerourswithcontinualWars，couldneitherhaveleisurenorthoughtforthepenningofaRegularHistory：andthatafterwardstheirBack-Friends，theSaxons，wereforagoodwhileanIlliterateGeneration；andmindednothingbutKillingandtakingPossession。Sothat’tisawonderthatevensomuchremainsoftheStoryofthoseTimesasthesorryFragmentsofGildas；whoappearstohavewritteninsuchaConsternation，thatwhathehasleftuslooksmoreliketheDeclamationofanOrator，hiredtoexposethemiserableWretches，thananyHistoricalAccountoftheirSufferings。”
Palgraveassertsthatreadingandwritingwerenolongermysteriesafterthepaganage，butwerestillacquirementsalmostwhollyconfinedtotheclergy。
Theword“clericus“or“clerk。”becamesynonymouswithpenman，thesenseinwhichitisstillmostusuallyemployed。Ifamancouldwrite，orevenread，hisknowledgewasconsideredasproofpresumptivethathewasinholyorders。Ifkingsandgreatmenhadoccasiontoauthenticateanydocument，theysubscribedthe“sign“ofthecrossoppositetotheplacewherethe“clerk“hadwrittentheirname。Hencewesay，tosignadeedoraletter。
BooksMSS。wereextremelyrareamongsttheScandinavianandnorthernnations。BeforetheircommunicationwiththeLatinmissionaries，woodappearstohavebeenthematerialuponwhichtheirruneswerechieflywritten：andtheverb“write。”
whichisderivedfromaTeutonicroot，signifyingtoscratchortear，isoneofthetestimoniesoftheusage。
Theirpoemsweregravenuponsmallstavesorrods，onelineuponeachfaceoftherod；andtheOldEnglishword“stave。”asappliedtoastanza，isprobablyarelicofthepractice，which，intheearlyages，prevailedintheWest。Vellumorparchmentafterwardssuppliedtheplaceofthesematerials。Realpaper，manufacturedfromthepellicleoftheEgyptianreedorpapyras，wasstillusedoccasionallyinItaly，butitwasseldomexportedtothecountriesbeyondtheAlps；andtheelaboratepreparationofthevellum，uponwhichmuchgreatercarewasbestowedthaninthemodernmanufacture，rendereditacostlyarticle；
somuchso，thatapainstakingclerkcouldfinditworthhiswhiletoerasethewritingofanoldbook，inordertousetheblankpagesforanothermanuscript。
Thebooksthusrewrittenwerecalled“codicesrescripti。”
or“palimpsests。”Theevanescenttracesofthefirstlayerofcharactersmayoccasionallybediscernedbeneaththemorerecenttextwhichhasbeenimposeduponthem。
InIreland，firstknownastheIsleofSaints，wasfoundedintheseventhcenturyagreatschooloflearningwhichincludedwritingandilluminating，whichpassedtotheEnglishbywayofthemonasteriescreatedbyIrishmonksinScotland。TheirearliestexistingMSS。aresaidtobelongtothatperiod。IntheIrishscriptoriumsroomsorcellsforwritingoftheBenedictinemonasterieswheretheywereprepared，soparticularwerethemonksthatthescribeswereforbiddentouseartificiallightforfearofinjuringthemanuscripts。
MostinterestingandentertainingaretheobservationsofFalconerMadan，amodernscholarofsomerepute。Ofthehistoryofwritingininkduringthe“DarkAges“hesays：
“Intheseventhandeighthcenturieswefindthefirsttendencytoformnationalhands，resultingintheMerovingianorFrankishhand，theLombardicofItaly，andtheVisigothicofSpain。Thesearethefirstdifficultbandswhichweencounter；andwhenwerememberthattheobjectofwritingistobeclearanddistinct，andthatthetestofagoodstyleisthatitseizesontheessentialpointsinwhichlettersdiffer，andputsasidetheflourishesandornamentswhichdisguisethesimpleform，weshallseehowmuchastronginfluencewasneededtopreventwritingfrombecomingobscureanddegraded。
ThatinfluencewasfoundinCharlestheGreat。
“InthefieldofwritingithasbeengrantedtonopersonbutCharlestheGreattoinfluenceprofoundlythehistoryofthealphabet。WithrareinsightandrarertastehediscountenancedtheprevalentMerovingianhand，andsubstitutedineclectichand，knownastheCarolingianMinuscule，whichwaystillberegardedasamodelofclearnessandelegance。ThechiefinstrumentinthisreformwasAlcuinofYork，whomCharlesplaced，partlyforthispurpose，attheheadoftheSchoolofToursinA。D。796。TheselectionofanEnglishmanforthepostnaturallyleadsustoinquirewhathandswerethenusedinEngland，andwhatamountofEnglishinfluencetheCarolingianMinuscule，thefoundationofourmodernstyles，exhibits。
“IfwegazeinwonderonthepersonalinfluenceofCharlestheGreatinreforminghandwriting，weshallbestillmorestruckbythespectaclepresentedtousbyIrelandinthesixth，seventhandeighthcenturies。Itisthegreatmarvelinthehistoryofwriting。Modernhistorianshaveatlastappreciatedtheblazeoflife，religions，literary，andartistic，whichwaskindledinthe’IsleofSaints’withinacenturyafterSt。Patrick’scomingaboutA。D。
450；howtheenthusiasmkindledbyChristianityintheCelticnaturesofartranscendedthelimitsoftheisland，andindeedofGreatBritain，thatIrishmissionariesandmonksweresoonfoundinthechiefreligiouscentresofGaul，Germany，Switzerland，andNorthItaly，whileforeignersfoundtheirtoilsomewaytoIrelandtolearnGreek！ButlessprominencehasbeengiventotheartisticsideofthisgreatreflexmovementfromWesttoEastthantotheothertwo。Thesimplefactsattestthatintheseventhcentury，whenourearliestexistingIrishMSS。werewritten，wefindnotonlyastyleofwritingorindeedtwodistinctive，national，andofahightypeofexcellence，butalsoaschoolofilluminationwhich，inthecombinedlinesofmechanicalaccuracyandintricacy，offertileinventionofformandfigureandofstrikingarrangementsofcolour，hasneverbeensurpassed。Andthisisintheseventhcentury——thenadiroftherestofEurope！
“ItiscertainthatAlcuinwastrainedinHiberno-
Saxoncalligraphy，sothatwemaybesurprisedtofindthatthewritingwhich，underCharlestheGreat，hedevelopedatTours，bearshardlyatraceofthestyletowhichhewasaccustomed。Enrevanche，intheornamentationandilluminationofthegreatCarolingianvolumeswhichhavecomedowntoourtimes，wefindthoseconstant，persistenttracesofEnglishandIrishworkwhichweseekforinvainintheplainerwriting。
“ThisminusculesupersededallothersalmostthroughouttheempireofCharlestheGreat，andduringtheninth，tenth，andeleventhcenturiesunderwentverylittlemodification。Eveninthetwonextcenturies，thoughitissubjecttogeneralmodification，nationaldifferencesarehardlyobservable，andwecanonlydistinguishtwolargedivisions，thegroupofNorthernEuropeEngland，NorthFrance，Italy，andSpain。Thetwoexceptionsare，thatGermany，bothinwritingandpainting，hasalwaysstoodapart，andlagsbehindtheothernationsofWesternEuropeinitsdevelopment，andthatEnglandretainsherHiberno-SaxonhandtillaftertheConquestof1066。Itmaybenotedthatthetwelfthcenturyproducedthefinestwritingeverknown——alarge，freeandflowingformoftheminusculeofTours。InthenextcenturycomesintheangularGothichand，thedifferencebetweenwhichandthetwelfthcenturyhandmaybefairlyunderstoodbyacomparisonofordinaryGermanandRomantype。Inthethirteenth，fourteenth，andfifteenthcenturiesthewritingofeachcenturymaybediscerned，whilethegeneraltendencyistowardscomplication，useofabbreviationsandcontractions，anddevelopmentofunessentialparasiticformsofletters。
“TheBookofKells，thechieftreasureofTrinityCollege，Dublin，isso-calledfromhavingbeenlongpreservedattheMonasteryofKells，foundedbyColumbahimself。Stolenfromthence，iteventuallypassedintoArchbishopUssher’shands，and，withotherpartsofhislibrary，toDublin。ThevolumecontainstheFourGospelsinLatin，ornamentedwithextraordinaryfreedom，elaboration，andbeauty。Writtenapparentlyintheseventhcentury，itexhibits，bothinformandcolour，allthesignsofthefulldevelopmentandmaturityoftheIrishstyle，andmustofnecessityhavebeenprecededbyseveralgenerationsofartisticworkers，whofoundedandimprovedthisparticularschoolofart。ThefollowingwordsofProfessorWestwood，whofirstdrewattentiontothepeculiarexcellencesofthisvolume，willjustifytiletermsmadeuseofabove：’ThiscopyoftheGospels，traditionallyassertedtohavebelongedtoColumba，isunquestionablythemostelaboratelyexecutedMS。
ofearlyartnowinexistence，farexcelling，inthegiganticsizeofthelettersinthefrontispiecesoftheGospel，theexcessiveminutenessoftheornamentaldetails，thenumberofitsdecorations，thefinenessofthewriting，andtheendlessvarietyofinitialcapitalletterswithwhicheverypageisornamented，thefamousGospelsofLindisfarneintheCottonianLibrary。ButthisMS。isstillmorevaluableonaccountofthevariouspictorialrepresentationsofdifferentscenesinthelifeofourSaviour，delineatedinastyletotallyunlikethatofeveryotherschool。’“
CHAPTERVII。
EARLYMEDIAEVALINK。
CONTROVERSIESAMONGHEBREWSCHOLARSRELATINGTO
RITUALISTICINKS——THECLASSOFINKSEMPLOYEDBY
THEFRENCHANDGERMANJEWS——CONVENTIONOF
REPRESENTATIVESFROMJEWISHCENTERS——SUBMISSION
OFTHEIRDIFFERENCESTOMAIMONIDES——HEDEFINES
TALMUDICINK——SIXTHCENTURYREFERENCETO
“GALL“INK——ASSERTIONOFHOTZ-OSTERWALDTHAT
EXCLUSIVEOFTHEINDIANINK，THEWRITINGPIGMENTS
OFANTIQUITYHAVENEVERBEENINVESTIGATED——HIS
BELIEFTHATYEASTFORMEDAPORTION
OFTHEM——SOMEOTHEROBSERVATIONSONTHIS
SUBJECT——ANCIENTFORMULASABOUTTHELEESOF
WINEININK-MAKING——COMMENTSONINK-MAKINGBY
PLINY——ANCIENTFORMULAOFPOMEGRANATEINK——
SECRETABYTHEMONKTHEOPHILUS——WHATTHE，THORNTREEHEREFERSTOREALLYIS——IDENTITYOF
THEMYROBOLAMINKOFTHEMOSTREMOTEANTIQUITY
WITHTHEPOMEGRANATEINKOFTHEMIDDLEAGES——
THEUSESOFTHEACACIATREE。
MOSTofthedocumentsofearlymediaevaltimeswhichremaintouscontaininginkinfairlygoodcondition，likecharters，protocols，bulls，wills，diplomas，andthelike，werewrittenorengrossedwith“Indian“
ink，inwhichrespectweofthepresentcenturycontinuetofollowsuchestablishedprecedentwhenpreparingimportantwritteninstruments。Itisnotremarkable，therefore，thattheblackinksoftheseventh，eighth，ninthandtenthcenturiespreservetheirblacknesssomuchbetterthanmanybelongingtosucceedingages，includinganewclassofinkswhichcouldnotstandthetestoftime。
DuringthetwelfthandfirstyearsofthethirteenthcenturiestherewerebittercontroversiesamongTalmudicHebrewscholars，relativetothecharacteroftheinktobeemployedinthepreparationofritualisticwritings。NicedistinctionsweredrawnastotherealmeaningoftheworddeyoasunderstoodbytheJewsofthewesternpartoftheworld，andtheArabicwordalchiber，asthenunderstoodnearerPalestineandtheothereasterncountries。