TheFrenchJewswereusing“tusche“typicalofthe“Indian“ink，whiletheGermanswereemploying“pomegranate“and“gall“inks。RepresentativesfrominterestedreligiousJewishcenterscametogetherandresolvedtosubmittheirdifferencesforfinaladjustmenttoMaimonides，borninSpain，A。D。
1130，anddiedA。D。1204——thethengreatestlivingHebrewtheologianandauthorityonbiblicalandrabbinicallaws。Discardingallsideissues，theirdifferenceswereseeminglyincorporatedintothreequestionsandthuspropoundedtohim：
1。IstheTalmudicdeyoidenticalwithalchiber？
2。OfwhatingredientshouldtheTalmudicdeyoconsist，ifitisnotthesameasalchiber？
3。Isalchibertobeunderstoodasrelatingtothegall-appleandchalkanthumbluevitriol？
TothefirstandthirdquestionsMaimonidesdeclaredthatdeyoandalchiberwerenotidentical；
andforthereasonsthattheTalmuddeclaresdeyotobeawritingmaterialwhichdoesnotremainonthesurfaceonwhichitisplacedandtobeeasilyeffaced。
Ontheotherhandalchibercontainsgumandotherthingswhichcausesittoadheretothewritingsurface。
TothesecondquestionheaffirmedthattheTalmuddistinguishesadoublekindofdeyo，onecontaininglittleornogumandbeingafluid，andtheotherreferringto“pulverizedcoalofthevine，sootfromburningoliveoil，tar，rosinandhoney，pressedintoplatestobedissolvedinwaterwhenwantedforuse。”
Furthermore，whiletheTalmudexcludestheuseofcertaininksofwhichironvitriolwasone，itdoesnotexcludeatramentum，chalkanthum，coppervitriol，becausetheTalmudneverspeaksofit。HeinsistedthattheTalmudrequiresadryinkdeyo。
AsoneofthelastentriesmadeintheTalmudagreatcollectionoflegaldecisionsbytheancientRabbis，Hebrewtraditions，etc。，andbelievedtohavebeencommencedinthesecondcenturyoftheChristianeraisclaimedtobelongtothesixthcentury，mentionsgall-applesandironcoppervitriol，itmusthavereferredto“gall“ink。FurtherinvestigationdisclosesthefactthatsuchgallswereofChineseoriginandasweknowtheydonotcontainthenecessaryfermentwhichthealeppoandothergallspossessforinducingatransformationofthetanninintogallicacid，nocompleteunioncouldthereforeobtain。
Hencethevalueofthiscompositionwaslimiteduntilthetimewhenyeastandothermaterialswereintroducedtoovercomeitsdeficiencies。
Hotz-OsterwaldofZurich，antiquarianandscholar，hasassertedthatwiththeexceptionofthecarboninksemployedonpapyrus，thewritingpigmentsofantiquityandtheMiddleAgeshavescarcelybeeninvestigated。Thedarktolight-brownpigment，hithertoaproblem，universallyusedonparchment，hecontendsuponhistorical，chemicalandmicroscopicevidenceisidenticalwithoeno-cyaninandwaspreparedforthemostpartfromyeast，andwasfirstemployedasapigment。Contrarytothegeneralopinionitcontainsnoiron，exceptfrequentlyaccidentaltraces，andafteritsappearanceinGreeceinthethirdcentury，itformedalmostexclusivelytheinkoftheancientmanuscripts，untildisplacedbythegallateinks，saidtohavebeenintroducedbytheArabians。Theseaccidentaltracesofironwereduetotheemploymentofironvesselsinthemakingoftheink。
MyownobservationsinthisdirectionconfirmandestablishthefactthatitwasthecustomintheearlycenturiesoftheChristianeratoutilizeyeastorananalogouscompoundaspartofthecompositionofink，towhichwasaddedsepia，ortherindofthepomegranateapplepreviouslydissolvedbyheatinalkalinesolutions。
Thisanalogouscompoundwasprobablythematerialprocuredfromwineleesdregs，depositedafterfermentationhascommenced，andwhichafterconsiderableapplicationofheatyieldsnotonlymostofthetannincontainedinthestonesandfruitstalks，butaviscidcompoundcharacteristicofgelatineandofared-purplecolorwhichincourseoftimechangestobrown。
Bloxamsaysthatthecoloringmatterofgrapesandofredwineappearstobe“cyanin。”
Oneofthemethodsoftreatingwinelees，astranslatedintheeighteenthcenturyfromanoldItaliansecreta，issufficientlycurioustopartlyquote：
“DrytheLeesdregsofwinewithagentlefireandfillwiththemtwothirdofalargeearthenRetort，placethisretortinareverberatoryfurnace，andfittingittoalargereceiver，giveasmallfiretoittoheattheRetortbydegrees，anddriveforthaninsipidphlegm；whenvapoursbegintorise，youmusttakeoutthephlegmandlutingcarefullythejuncturesofyourvessels，quickenthefirelittlebylittleuntilyoufindthereceiverfilledwithwhiteclouds；
continueitinthiscondition，andyouperceivethereceivertocool，raisethefiretotheutmostextremity，andcontinueitso，untiltherearisenomorevapours。Whenthevesselsarecoldunlutethereceiver，andshakingittomaketheVolatilesalt，whichstickstoit，falltothebottom，pouritallintoabolt-head；fitittoaHeadwithasmallreceiver；
lutewellthejuncturesandplacingitinsand，givealittlefireunderit，andthevolatilesaltwillriseandsticktothehead，andthetopoftheBolt-head；takeoffyourheadandsetonanotherinitsplace；gatheryoursaltandstopittipquickly，foriteasilydissolvesintoaliquor；continuethefire，andtakecaretogathertheSaltaccordingasyouseeitappear；butwhenthererisesnomoresalt，aliquorwilldistill，ofwhichyoumustdrawaboutthreeounces，andputoutthefire。”&c。
The“leesofwine。”inconnectionwiththeancientmethodsofink-makingisalsoreferredtobytheyoungerPlinyinhistwenty-fifthbook，whichtheEdinburghReviewhascarefullytranslatedandprinted：
“INKorliterallyBLACKING——Inkalsomaybesetdownamongtheartificialorcompound
drugs，althoughitisamineralderivedfromtwosources。For，itissometimesdevelopedintheformofasalineefflorescence，——orisarealmineralofsulphureouscolor——chosenforthispurpose。
TherehavebeenpainterswhodugupfromgravescoloredcoalsCARBON。Butalltheseareuselessandnew-fanglednotions。Foritismadefromsootinvariousforms，asforinstanceofburntrosinorpitch。Forthispurpose，theyhavebuiltmanufactoriesnotemittingthatsmoke。Theinkoftheverybestqualityismadefromthesmokeoftorches。Aninferiorarticleismadefromthesootoffurnacesandbath-housechimneys。Therearesomemanufacturersalso，whoemploythedriedleesofwine；andtheydosaythatiftheleessoemployedwerefromgoodwine，thequalityoftheinkistherebymuchimproved。PolygnotusandMicon，celebratedpaintersatAthens，madetheirblackpaintfromburntgrape-vines；theygaveitthenameofTRYGYNON。APELLES，wearetold，madeHISfromburntivory，andcalleditelephantina’ivory-black。’Indigohasbeenrecentlyimported，——
asubstancewhosecompositionIhavenotyetinvestigated。Thedyersmaketheirsfromthedarkcrustthatgraduallyaccumulatesonbrass-kettles。
Inkismadealsofromtorchespine-knots，andfromcharcoalpoundedfineinmortars。’Thecuttlefish’hasaremarkablequalifyinthisrespect；
butthecoloring-matterwhichitproducesisnotusedinthemanufactureofink。Allinkisimprovedbyexposuretothesun’srays。Book-writers’
inkhasgummixedwithit，——weavers’inkismadeupwithglue。Inkwhosematerialshavebeenliquifiedbytheagencyofanacidiserasedwithgreatdifficulty。”
Therearebutfewexceptionsrespectingthegeneralsamenessofinkreceiptsofthesucceedingcenturies，oneofwhichisthe“Pomegranate。”creditedtotheseventhcenturybutreallybelongingtoanearlierperiod：
“OfthedriedPommegraniteapplerindtakeanounce，boilitinapintofwateruntil3/4begone；add1/2pintofsmallbeerwortandoncemoreboilitawaysothatonlya1/4pintremain。
Afteryoushallhavestrainedit，boilinghotthroughalinnenclothanditcomescold，beingthenofaglutinousconsistence，dropina’bit’ofSalAlkaliandaddasmuchwarmwateraswillbringittoaduefluidityandagoldbrowncolorforwritingwithapen。”
Followingthisformulaandwithoutanymodifications，Iobtainedanexcellentinkofdurablequality，butofpoorcolor，fromastandpointofblackness。
Alessancient“Secreta。”signedbytheItalianmonk“Theophilus。”wholivedaboutthecommencementoftheeleventhcentury，ismostinteresting：
“Tomakeink，cutforyourselfwoodofthethorn-treesinAprilorMay，beforetheyproduceflowersorleaves，andcollectingtheminsmallbundles，allowthemtolieintheshadefortwo，three，orfourweeks，untiltheyaresomewhatdry。Thenhavewoodenmallets，withwhichyoubeatthesethornsuponanotherpieceofhardwood，untilyoupeeloffthebarkeverywhere，putwhichimmediatelyintoabarrelfulofwater。Whenyouhavefilledtwo，orthree，orfour，orfivebarrelswithbarkandwater，allowthemsotostandforeightdays，untilthewatersimbibeallthesapofthebark。
Afterwardsputthiswaterintoaverycleanpan，orintoacauldron，andfirebeingplacedunderit，boilit；fromtimetotime，also，throwintothepansomeofthisbark，sothatwhateversapmayremaininitmaybeboiledout。Whenyouhavecookeditalittle，throwitout，andagainputinmore；whichdone，boildowntheremainingwateruntoathirdpart，andthenpouringitoutofthispan，putitintoonesmaller，andcookituntilitgrowsblackandbeginstothicken；addonethirdpartofpurewine，andputtingitintotwoorthreenewpots，cookituntilyouseeasortofskinshowitselfonthesurface；thentakingthesepotsfromthefire，placetheminthesununtiltheblackinkpurifiesitselffromthereddregs。Afterwardstakesmallbagsofparchmentcarefullysewn，andbladders，andpouringinthepureink，suspendtheminthesununtilallisquitedry；Andwhendry，takefromitasmuchasyouwish，andtemperitwithwineoverthefire，and，addingalittlevitriol，write。
But，ifitshouldhappenthroughnegligencethatyourinkbenotblackenough，takeafragmentofthethicknessofafingerandputtingitintothefire，allowittoglow，andthrowitdirectlyintotheink。”
Afterrecitingmanyreceiptswhichpertaintootherarts，thisgoodoldmonkconcludes：
“Whenyoushallhavere-readthisoften，andhavecommittedittoyourtenaciousmemory，youshallthusrecompensemeforthiscareofinstruction，that，asoftenasyoushallsuccessfullyhavemadeuseofmywork，youprayformeforthepityofomnipotentGod，whoknowsthatIhavewrittenthesethingswhichareherearranged，neitherthroughloveofhumanapprobation，northroughdesireoftemporalreward，norhaveIstolenanythingpreciousorrarethroughenviousjealousy，norhaveIkeptbackanythingreservedformyselfalone；but，inaugmentationofthehonourandgloryofHisname，Ihaveconsultedtheprogressandhastenedtoaidthenecessitiesofmanymen。”
The“thorn“treeswhichTheophilusmentionsareassertedbysomewriterswithwhomIdonotagreetobethosecommonlyknownasthe“Norwayspruce。”aspeciesofpineofloftyproportionssometimesrisingtotheheightof150feetwithatrunkfromfourtofivefeetindiameter。Itlivestoagreatagebelievedtoexceedinmanyinstances450years。
Theleavesneedles，thornsareshortbutstandthicklyuponthebranchesandareofaduskygreencolorshiningontheuppersurface；thefruitisnearlycylindricalinformandofapurplecolorcoveredwithscalesraggedattheedges。ItisanativeofEuropeandNorthernAsia。ItfurnishesthematerialknownasBurgundypitchwhichisobtainedbyremovingthejuicewhichissecretedinthebarkofthetree；itispurifiedbyameltingprocessandstrainingeitherthroughaclothoralayerofstraw。Itgivesforthapeculiarodornotunpleasant，resemblingturpentine。
TheBurgundypitchorrosinissolubleinhotalcoholspiritsofwine。
Aninkpreparedafterthemethodlaiddownbythismonk，assumingthathereferredtothespruce-pine，whiletroublesometowritewith，wouldbealmostaslastingas“Indian“inkandwouldbemostdifficulttoerasefromparchmentintowhichitwouldbeabsorbedduetoitsalcoholicqualities。
“Theink。”remarksMontfaucon，“whichweseeinthemostancientGreekmanuscripts，hasevidentlylostmuchofitspristineblackness；yetneitherhasitbecomealtogetheryelloworfaint，butisrathertawnyordeepred，andoftennotfarfromavermillion。”
Whiletherearesomemonumentsofthiskindofinkinfairconditionofthefourthandsucceedingcenturies，theyaggregatebutaverysmallproportionofthevastnumberofprincipallyIndianinkspecimenswhichremaintousofthoseepochs。Asexemplars，however，ofaforgottenclassofinksbelongingtoastillmoreremoteantiquity，carefulresearchadducescertainproofoftheirexistencemorethanninehundredyearsbeforetheChristianeracommenced。
ReferencehasearlierbeenmadetotheancientMyrobolamink，whichwascharacteristicallythesameincolorphenomenaasthosewhichMontfauconmentions。
These“tawny“coloredinksIestimatewereproductsobtainedfromthe“thorn“treesspokenofbythemonkTheophilus。Thethorntreeswereoftwospecies。Thepomegranate，ancientlycalledthe“Punicapple。”becauseitwaslargelyemployedbytheCarthageniansforthepurposesofdyeingandtanning；andtheacacia，knowninEgyptiantimesasthelotus。TheformerwasheldinsuchhighesteemthattheArabiansandEgyptiansmadeitanemblemtodesignateoneoftheirdietiesandtermeditraman。
Theproductsofthesethorn，treeswerecollectivelyusedtogetherasink，mostofthetanninbeingobtainedfromthepomegranate，andthegumfromtheacacia。
CHAPTERVIII。
MEDIAEVALINK。
INKSECRETASOFTHETWELFTHCENTURYCOMPAREDWITH
EARLIERONES——APPEARANCEOFTANNO-GALLATEOF
IRONINKINTHETWELFTHCENTURY——ITSINTRODUCTION
LOCATESTHEEPOCHWHENTHEMODERNINKOF
TO-DAYFIRSTCAMEINTOVOGUE——ITSAPPROVALAND
ADOPTIONBYTHEFATHERSOFTHECHURCH——THE
INVENTIONNOTITALIANBUTASIATIC——ITSARRIVAL
FROMASIAFROMTHEWESTANDNOTTHEEAST——APPEARANCE
ABOUTTHESAMETIMEOFLINENORMODERN
PAPER——SETTLEMENTOFOLDCONTROVERSIESABOUT
ANCIENTSO-CALLEDCOTTONPAPER-DEVINNE’SCOMMENT
ABOUTPAPERANDPAPER-MAKING——CURIOUS
CONTRACTOFTHEFOURTEENTHCENTURY。
THE“Secretas“ofthetwelfthcentury，insofarastheyrelatetomethodsofmakingink，indicatemanydeparturesfromthosecontainedinthemoreancientones。Frequentmentionismadeofsourgalls，aleppogalls，greenandbluevitriol，theleesofwine，blackamber，sugar，fish-glueandahostofunimportantmaterialsasbeingemployedintheadmixtureofblackinks。Combinationsofsomeofthesematerialsareexpressedinformulas，themostimportantoneofwhichdetailswithgreatparticularitythecomminglingtogetherofaninfusionofnut-galls，greenvitriolsulphateofironandfish-glueisinglass；thetwofirsttanno-gallateofironwhenusedalone，formsthesolebaseofallunadulterated“gall“inks。
Datesareappendedtosomeoftheseinkandotherformulas。The“tanno-gallateofiron“onehas，however，nodate。ButasitappearscloselyfollowingadateofA。D。1126，itmusthavebeenwrittenaboutthattime。
Documents，publicandprivate，bearingdatesnearlycontemporarywiththatera，writtenininkofliketype，arestillextant，confirminginaremarkabledegreethe“Secreta“formula，andestablishingthefactthatthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcenturymarkstheepochinwhichthe“gall“ormoderninkoftodaycameintovogue。
ItsadoptionbythepriestsstampeditwiththesealoftheChurchandthearrivalfromtheWestaboutthesameperiodofflaxorlinenpaperwiththeaddedfactthattheseassimilatedsowelltogether，laterplacedthembothonthepopularbasiswhichhascontinuedtothepresenttime。
WhiletheSecretawhichcontainsthe“gall“inkformulaisofItalianorigin，theinventionofthisinkbelongssolelytoanAsiaticcountry，fromwhenceingradualstagesbywayofArabia，SpainandFrance，itfinallyreachedRome。Thence，throughtheChurch，informationaboutitwasconveyedtowherevercivilizationexisted。
WearenotconfinedinourinvestigationsofancientMSS。toanyparticularlocalityordate，asthetwelfth，thirteenth，fourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesareprolificof“gall“inkmonumentscoveringanimmenseterritory。Suchinkswhenusedunadulterated，remaininanalmostpristinecolorcondition；whiletheotherinkstowhichsomepigmentorcolorhadbeenadded，probablytomakethemmoreagreeableinappearanceandmorefree-flowing，withamistakenideaofimprovingthem，aremuchdiscoloredandineveryinstancepresentbutslightindicationsoftheiroriginalcondition。
Thequestionofthecharacterofthepaperemployedduringtheseeras，composedofdifferentkindsoffibrousvegetablesubstances，possessessomeimportancewhendiscussingitsrelationshiptoinks。Manyauthorscertifytothemanufactureanduseof“cotton“
intheeleventh，twelfthandlatercenturies。
Madan，however，intreatingthissubject，makesthefollowingcommentswhichareinlinewithmyownobservations：
“Paperhasforlongbeenthecommonsubstanceformiscellaneouspurposesofordinarywriting，andhasatalltimesbeenformedexclusivelyfromragschieflyoflinenreducedtopull，pouredoutonaframeinathinwaterysheet，andgraduallydriedandgivenconsistencebytheactionofheat。Ithasbeenapopularbelief，foundineverybooktill1886nowentirelydisproved，butprobablydestinedtodiehard，thatthecommonyellowishthickpaper，withroughfibrousedge，foundespeciallyinGreekMSS。tillthefifteenthcentury，waspaperofquiteanothersort，andmadeofcottonchartabombycna，bombyxbeingusuallysilk，butalsousedofanyfinefibresuchascotton。Themicroscopehasatlastconclusivelyshownthatthesetwopapersaresimplytwodifferentkindsofordinarylinen-ragpaper。”
DeVinnespeaking，ofpaperandpaper-makingsays：
“Thegradualdevelopmentofpaper-makinginEuropeisbutimperfectlypresentedthroughthesefragmentaryfacts。Papermayhavebeenmadeformanyyearsbeforeitfoundchroniclerswhothoughtthemanufactureworthyofnotice。TheSpanishpaper-millsofToledowhichwereatworkintheyear1085，andanancientfamilyofpaper-makerswhichwashonoredwithmarkedfavorbythekingofSicilyintheyear1102，arecarelesslymentionedbycontemporarywritersasifpaper-makingwasanoldandestablishedbusiness。Itdoesnotappearthatpaperwasanoveltyatamuchearlierperiod。
Thebullsofthepopesoftheeighthandninthcenturieswerewrittenoncottoncardorcottonpaper，butnowritercalledattentiontothiscard，ordescribeditasanewmaterial。IthasbeensupposedthatthispaperwasmadeinAsia，butitcouldhavebeenmadeinEurope。Apaper-likefabric，madefromthebarksoftrees，wasusedforwritingbytheLongobardsintheseventhcentury，andacoarseimitationoftheEgyptianpapyrus，intheformofastrongbrownpaper，hadbeenmadebytheRomansasearlyasthethirdcentury。TheartofcompactinginawebthemaceratedfibresofplantsseemstohavebeenknownandpractisedtosomeextentinSouthernEuropelongbeforetheestablishmentofMoorishpaper-mills。
“TheMoorsbroughttoSpainandSicilynotanentirelynewinvention，butanimprovedmethodofmakingpaper，andwhatwasmoreimportant，acultureandcivilizationthatkeptthismethodinconstantexercise。ItwaschieflyforthelackofabilityandlackofdispositiontoputpapertoproperusethattheearlierEuropeanknowledgeofpaper-
makingwassobarrenofresults。Theartofbook-
makingasitwasthenpractisedwasmadesubservienttothespiritofluxurymorethantothedesireforknowledge。Vellumwasregardedbythecopyistastheonlysubstancefitforwritingon，evenwhenitwassoscarcethatitcouldbeusedonlyforthemostexpensivebooks。Thecard-likecottonpaperoncemadebytheSaracenswascertainlyknowninEuropeformanyyearsbeforeitsutilitywasrecognized。Hallamsaysthattheuseofthiscottonpaperwasbynomeansgeneralorfrequent，exceptinSpainorItaly，andperhapsinthesouthofFrance，untiltheendofthefourteenthcentury。
NorwasitmuchusedinItalyforbooks。
“Papercamebeforeitstimeandhadtowaitforrecognition。Itwassorelyneeded。TheEgyptianmanufactureofpapyrus，whichwasinastateofdecayintheseventhcentury，ceasedentirelyintheninthortenth。Notmanybookswerewrittenduringthisperiod，buttherewasthen，andforatleastthreecenturiesafterwards，anunsatisfieddemandforsomethingtowriteupon。Parchmentwassoscarcethatrecklesscopyistsfrequentlyresortedtothedesperateexpedientofeffacingthewritingonoldandlightlyesteemedmanuscripts。Itwasnotadifficulttask。Thewritinginkthenusedwasusuallymadeoflamp-black，gumandvinegar；itithadbutafeebleencausticproperty，anditdidnotbiteinorpenetratetheparchment。Theworkofeffacingthisinkwasaccomplishedbymoisteningtheparchmentwithaweakalkalinesolutionandbyrubbingitwithpumicestone。Thistreatmentdidnotentirelyobliteratethewriting，butmadeitsoindistinctthattheparchmentcouldbewrittenoverthesecondtime。Manuscriptssotreatedarenowknownaspalimpsests。AllthelargeEuropeanpubliclibrarieshavecopiesofpalimpsests，whicharemelancholyillustrationsoftheliterarytastesofmanywritersorbookmakersduringtheMiddleAges。Moreconvincinglythanbyargumenttheyshowtheutilityofpaper。ManuscriptsoftheGospels，oftheIliad，andofworksofthehighestmerit，oftenofgreatbeautyandaccuracy，aredimlyseenunderneathstupidsermons，andtheologicalwritingsofanaturesopaltrythatnomanlivingcarestoreadthem。InSomeinstancesthefirstwritinghasbeensothoroughlyscrubbedoutthatitsmeaningisirretrievablylost。
“Muchaspaperwasneeded，itwasnotatallpopularwithcopyists；theirprejudicewasnotaltogetherunreasonable，foritwasthick，coarse，knotty，andineverywayunfittedforthedisplayorornamentalpenmanshiporillumination。Thecheaperquality，thenknownascottonpaper，wasespeciallyobjectionable。
Itseemstohavebeensobadlymadeastoneedgovernmentalinterference。FrederickII，ofGermany，intheyear1221，foreseeingevilsthatmightarisefrombadpaper，madeadecreebywhichhemadeinvalidallpublicdocumentsthatshouldbeputoncottonpaper，andorderedthemwithintwoyearstobetranscribeduponparchment。
PeterII，ofSpain，intheyear1338，publiclycommandedthepaper-makersofValenciaandXativatomaketheirpaperofabetterqualityandequaltothatofanearlierperiod。
“Thebetterqualityofpaper，nowknownaslinenpaper，hadthemeritsofstrength，flexibility，anddurabilityinahighdegree，butitwassetasidebythecopyistsbecausethefabricwastoothickandthesurfacewastoorough。Theartofcalenderingorpolishingpapersuntiltheywereofasmooth，glossysurface，whichwasthenpractisedbythePersians，wasunknownto，oratleastunpractisedby，theearlyEuropeanmakers。Thechangesorfashionintheselectionofwritingpapersareworthyofpassingnotice。Theroughhand-madepaperssoheartilydespisedbythecopyistsofthethirteenthcenturyarenowpreferredbyneatpenmenandskilleddraughtsmen。
Theimitationsofmediaevalpaper，thick，harsh，anddingy，andshowingthemarksofthewiresuponwhichthefabricwascouched，arepreferredbymenoflettersforbooksandforcorrespondence，whilehighlypolishedmodernplatepapers，withsurfacesmuchmoreglossythananypreparationofvellum，arenowrejectedbythemasfinicalandeffeminate。
“Thereisapopularnotionthattheso-calledinventionsofpaperandxylographicprintingweregladlywelcomedbymenofletters，andthatthenewfabricandthenewartwereimmediatelypressedintoservice。Thefactsabouttobepresentedinsucceedingchapterswillleadtoadifferentconclusion。Weshallseethatthemakersofplayingcardsandofimageprintswerethemenwhofirstmadeextendeduseofprinting，andthatself-taughtandunprofessionalcopyistswerethemenwhogaveencouragementtothemanufactureofpaper。Themoreliberaluseofpaperatthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturybythisnewly-
createdclassofreadersandbook-buyersmarkstheperiodoftransitionandofmentalandmechanicaldevelopmentforwhichthecrudeartsofpaper-
makingandofblackprintinghadbeenwaitingforcenturies。WeshallalsoseethatifpaperhadbeeneversocheapandcommonduringtheMiddleAges，itwouldhaveworkednochangesineducationorliterature；itcouldnothavebeenusedbythepeople，fortheyweretooilliterate；itwouldnothavebeenusedbytheprofessionalcopyists，fortheypreferredvellumanddespisedthesubstitute。
“Thescarcityofvelluminonecentury，anditsabundanceinanother，areindicatedbythesizeofwrittenpapersduringthesameperiods。Beforethesixthcentury，legaldocumentsweregenerallywrittenupononesideonly；inthetenthcenturythepracticeofwritinguponbothsidesofthevellumbecamecommon。Duringthethirteenthcenturyvaluabledocumentswereoftenwrittenuponstripstwoincheswideandbutthreeandahalfincheslong。Attheendofthefourteenthcenturythesestripswentoutoffashion。Themoregeneraluseofpaperhaddiminishedthedemandforvellumandincreasedthesupply。Inthefifteenthcentury，legaldocumentsonrollsofsewedvellumtwentyfeetinlengthwerenotuncommon。Allthevaluablebooksofthefourteenthcenturywerewrittenonvellum。InthelibraryoftheLouvrethemanuscriptsonpaper，comparedtothoseonvellum，wereasonetotwenty-eight；inthelibraryoftheDukesofBurgundy，one-fifthofthebookswereofpaper。
Theincreaseintheproportionofpaperbooksisafairindicationoftheincreasingpopularityofpaper；
butitisobviousthatvellumwaseventhenconsideredasthemoresuitablesubstanceforabookofvalue。”
Thecuriouscontractbelongingtothefourteenthcenturywhichfollows，isaliteralcopyoftheoriginal。
Itdoesnotseemtospecifywhetherthebookistobemadeofvellumorpaper。Inotherrespectstheminutedetailsnodoubtpreventedanymisunderstandingbetweenthecontractingparties。
“August26th，1346——ThereappearedRobertBrekeling，scribe，andsworethathewouldobservethecontractmadebetweenhimandSirJohnForber，viz。，thatthesaidRobertwouldwriteonePsalterwiththeKalenderfortheworkofthesaidSirJohnfor5s。and6d。；andinthesamePsalter，inthesamecharacter，aPlaceboandaDirige，withaHymnalandCollectary，for4s。and3d。AndthesaidRobertwillilluminate’luminabet’allthePsalmswithgreatgildedletterslaidinwithcolours；andallthelargelettersoftheHymnalandCollectarywillheilluminatewithgoldandvermillion，exceptthegreatlettersofdoublefeasts，whichshallbeasthelargegiltlettersareinthePsalter。
Andallthelettersatthecommencementoftheversesshallbeilluminatedwithgoodazureandvermillion；
andallthelettersatthebeginningoftheNocturnsshallbegreatuncialuncialesletters，containingV。lines，buttheBeatusVirandDixitDominusshallcontainVI。orVII。lines；andfortheaforesaidilluminationandforcolourshe[John]
willgive5s。6d。，andforgoldhewillgive18d。，and2s。foracloakandfurtrimming。Itemonerobe——onecoverlet，onesheet，andonepillow。”
CHAPTERIX。
ENDOFMEDIAEVALINK。
THESECRETASPRECEDEALCHEMYANDCHEMISTRY——EFFORT
TOIMPROVEGALLINKS——VARIATIONSININK
COLORS——THEUSEOFREDINKINTHENINTHAND
TENTHCENTURIES——COLORCOMPARISONSBETWEENINK
WRITINGSOFITALY，GERMANY，FRANCE，ENGLANDAND
SPAIN——HOWTODETERMINETHEANTIQUITYOF
MSS——PRACTICESWHICHOBTAINEDINMONASTICLIBRARIES
OFVARIOUSCOUNTRIES——KINDSOFINKEMPLOYED
INLITURGICALWRITINGS——THEPUBLICSCRIBES
ANDTHEIREMPLOYMENTS——EFFORTSTOCOUNTERFEIT
OLDSCRIPTINEARLYPRINTEDBOOKS——WHENTHEY
WEREABANDONED。
ITiswellknownthatalchemyprecededchemistryandhencetheSecretacamefirst。Whentheformulaformakingareal“gall“inkhadceasedtobeasecret，chemistrywasthenbutlittleunderstood。Itisnotamatterforwonder，therefore，tolearnthat“gall“inkofthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcenturywaslowingradeandpoorinquality。Itwasamuddyfluideasilyprecipitatedanditdeterioratedquickly。A
centuryormoreofexperimentingwasneededtomodifyorovercomedefects，aswellastogaininformationaboutthechemicalvalueofthedifferenttannins，therelativeproportionsofeachconstituentandthecorrectmethodsinitsadmixture。
Thereisnowrittenaccountofthisinkbeingmanufacturedasanindustryuntiloverthreehundredyearslater。Hence，asitappearssofrequentlyofvaryingdegreesofcolorondocumentsoftheinterveningcenturies，wearecompelledtoassumethatitwascompoundedbyindividualswhohadneitherchemicalknowledge，norwhohadmadeastudyorabusinessofink-making。Notwithstandingwhich，itsprogressseemstohavebeencomparativelyrapidandlikethesameinkofthepresentdaywastobeobtainedofanyqualityorkind，whetherunadulteratedorcontainingsomeaddedcolor。
Intenseblackorablacktingedwithred-browncharacterizesthecoloroftheinksfoundontheveryearliestMSS。Theirlastingcolorphenomena，duetotheemploymentoflampblackandkindredsubstancesevenafteralapseofsomanyages，isatthislatedayofnoparticularmomentastheybutprovethevirtuesofthedifferenttypesof“Indian“inks。
Adifferentsetoffactsareevidentintheinksofmediaevaltimeswhicharefoundtogreatlyvaryaccordingtotheiragesandlocality。Butfewblackinksoftheninthandtenthcenturiesremaintous。
IntheMSS。ofthosecenturiesaredinkwastheprevailingoneeventotheextentofentirevolumesbeingwrittenwithit。InItalyandmanyotherportionsofSouthernEuropespecimensnowextant，whencomparedwiththosebelongingtoGermanyandothermorenortherncountries，areseentobeblackerandthisisalsotruewhenthoseofFranceandEnglandarecompared，theblackerinksbelongingtoFrance。
Withthegradualdisappearanceoftheso-called“DarkAges。”theinkfoundonSpanishwrittenMSS。
ofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，arenotedlyofintenseblacknesswhilethoseofsomeoftheothercountriesappearofaratherfadedgraycolor，andinthesixteenthcentury，thisgraycoloreffectprevailedallovertheChristianworld。
TorevertagaintotheinkphenomenaofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieswhichareofItalianorigin。InnosectionofthatcountryorofEuropeduringthosecenturiesdoinkcreationspossess，insomarkedadegree，thevarietyofcolorqualitiesthatareseenonthoseofthecityofFlorence。IndeeditmaybetrulysaidthatduringthoseperiodsmoreinkwrittenMSS。wereproducedinthatplacethanalltherestofEurope。TheseproductionsofMSS。werenotconfinedtosimpleinkwritings。Theheadsofreligiousordersandrulersofthecountrylikedtohaveartistsnearthemtoilluminatetheirmissalsandsacredbooks，besidesthedecoratingofwallsintheirchurchesandpalaces。
ThroughthisartofilluminatingandthepaintingofminiaturesinMSS。books，“oil“paintingtookrootandthedayformeresymbolsandhieroglyphicswasover。
InthatcityofscholarsandwealthitwasafashionandlaterthecustomtoacquireGreek，LatinandOrientalMSS。andcopythemforcirculationandsale。
Thepricesofferedweresufficienttostimulatethesearchandzealforthem。Welearnthatintheyear1400“onthesquareoftheDuomaaspacciatorewasestablishedwhosebusinesswastosellmanuscriptsoftenfullofmistakesandblunders。”NicholasV，beforehebecamePope，wasnicknamed“TommasotheCopyist。”HeissaidtohavepresentedtotheVaticanlibraryasagiftfivethousandvolumesofhisowncreation。
TheinformationoftheseincreasingdemandsforancientdocumentsofanykindspreadoverEuropeandportionsofAsia，bringingintoFlorenceagreatquantityofthem，aswellasmanyscholarsandcopyists。
ShiploadsoftheworksoftheByzantinehistoriansarrivedfromtheGoldenHorn，andthecitybecameavastmanufactoryforduplicatingorforgingancientMSS。Parchmentandvellumweretoocostlytoemployverymuch，somostofthemwereofpaper。
Vespaciano，oneofthemanyengagedinthisbusinessandwholivedin1464，founditnecessaryinordertoreducethecostofproduction，tobecomeapapermerchant。
Inwritingtoafriendhesays：
“Iengagedforty-fivecopyistsandintwenty-
twomonthshadcompletedtwohundredvolumes，whichincludedsomeGreekandLatinaswellasmanyOrientalwritings。”
Thereadingandjudgingofmanuscriptsarenowknownasthescienceofdiplomatics。Todeterminetheirantiquityorgenuinenessrequiresthenicestdistinctionsandcare，irrespectiveofallegeddateswhetherexhibitedbyRomannumbersortheArabiconewhichwecontinuetoemploy，andwhichfirstmadetheirappearancenearthecommencementofthetwelfthcentury。Theinksasalreadymentionedandusedonthem，asweshallsee，servefullyasmuchinestimatingauthenticityorgenuinenessasdoescombinedtogether，——thestyleofthewriting，theminiatures，vignettesandarabesquesifany，thecolors，covers，materials，ornamentationandthecharacteroftheircontents。
Withthere-establishmentoflearninginthefifteenthcenturyandthecreationofallegedstablegovernments，whomayperhapshaverealizedthenecessityforaninkofenduringgoodcommercialandrecordqualities，so-called“gall“inkswerechosenasbestpossessingthem，andweremadeandemployedwithvaryingresultsevenmorethantheancient“Indian“
inks。
MediaevalpracticesinrelationtoinkandotherwritingmaterialsaswellasthemonasticlibrariesofwhichEngland，France，GermanyandItalypossessedmanyduringthethirteenth，fourteenth，andmoreparticularlythefifteenthcenturies，weregovernedbyestablishedrules。
Thelibrariesofsuchinstitutionswereplacedbytheabbotunderthesolechargeofthe“armarian。”anofficerwhowasmaderesponsibleforthepreservationofthevolumesunderhiscare；bewasexpectedfrequentlytoexaminethem，lestdamporinsectsshouldinjurethem；hewastocoverthemwithwoodencoverstopreservethemandcarefullytomendandrestoreanydamagewhichtimeoraccidentmightcause；hewastomakeanoteofanybookborrowedfromthelibrary，withthenameoftheborrower；
butthislastruleappliedonlytothelessvaluableportionofit，asthe“greatandpreciousbooks“
couldonlybelentbythepermissionoftheabbothimself。Itwasalsothedutyofthearmariantohaveallthebooksinhischargemarkedwiththeircorrecttitles，andtokeepaperfectlistofthewhole。
SomeofthesecataloguesarestillinexistenceandarecuriousandinterestingintheirexemplificationofthekindsofinkemployedandasindicativeofthestateofliteratureintheMiddleAges，besidespresentingthenamesofmanyauthorswhoseworkshaveneverreachedus。Itwasalsothedutyofthearmarian，undertheordersofhissuperior，toprovidethetranscribersofmanuscriptswiththewritingswhichtheyweretocopy，aswellasallthematerialsnecessaryfortheirlabors，tomakebargainsastopayment，andtosuperintendtheworkduringtheirprogress。
Thesetranscribers，Mr。Maitlandinhis“DarkAges“tellsus，weremonksandtheirclerks，someofwhomweresoskilledthattheycouldperformallthedifferentbranches。Theywereexhortedbytherulesoftheirordertolearnwriting，andtopersevereintheworkofcopyingmanuscriptsasbeingonemostacceptabletoGod；thosewhocouldnotwritewererecommendedtobindbooks。ThiswasinlinewiththebehestofthefamousmonkAlciunwholivedintheeighthcenturyandwhoentreatedalltoemploythemselvesincopyingbooks，saying：
“Itisamostmeritoriouswork，moreusefultothehealththanworkinginthefields，whichprofitsonlyaman’sbody，whilethelabourofacopyistprofitshissoul。”
Whenblackinkwasusedinliturgicalwritings，thetitlepageandheadsofchapterswerewritteninredink；whencecomesthetermrubric。Green，purple，blueandyellowinksweresometimesusedforwords，butchieflyforornamentingcapitalletters。
Alargeroomwasinmostmonasteriessetapartforsuchlaborsandherethegeneraltranscriberspursuedtheiravocations；inaddition，smallroomsorcells，knownalsoasscriptoria，occupiedbysuchmonksaswereconsidered，fromtheirpietyandlearning，tobeentitledtotheindulgence，andusedbythemfortheirprivatedevotions，aswellasforthepurposeoftranscribingworksfortheuseofthechurchorlibrary。
Thescriptoriawerefrequentlyenrichedbydonationsandbequestsfromthosewhoknewthevalueoftheworkscarriedoninthem，andlargeestateswereoftendevotedtotheirsupport。
“Meanwhilealongthecloister’spaintedside，Themonks——eachbendinglowuponhisbookWithheadonhandreclined——theirstudiesplied；
Forbidtoparley，orinfronttolook，Lengthwaystheirregulatedseatstheytook：
Thestruttingpriorgazedwithpompousmien，Andwakefultongue，preparedwithpromptrebuke，Ifmonkasleepinshelteringhoodwasseen；
Hewaryoftenpeepedbeneaththatrussetscreen。
“Hardby，againstthewindow’sadverselight，Wheredeskswerewontinlengthofrowtostand，Thegownedartificersinclinedtowrite；
ThepenofsilverglistenedinthehandSomeoftheirfingersrhymingLatinscanned；
Sometextilegoldfromhallsunwindingdrew，Andonstrainedvelvetstatelyportraitsplanned；
Herearms，therefacesshowninembryoview，Atlasttoglitteringlifethetotalfiguresgrew。”——
FOSBROOKE。
Thepublicscribesofthosedayswereemployedmostlybysecularindividuals，althoughsubjecttobecalleduponatanymomentbythefathersofthechurch。Theyworkedintheirhomesexceptwhenanyvaluableworkwastobecopied，theninthatoftheiremployer，whoboardedandlodgedthemduringthetimeoftheirengagement。
Todifferentiatethecharacteroftheclassofpigmentsormaterialsthenemployedinmakingcoloredinks，fromthoseofthemoreancienttimesisdifficult；
becausewenotonlyfindmanyoflikecharacterbutoflargervariety。Thesewereusedmoreforpurposesofilluminatingandembellishingthanforregularwriting。
Evenwhenprintinghadbeeninventedspaceswerefrequentlyleft，bothintheblockbooksandintheearliestmovabletype，fortheilluminationbyhand，ofinitialletterssoastodeceivepurchasersintothebeliefthattheprintedtypewhichwaspatternedcloselyaftertheformsoflettersemployedinMSS。
writingswastherealthing。Thelearnedsoondiscoveredsuchfraudsandthereafterthesepracticeswereabandoned。
CHAPTERX。
RENAISSANCEINK。
INKOFGRAYCOLORBELONGINGTOTHESIXTEENTHCENTURY
ANDITSCAUSES——INFLUENCEOFTHEFATHERSOF
THECHURCHRESPECTINGINKDURINGTHEDARK
AGES——THEREFORMATIONANDHOWITAFFECTEDMEDIAEVAL
MSS——REMARKSOFBALEABOUTTHEIRDESTRUCTION——
QUAINTINKRECEIPTOF1602——SELECTION
FROMTHETWELFTHNIGHTRELATINGTOPENAND
INK——GENERALCONDITIONSWHICHOBTAINEDUNTIL
1626——THEFRENCHGOVERNMENTAWARDSANINK
CONTRACTINTHATYEAR——OTHERGOVERNMENTSADOPT
THEFRENCHFORMULA——INKSOFTHESEVENTEENTH
CENTURYALMOSTPERFECTINTHEIRCOLORPHENOMENA——
NOADDEDCOLOREMPLOYEDINTHEIRMANUFACTURE。
THEgraycolorofmostoftheinksfoundondocumentswritteninthesixteenthcenturyisanoteworthyfact。Whenceitscauseisamatterforconsiderablespeculation。Themajorityoftheseinksunquestionablybelongtothe“gall“classandifpreparedaftertheformulasutilizedinprecedingcenturiesshouldindicatelikecolorphenomena。Asthesesamepeculiaritiesexistonbothpaper，vellumandparchment，itcannotbeattributedtotheiruse。
Investigationsinmanyinstancesofthewritingsindicatetheexerciseofamorerapidpenmovementandaconsequentemploymentofinksofgreaterfluiditythanthoseofanearlierhistory。Suchfluiditycouldonlybeobtainedbyareductionofthequantityofgummyvehiclestogetherwithanincreaseofinkacidity。Theacidswhichhadtheretoforebeenmoreorlessintroducedintoinks，exceptoxalicacid，couldnoteffectsuchresults。Consequently，asthemonumentsofthisgrayinkphenomenaaretobefoundbelongingtoalltheportionsoftheChristianworld，withauniformitythatiscertainlyremarkable，itbecomesafairdeductiontoassumethatthemakingofinksbadpassedintothehandsofregularmanufacturerswhoadulteratedthemwith“added“color。
WecanwellbelievethattheinfluenceswhichthefathersoftheChurchexertedduringthethousandyearsknownasthe“DarkAges。”inrespecttoinkandkindredsubjects，musthavebeenverygreat。
Thattheyendeavoredtoperpetuateforthebenefitofsucceedinggenerationsinbookandotherforms，thiskindofinformation，whichtheydistributedthroughouttheworldweknowtobetrue。Mostofthesesourcesofinkinformation，however，graduallydisappearedasconstitutingaseriesofsadeventsintheunhappywarwhichfollowedtheirpreparation。
TheReformationbeganinGermanyinthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury，andwithittheeightyyearsofcontinualreligiouswarfarewhichfollowed。DuringthisperiodthepricelessMSS。booksofinformation，historical，literaryandotherwise，containedinthemonasticlibrariesoutsideofItalywereburnt。
Wearetold：
“InEnglandcupidityandintolerancedestroyedrecklessly。Thus，afterthedissolutionofmonasticestablishments，personswereappointedtosearchoutallmissals，booksoflegends，andsuch’superstitiousbooks’andtodestroyorsellthemforwastepaper；reservingonlytheirbindings，when，aswasfrequentlythecase，theywereornamentedwithmassivegoldandsilver，curiouslychased，andoftenfurtherenrichedwithpreciousstones；andsoindustriouslyhadthesemendonetheirwork，destroyingallbooksinwhichtheyconsideredpopishtendenciestobeshownbyillumination，theuseofredletters，oroftheCross，orevenbythe——tothem——mysteriousdiagramsofmathematicalproblems——
thatwhen，someyearslater，Lelandwasappointedtoexaminethemonasticlibraries，withaviewtothepreservationofwhatwasvaluableinthem，hefoundthatthosewhohadprecededhimhadleftlittletorewardhissearch。”
Bale，himselfanadvocateforthedissolutionofmonasteries，says：
“Neverhadwebeneoffendedforthelosseofourlybraryesbeyngsomanyinnombreandinsodesoluteplacesforthemosteparte，yfthechiefmonumentsandmostenotableworkesofourexcellentwrytershadbenereserved，yftherehadbeneineveryshyreofEnglandebutonesolemynelybraryforthepreservacyonofthosenobleworkes，andpreferrmentsofgoodlearnyugesinourposteryteithadbeneyetsomewhat。ButtodestroyeallwithoutconsyderacyonisandwyllbeuntoEnglandeforeveramosthorrybleinfamyamongethegravesenyoursofothernatyons。Agretenombreofthemwychpurchasedofthosesuperstycyosemansyonsreservedofthoselybraryebokes，sometoservetheyrjaks，sometoscouretheyrcandelstyckes，andsometorubbtheyrbootes。sometheysoldetothegrossersandsopesellers，andsometheysentoverseetothebokebynders，notinsmallnombre，butattymeswholeshippesful。Iknowamerchantman，whycheshallatthystymebenamelesse，thatboughtethecontent-，oftwonoblelybraryesforxlshyllyngspryce，ashameitistobespoken。Thysstuffehatheheoccupyedinthestideofgrevepaperforthespaceofmorethanthesetenyears，andyethathestoreynoughforasmanyyearstocome。A
prodyguousexampleisthys，andtobeabhorredofallmenwholovetheyrnatyonastheyshouldedo。”
Passingtolaterepochs，A。D。1602，thefollowingquaintreceiptprovesinterestingasshowingthatthe“gall“inkswerewellknownatthattime：
“TomakecommonInk，ofWinetakeaquart，TwoouncesofGumme，letthatbeapart；
FiveouncesofGalls，ofCop’restakethree，Longstandingdothmakeitthebettertobe；
IfWineyedowant，rainewaterisbest，Andthenasmuchstuffeasaboveattheleast，IftheInkbetoothick，putVinegarin，Forwaterdothmakethecolourmoredimme。”
ShakespeareinhisTwelfthNightIII，2，hasalsoreferredtotheminthefollowingamusingstrain：
“Gowriteitinamartialhand；becurstandbrief；
itisnomatterhowwitty，soitbeeloquent，andfullofinvention；taunthimwiththelicenseofink；ifthouthou’sthimthrice，itshallnorbeamiss；andasmanyliesaswilllieonasheetofpaper，althoughthesheetwerebigenoughforthebedofWareinEngland，set’emdown；go，aboutit。Lettherebegallenoughinthyink，thoughthouwritewithagoosepen，nomatter：
aboutit。”
Thegeneralblackinkconditionsforaperiodofatleastthreehundredyears，ifweexcludethesixteenthcentury，hadbeenbutrepetitionsofeachother。
Theysoremaineduntiltheyear1626，whentheFrenchgovernmentconcludedanarrangementwithachemistbythenameofGuyot，forthemanufactureofa“gall“inkWITHOUTaddedcolorandwhichtherebyguaranteedandinsuredmoresamenessinrespecttodesirableinkqualities。Thatgovernmentwithafewmodificationsrelativetotheproportionsofingredientscontinueditsemployment，whichwasfollowedbythecontemporaneouswriters。OthergovernmentslaterpartiallyadoptedtheFrenchformulaswhilesomeofthemgavethematternoattention，althoughtheirrecordsandthoseofthecitiesortownsnotonlyofEuropebutearlyAmerica，theUnitedStatesandCanadaarefoundinmostinstancestohavebeenwrittenwithaninkofthischaracter。
Wherepriorto1850，inkscontainingadifferentbasewiththesingleexceptionofindigowereused，theyhaveeitherdisappearedornearlysoanditisnotaninfrequentoccurrenceamongthosewhoareaccustomedtoexamineoldrecordstofindthatsignaturesordatestovaluableinstruments，pagesofwritingsandindeedsometimesthewritingsinanentirebookaremoreorlessobliterated。
Theblackinksofalargeportionoftheseventeenthcentury，ondocumentsofeverykind，arefoundtobenearlyperfectastocolorconditions，whichisevidenceoftheextremecareusedintheirpreparationandtheexclusionof“added“colorininkmanufacture。
CHAPTERXI。
ANCIENTINKTREATISES。
INKTREATISESOFTHEFIFTEENTH，SIXTEENTHAND
SEVENTEENTHCENTURIES——JOHNBAPTISTAPORTA
AUTHOROFTHEFIRST——SECRETINKS——NERI，CANEPARIUS，BOREL，MERRET，KUNCKELANDOTHERAUTHORS
WHOREFERTOINKMANUFACTURE——PROGRESSOFTHE
ARTOFHANDWRITINGILLUSTRATEDINTHENAMESOF
OVERAHUNDREDCALLIGRAPHERSCHRONOLOGICALLY
ARRANGED。
THEliteratureofthefifteenth，sixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesonthesubjectofblackandcoloredinkformulas，secretinks，etc。，isbothdiversifiedandofconsiderableimportance。Thefollowingauthorsandcitationsaredeemedthemostnoteworthy：
JohnBaptistaPorta，ofNaples，bornA。D。1445
anddiedA。D。1515，isbestknownastheinventorofthe“cameraobscuro；“wasalsotheauthorofmanyMSS。bookscompiled；hesays，“AstheresultsofdiscussionsoflongyearsheldatmyownhousewhichisknownasdeSecreti，andintowhichnonecanenterunlessheclaimtobeaninventorofnewdiscoveries。”
Twoofthesetreatiseswhichwereextantinthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury，datedrespectively1481and1483，dwellatgreatlengthonSECRET
inksandspecificallymentionastranslatedintotheEnglishofthetime“sowregallsinwhitewine。”and“vitriol；“repeatingItalianformulaspertainingtothe“Secreta“ofthetwelfthcentury。
Aboutsecretinkhetellsus：
“Therearemanyandalmostinfinitewaystowritethingsofnecessity，thattheCharactersshallnotbeseen，unlessyoudipthemintowaters，orputthemnearthefire，orrubthemwithdust，orsmeerthemover。
********
“LetVitriolsoakinBoylingwater：whenitisdissolved，strainitsolongtillthewatergrowclear：
withthatliquorwriteuponpaper：whentheyaredrytheyarenotseen。Moreover，grindeburntstrawandVinegar：andwhatyouwillwriteinthespacesbetweentheformerlines，describeatlarge。
ThenboylsowreGallsinwhiteWine，wetaspungeintheliquor：andwhenyouhaveneed，wipeituponthepapergently，andwettheletterssolonguntilthenativeblackcolourdisappear，buttheformercolour，thatwasnotseen，willbemadeapparent。NowIwillshowinwhatliquorspapermustbesoakedtomakeletterstobeseen。AsI
said，DissolveVitriolinwater：thenpowderGallsfinely，andsoaktheminwater：letthemstaytheretwenty-fourhours：filtrethemthroughalinencloth，orsomethingelse，thatmaymakethewaterclear，andmakelettersuponthepaperthatyoudesiretohaveconcealed：sendittoyourFriendabsent：whenyouwouldhavethemappear，diptheminthefirstliquor，andtheletterswillpresentlybeseen。
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IfyouwritewiththejuiceofCitrons，Oranges，Onyons，oralmostanysharpthings，ifyoumakeithotatthefire，theiracrimonyispresentlydiscovered：
fortheyareundigestedjuices，whereastheyaredetectedbytheheatofthefire，andthentheyshowforththosecoloursthattheywouldshowiftheywereripe。IfyouwritewithasowreGrapethatwouldbeblack，orwithCervices；whenyouholdthemtothefiretheyareconcocted，andwillgivethesamecolourtheywouldinduetimegiveuponthetree，whentheywereripe。JuiceofCherries，addedtoCalamus，willmakeagreen：tosow-
breadared：sodiversjuicesofFruitswillshowdiverscoloursbythefire。BythesemeansMaidssendingandreceivinglove-letters，escapefromthosethathavechargeofthem。ThereisalsoakindofSaltcalledAmmoniac：thispowderedandmingledwithwater，willwritewhiteletters，andcanhardlybedistinguishedfromthepaper，butholdthemtothefire，andtheywillshewblack。”
Withrespecttothepreparationofblackandcoloredinksandalsocolors：AntonioNeri，anItalianauthorandchemistwholivedinthesixteenthcentury，inhistreatiseseemsnotonlytohavelaidthefoundationformostofthereceiptscalledattentiontobylaterwritersduringthetwohundredyearswhichfollowed，buttohavebeentheveryfirsttospecifyaproper“gall“inkanditsformula，asthemostworthyofnotice。
PietroCaneparius，aphysicianandwriterofVenice，A。D。1612，inhisworkDeAtrametis，givesamoreextensiveviewaboutthepreparationandcompositionofinksandadoptsallthatNerihadgiven，thoughheneverquoteshisname，andadds——“hithertopublishedbynoone。”HedoeshowevermentionmanyvaluableparticularswhichwereomittedbyNeri。Mostofhisreceiptsareaboutgold，silverandnondescriptinks，withdirectionsformakingagreatvarietyforsecretwritinganddefacing。ThisbookrevisedandenlargedwasrepublishedinLondon，1660。
In1653PeterBorel，whowasphysiciantoLouisXIV，King，ofFrancepublishedhis“BibliothecaChemica。”whichcontainsalargenumberofinkreceipts，twoofwhichmaybecharacterizedas“ironandgall“ones。Theypossessvalueonaccountoftherelativeproportionsindicatedbetweenthetwochemicals。Thecoloredones，includinggold，silverandsympatheticinksaremostlyrepetitionsofthoseofNeriandCaneparius。TheFrenchwriters，though，speakofhisresearchesinchemistryas“somewhatcredulous。”
ChristopherMerret，anEnglishphysicianandnaturalist，bornA。D。1614，translatedNeriintoourlanguagein1654，withmanynotesofhisownabouthim；hisobservationshaveaddednothingofvaluetothechemistryofinks。
JohannKunckel，anotedGermanchemistandwriterin1657，republishedintheGermanlanguageNeri’sworkwithMerret’snotes，andhisownobservationsonboth。Healsoinsertedmanyotherprocessesastheresultofconsiderableresearchandseemstohavebeenthoroughlyconversantwiththechemistryofinks，advocatingespeciallythevalueandemploymentofatanno-gallateofironinkforrecordpurposes。
Salmon，A。D。1665，inhisPolygraphics，proceedstogiveinstructionsrelativetoinkswhichnotwithstandingtheirmeritareconfoundedwithsomanyabsurditiesastolessentheirvalueforthosewhowereunabletoseparatetruthfromfalsehood；butheneverthelessdwellsonthevirtuesofthe“gall“inks。
JacquesLemort，aDutchchemistofsomenote，issuedatreatise，A。D。1669，on“InkFormulasandColors。”seeminglyselectedfromthebooksofthosewhohadprecededhim。Heexpressestheopinionthatthe“gall“inksifproperlycompoundedwouldgivebeneficialresults。
Formulasformakinginksarefoundtuckedawayinsomeoftheveryoldliteraturetreatingof“curious“
things。Oneofthemwhichappearedin1669directs：
“tostrainoutthebestqualityofironemployoldandrustynails；“anotheronesays，thattheinkwhenmadeistoremaininanopenvessel“forthirtydaysandthirtynights，beforeputtingitinaparchmentbag。”
AnEnglishcompendiumofinkformulas，publishedin1693，callsattentiontomanyformulasforblackinksaswellasgold，silver，andthecoloredones；nocomment，however，ismadeinrespecttoanyparticularonebeingbetterthananotherastopermanency，andtheseconditionswouldseemtohavecontinuedfornearlyacenturylater，thoughtheartofhandwritingwasmakinggiantstrides。
Itisaremarkablefactthatnotwithstandingthenumerousdevoteestothatartwhichincludedmanyofthegentlersex，reproductionsofwhoseskillin“Indian“
inkaretobefoundengravedinmagnificentpublications，bothinbookandotherforms，thereisnomentioninthemorinanyothersincludedwithinthisperiodaboutthenecessityofusinganyotherDURABLE
inkforrecordorcommercialpurposes。
Asindicativeinsomedegreeoftheprogressoftheartofhandwritingandhandwritingmaterials，commencingA。D。1525andendingA。D。1814，Ipresentherewithacompilationofthenamesofoveronehundredofthebestknowncalligraphersandauthorsoftheworld，andnottobefoundasawholeinanypublicorprivatelibrary。Itisarrangedinchronologicalorder。
1525。
ThefirstEnglishessayonthesubjectof“CuriousCalligraphy“wasbyawomanwhofromallaccountspossessedmostremarkablefacilityintheuseofthepenaswellasaknowledgeoflanguages。HernamewasElizabethLucar；asshewasborninLondonin1510anddied1537，herworkmusthavebeenaccomplishedwhenonlyfifteenyearsofage。
1540。
RogerAscham，bestknownasthetutorofQueenElizabeth。
1570。
PeterBales，authorofmanyworks，“TheWritingSchoolmaster。”whichhepublishedinthreeparts，beingthebestknown。Hewasalsoamicroscopicwriter。Hisroomswereatthesignof“TheHandandGoldenPen。”
London。
1571。
JohndeBeauchesne，teacherofthePrincessElizabeth，daughterofKingJamesI。Authorofmanycopybooks。
1588。
JohnMellis，“MerchantsAccounts。”etc。
1600。
ElizabethJaneWeston，ofLondonandPrague，wrotemanypoemsinoldLatin。
1600。
HesterInglis，“ThePsalmsofDavid。”
1601。
JohnDavies，“TheWritingSchoolmaster，orAnatomyofFairWriting。”
1616。
RichardGething，“TheHandandPen；
1645，“Chirographia“andmanyothers。
1618。
MartinBillingsley，“TheWritingSchoolmaster，ortheAnatomieofFairWriting。”ThisauthorwaswritingmastertoKingCharlesI。
1622。
DavidBrown，whowasscribetoKingJamesI。
“Calligraphia。”
1622。
WilliamComley，“Copy-BookofallthemostusualEnglishHands。”etc。
1646。
JosiahRicrafte，“ThePeculiarCharacteroftheOrientalLanguages。”
1650。
LouisHughes，“PlainandEasyDirectionstoFairWriting。”
1650。
JohnJohnson，“TheUsualPracticesofFairandSpeedyWriting。”
1651。
JohnClithers，“ThePensParadise。”dedicatedtoPrinceCharles。
1652。
JamesSeamer，“ACompendiumofAlltheUsualHandsWritteninEngland。”
1657。
EdwardCocker，penmanandengraver，famousinhistimeforthenumberandvarietyofhisproductions。Authorof“ThePen’sTriumph。”
“TheArtist’sGlory。”“England’sPenman。”
andmanymore。
1659。
JamesHodder，“ThePenman’sRecreation。”
etc。
1660。
JohnFisher，“ThePen’sTreasury。”
1663。
RichardDaniel，“ACompendiumofmanyhandsofVariousCountries。”
1669。
PeterStoryorStent，“FairWritingofSeveralHandsinUse。”
1678。
WilliamRaven，“AnExactCopyoftheCourtHand。”
1680。
PeterIvers，famousforhisengrossinganddrawings。
1680。
ThomasWatson，“Copy-BookofAlphabets。”
1681。
JohnPardie，“AnEssayontheGermanTextandOldPrintAlphabets。”
1681。
ThomasWeston，“AncillaCalligraphiae。”
1681。
PeterGery，“CopybookofalltheHandsinuse，PerformedaccordingtotheNaturalFreenessofthePen。”
1681。
WilliamElder，“Copy-bookofthemostusefulandnecessaryHandsnowusedinEngland。”
1683。
JohnAyers，“TutortoPenmanship。”andmanyothers。
1684。
CalebWilliams，“NunciusOris。”writtenandengravedbyhimself。
1693。
CharlesSnell，“ThePenman’sTreasuryOpened；“1712，“ArtofWritinginTheoryandPractice；“1714，“StandardRules。”etc。
1695。
RichardAlleine，writingmaster。
1695。
EleazerWigin，“TheHandandPen。”
1695。
JohnSedden，“ThePenman’sParadise。”
1696。
JohnEade，writingmaster。
1699。
JosephAlleine，publishedseveralbooksaboutwritingandaccounts。
1699。
RobertMore，“TheWritingMastersAssistant。”
1725。“TheGeneralPenman。”
1700。
JohnBeckham，fatherofthecelebratedGeorgeBeckham，wroteandengravedseveralpiecesfor“TheUniversalPenman。”
1700。
EdwardSmith，“TheMysteriesofthePeninfifteenHands，Unfolded。”etc。
1700。
HenryLegg，“WritingandArithmetic。”
1702。
WilliamBanson，“TheMerchantsPenman。”
1703。
JohnDundas，microscopicwriter。
1705。
GeorgeShelley，“ThePenmansMagazine。”
In1730hewroteseveralpagesfor“Bickman’sUniversalPenman。”
1708。
JohnClark，“ThePenmansDiversion。”
1709。
JamesHeacock，writingmaster。
1709。
GeorgeShelley，“Naturalwritinginallhands。”
1711。
GeorgeBickham，oneofthemostfamousofwritersofhistime，born1684，died1758，authorof“TheUniversalPenman。”Hepublishedmanyworks。1711，“TheBritishPenman；“
1731，“PenmanshipinitsutmostBeautyandExtent“and“TheUniversalPenman“
arethebestknown。
1709。
JohnRayner，“Paul’sScholarsCopy-Book。”
1711。
HumphreyJohnson，“Youth’sRecreation：aCopy-BookofWritingdonebyCommandofHand。”
1712。
WilliamWebster，writingandmathematics。
1730，wroteseveralpagesfor“TheUniversalPenman。”
1713。
ThomasOllyffe，“TheHandandPen。”1714，“ThePracticalPenman。”
1717。
WilliamBrooks，“DelightfulRecreationfortheIndustrious。”Contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1717。
AbrahamNicholas，“VariousExamplesofPenmanship。”
1722，“TheCompleatWritingMaster。”Wrotealsofor“TheUniversalPenman。”
1719。
RalphSnow，“YouthsIntroductiontoHandwriting。”
1720。
WilliamRichards，“TheCompletePenman。”
1723。
JohnJarman，“ASystemofCourtHands。”
1724。
HenryLune，“RoundHandComplete。”
1725。
JohnShortland，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1725。
EdwardDawson，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1726。
MosesGratwick，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1727。
JohnLangton，“TheItalienHand。”
1728。
JohnDay，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1729。
GabrielBrooks，writingmasterandcontributorto，“TheUniversalPenman。”
1730。
WilliamKeppax，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1730。
JohnBland，“EssayinWriting。”Alsocontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1730。
SolomonCook，“TheModishRoundHand。”
1730。
WilliamLeckey，“ADiscourseontheUseofthePen。”Contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1730。
PeterNorman，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1730。
WellingtonClark，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1730。
ZacharyChambers，“VivelaPlume。”Contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1733。
BrightWhilton，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1734。
TimothyTreadway，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1738。
GeorgeJ。Bickham，writingmaster；alsowrotefor“Bickham’sUniversalPenman。”
1739。
EmanuelAustin，writingmaster；hewrote22
pagesin“TheUniversalPenman。”
1739。
SamuelVaux，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1740。
JeremiahAndrews，writingmasterandtutortoKingGeorgeIII。
1740。
NathanielDove，“TheProgressofTime。”andcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1741。
JohnBlande，“EssayinWriting；1730，contributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1741。
RichardMorris，writingmasterandcontributorto“TheUniversalPenman。”
1747。
MaryJohns，microscopicwriterandauthor。
1749。
CharlesWoodham，“ASpecimenofWriting，inthemostUsefulHandsnowPractisedinEngland。”
1750。
JohnOldfield，“Honesty。”Hewroteonepiecein“TheUniversalPenman。”
1750。
JosephChampion，“TheParallelorComparativePenmanship。”1762，“TheLivingHands。”
1751。
EdwardLloyd，“YoungMerchantsAssistant。”
1758。
RichardClark，“PracticalandOrnamentalPenmanship。”
1760。
BenjaminWebb，writerofcopybooks，etc。
1762。
WilliamChinnery，“TheCompendiousEmblematist。”
1763。
WilliamMassey，“TheOriginandProgressofLetters。”containingvaluableinformationabouttheart。
1769。
JohnGardner，“IntroductiontotheCountingHouse。”
1780。
EdwardPowell，writingmasteranddesigner。
1784。
E。Butterworth，“TheUniversalPenman“intwoparts，publishedinEdinburgh。
1795。
WilliamMilns，“ThePenman’sRepository。”
1799。
WilliamG。Wheatcroft，“TheModernPenman。”
1814。
JohnCarstairs，“Tachygraphy，ortheFlyingPen。”2。“Writingmadeeasy，etc。”
IllustratedworksonthesubjectofpenmanshipofcontemporaneoustimesandnotofEnglishoriginarebutfew。Thebestknownare：
1543。
LuduvicoVicentino，“ACopybook“publishedinRome，seemstohavebeenthefirst。
1570。
IlperfettoScrittoreThePerfectWriterbyFrancescoCresci，publishedinRome。
1605。
SpieghelderSchrijkfkonsteorMirrorofPenmanshipwrittenbyVandenVelde，publishedinAmsterdam。
1612。
“WritingandInkRecipes。”byPeterCaniparius，VeniceandLondon。
1700。
DerGetreueSchreibemeisterorTrueWritingMaster，byJohannFriedrVicum，publishedinDresden。
From1602to1709many“Indian“inkspecimenswereextantandarestillofthedifferentschoolsofpenmanship。TheproductionsofPhrysius，MaterotandBarbedorillustratingtheFrenchstyle，Vignon，Selleryandothers，fortheItalianhand，andOverbiqueandSmythersfortheGermantext，andAmbrosiusPerlenghandHugo，withafewmore，completethelist。
CHAPTERXII。
STUDYOFINK。
LACKOFINTERESTASTOTHECOMPOSITIONOFINKDURING
PARTOFTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY——THECONDITIONS
WHICHTHENPREVAILEDNEARLYTHESAMEAS
THEPRESENTTIME——CHEMISTRYOFINKNOTUNDERSTOOD——
THISLACKOFINFORMATIONNOTCONFINEDTO
ANYPARTICULARCOUNTRY——LEWIS，IN1765，BEGINS
ASCIENTIFICINVESTIGATIONONTHESUBJECTOFINKS——
THERESULTSANDHISCONCLUSIONSPUBLISHEDIN
1797——THEROYALSOCIETYOFENGLANDIN1787RECEIVES
COMPLAINTSABOUTTHEINFERIORITYOFINKS——
ITSSECRETARYREADSAPAPERTHESAMEYEAR——THE
PAPERCITEDINFULL——DR。BOSTOCKIN1830COMMUNICATES
TOTHESOCIETYOFARTSWHATHEESTIMATES
TOBETHECAUSESOFIMPERFECTIONSININK——
ACTIONOFTHEFRENCHACADEMYOFSCIENCES——
COMPLICATIONSSURROUNDINGTHEMANUFACTUREOFINK
ONLYTHIRTY-FIVEYEARSAGO。