Theunfortunateconditionssurroundingthealmostuniversaluseoftheoddlynamedcommercialandwithfewexceptionsrecordinks，andtheso-calledmodernpaper，isthemotiveforthewritingofthisbook。
Thenumerouscolorproductsofcoaltar，nowsolargelyemployedinthepreparationofink，andtheworsematerialutilizedinthemanufactureofthehard-
finishedwritingpapers，menacethefuturepreservationofpublicandotherrecords。Thosewhooccupyofficialpositionandwhocanhelptoamelioratethisincreasingevil，shouldbegintodosowithoutdelay。
AbroadEngland，GermanyandFranceandathomeMassachusettsandConnecticuthavesoughttomodifytheseconditionsbylegislationandourNationalTreasuryDepartmentonlylastyear，inestablishingastandardforitsink，givesofficialrecognitionofthesetruths。
Thereisno“HistoryofInk；“butofinkhistorythereisawealthofmaterial，althoughhistorianshaveneglectedtorecordinformationabouttheverysubstancebywhichtheysoughttokeepandtransmitthechroniclestheymostdesiredtopreserve。FromthebeginningoftheChristianeratothepresentday，“Ink“literature，exclusiveofitsetymology，chemicalformulas，andmethodsofmanufacture，hasbeenconfinedtobriefstatementsintheencyclopedias，whichbutrepeateachother。Ahalfdozenoriginalarticles，coveringonlysomeparticularbranchtogetherwithafewtreatisesmoregeneralintheirramificationsofthesubject，canalsobefound。Seventylinesabout“writingink“coveringitshistoryfornearlyfourthousandyearsisallthatissaidin“TheOriginandProgressofHandwriting。”arevisedbookofhundredsofpagesofSirThomasAstle，London，1876，andoncedeemedtheveryhighestauthority。
Themassofancientandcomparativelymoderndocumentswhichwehaveinherited，chroniclenothingaboutthematerialwithwhichtheywerewritten。
Themorevaluableofthemaredisfiguredbythesuperscriptionofnewerwritingsoverthepartiallyerasedearlierones，thusrenderingtheworkofascertainingtheirrealcharactermostdifficult。
Nevertheless，patientresearchandadvancedsciencehaveenabledustointelligentlystudyandinvestigate，andfromtheevidencethusgained，tostatefactsandformulateopinionsthatmayperhapsoutlastcriticism。
Thebibliographicalstoryof“Ink“isrepletewithmanyinterestingepisodes，anecdotesandpoeticaleffusions。
Itschemicalhistoryisavariedandphenomenalone。Beforethenineteenthcenturytheinkindustrywasconfinedtothefew。Sincethen，ithasdevelopedintooneofmagnificentproportions。Thenewdeparture，duetothediscoveryanddevelopmentofthe“Aniline“familyoffugitivecolors，isnoteworthyasbeingastepbackwardwhichmaytakeyearstoretrace。
Thecriminalabuseofinkisnotinfrequentbyevil-
disposedpersonswhotrybysecretprocessestoreproduceinkphenomenaonancientandmoderndocuments。
Whileitispossibletomakeanewinklookold，themethodsthatmustbeemployed，willofthemselvesrevealtotheexaminertheattemptedfraud，ifhebutknowshowtoinvestigate。
Howtoaccomplishthisaswellastogiveachronologicalhistoryonthesubjectofinksgenerally，bothastotheirgenesis，theeffectoftimeandtheelements，thedeterminationoftheconstituentsandtheconstitutionofinks，theirvalueastolastingqualities，theirremovalandrestoration，istheobjectofthiswork。
Thereisalsoincludedmanycourtcaseswherethematterofinkwasincontroversy；informationrespectingancientMSS。andtheimplementsandotheraccessoriesofinkwhichhavefromtimetotimebeenemployedintheactofwriting。
Tomakeacomprehensivereviewofthepastinitsrelationshiptoinkhasbeenmyaim。Intheconstructionofthisworkrecoursehasbeenhadtotheso-
calledoriginalsourcesofinformation。Inthese，thediversityoftheirincompletestatementsaboutdifferentcountriesandepochshasofferedmanyobstacles。
Inpresentingmyowndeductionsandinferences，itiswithadesiretoremoveanyimpressionsastothisvolumebeingamerecompilation。“Factsarethedataofalljustreasoning，andtheelementsofallrealknowledge。Itfollowsthatheisawisemanwhopossessesthegreateststoreoffactsonagivensubject。
Abook，therefore，whichassemblesfactsfromtheirscatteredsources，maybeconsideredasausefulandimportantauxiliarytothosewhoseekthem。”AprolongedandcontinuousintercourseforoveraquarterofacenturywithancientandmodernMSS，withbooksandotherliterature，withlaymenandchemists，withstudentsandmanufacturers，togetherwiththeinformationandknowledgederivedfromexperimentandstudyofresultsmayenabletheauthortomakethesubjectfairlyclear。EfforthasbeenmadetoavoidtechnicalwordsandphrasesinthatportiontreatingoftheChemistryofInks。
Thisworkwillnodoubtbevariouslyconsidered。
Criticismisexpected，indeeditisgladlyinvited，fortherebymayfollowcontroversy，discussionandperhapslegislation，whichwillbringaboutresultsbeneficialtothosewhoaretofollowafterus。
CONTENTS
I。GENESISOFINK
II。ANTIQUITYOFINK
III。CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUS
IV。CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUSContinued
V。REVIVALOFINK
VI。INKOFTHEWEST
VII。EARLYMEDIAEVALINK
VIII。MEDIAEVALINK
IX。ENDOFMEDIAEVALINK
X。RENAISSANCEINK
XI。ANCIENTINKTREATISES
XII。STUDYOFINK
XIII。STUDYOFINK
XIV。CLASSIFICATIONSOFINK
XV。OFFICIALANDLEGALINK
XVI。ENDURINGINK
XVII。INKPHENOMENA
XVIII。INKCHEMISTRY
XIX。FRAUDULENTINKBACKGROUNDS
XX。FUGITIVEINK。
XXI。ANCIENTANDMODERNINKRECEIPTS
XXII。INKINDUSTRY。
XXIII。CHEMICO-LEGALINK
XXIV。CHEMICO-LEGALINKContinued
XXV。INKUTENSILSOFANTIQUITY
XXVI。INKUTENSILSQuillPENv。SteelPen
XXVII。SUBSTITUTESFORINKUTENSILS“Lead“andotherPencils
XXVIII。ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDSTheOriginofPapyrus
XXIX。ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDSParchmentandVellum
XXX。MODERNINKBACKGROUNDSTruePaper
XXXI。MODERNINKBACKGROUNDSWoodPaperandSafetyPaper
XXXII。CURIOSAInkandotherWritingMaterials
FORTYCENTURIESOFINK
CHAPTERI。
GENESISOFINK。
THEORIGINOFINK——COMPOSITIONOFTHECOLORED
INKSOFANTIQUITY——ANCIENTNAMESFORBLACK
INKS——METHODSOFTHEIRMANUFACTURE——THEINVENTION
OF“INDIAN“INK——THEARTOFDYEING
HISTORICALLYCONSIDERED——THESYMBOLICESTIMATION
OFCOLORS——THEEMPLOYMENTOFTINCTURES
ASINKS——CONSIDERATIONOFTHEANTIQUITY
OFARTIFICIALINKSANDTHEBLACKINKSOFINTERMEDIATE
TIMES——ORIGINOFTHECOLOREDPIGMENTS
OFANTIQUITY-CITATIONSFROMHERODOTUS，PLINYANDARBUTHNOT——PRICESCURRENT，OFANCIENT
INKSANDCOLORS——WHYTHENATURALINKS
FORMERLYEMPLOYEDARENOTSTILLEXTANT——THE
KINDOFINKEMPLOYEDBYTHEPRIESTSINTHE
TIMEOFMOSES——ILLUSTRATIVEHISTORYOFTHE
EGYPTIANSINITSRELATIONSHIPTOWRITING
IMPLEMENTS——THEUSEOFBOTHREDANDBLACKINK
INJOSEPH’STIME——ITSOTHERHISTORYPRECEDING
THEDEPARTUREOFISRAELFROMEGYPT——THE
DISAPPEARANCEOFALLBUTAFEWKINDSOF
INK——INKTRADITIONSANDTHEIRVALUE——STORY
ABOUTTHEORACLESOFTHESIBYLS——HOWTHEANCIENT
HISTORIANSSOUGHTTOBEMISLEADING——ILLUSTRATIVE
ANECDOTEBYRICHARDSON：
THEoriginofInkbelongstoanerafollowingtheinventionofwriting。Whenthedevelopmentofthatarthadadvancedbeyondtheageofstoneinscriptionorclaytablet，somematerialformarkingwiththereedandthebrushwasnecessary。Itwasnotdifficulttoobtainblackorcoloredmixturesforthispurpose。
Withtheiradvent，fortycenturiesormoreago，beginsthegenesisofink。
Thecoloredinksofantiquityincludedtheuseofavarietyofdyesandpigmentarycolors，typicalofthoseemployedintheancientartofdyeing，inwhichtheEgyptiansexcelledandstillthoughtbymanytobeoneofthelostarts。TheBibleandallegedcontemporaryandlaterliteraturemakefrequentmentionofblackandmanycolorsofbrillianthues。
Intracingtheartsofhandwritinganddyeing，somedefinitefactsaretobepredicatedastothemostremotehistoryofink。
TheHebrewwordforinkisdeyo，socalledfromitsblackness。Asprimitivelypreparedforritualisticpurposesandforacontinuingperiodofmorethantwothousandyears，itwasasimplemixtureofpowderedcharcoalorsootwithwater，towhichgumwassometimesadded。
TheArabianmethodsofmakinginkalchiberweremorecomplex。Lampblackwasfirstmadebytheburningofoil，tarorrosin，whichwasthencommingledwithgumandhoneyandpressedintosmallwafersorcakes，towhichwatercouldbeaddedwhenwantedforuse。
About1200yearsbeforetheChristianera，theChineseperfectedthismethodandinvented“IndianInk。”
ostensiblyforblackeningthesurfaceofraisedhieroglyphics，which“wasobtainedfromthesootproducedbythesmokeofpinesandtheoilinlamps，mixedwiththeisinglassgelatinofasses’skin，andmusktocorrecttheodouroftheoil。”DuHaldecitesthefollowing，asofthetimeofthecelebratedEmperorWu-Wong，whoflourished1120yearsbeforeChrist：
“AsthestoneMeawordsignifyingblackeningintheChineselanguage，whichisusedtoblackentheengravedcharacters，canneverbecomewhite；
soaheartblackenedbyviceswillalwaysretainitsblackness。”
Thattheartofdyeingwasknown，valuedandappliedamongearlynations，isabundantlyclear。Theallusionsto“purpleandfineraiment。”to“dyedgarments。”
to“clothofmanycolours。”&c。arenumerousintheBible。Inanotetothe“PictorialBible，afteranallusiontotheantiquityofthisart，andtothepre-
eminenceattachedbytheancientstopurplebeyondeveryothercolor，itisremarked：“Itisimportanttounderstandthatthewordpurple，inancientwritings，doesnotdenoteoneparticularcolour。”
Manyofthenamesofthedyestuffshavecomedowntous，someofthemstillinuseatthistimeandothersobsolete。Theywereemployedsometimesasink，andcertaincolorvaluesgiventothem，ofwhichthemoreimportantwereblue，red，yellow，green，white，black，purple，goldandsilver。Somecolorswereestimatedsymbolically。Whitewaseverywherethesymbolofpurityandtheemblemofinnocence，and，justopposite，blackwasheldupasanemblemofafflictionandcalamity。
Greenwastheemblemoffreshness，vigorandprosperity。
Bluewasthesymbolofrevelation；itwaspre-eminentlythecelestialcolorblessedamongheathennations，andamongtheHebrewsitwastheJehovahcolor，thesymbolofthereveredGod。Hence，itwasthecolorpredominantinMosaicceremonies。
Purplewasassociatedasthedressofkings，withideasofroyaltyandmajesty。
Crimsonandscarlet，fromtheirresemblancetoblood，becamesymbolicaloflife，andalsoanemblemofthatwhichwasindelibleordeeplyingrained。
Later，inChristiantimes，onlyfivecolorswererecognizedasfittingfortheologicalmeaningorexpression：
white，red，green，violetandblack。
Whitewasesteemedasbeingtheunionofalltheraysoflight，andisoftenreferredtoasthesymboloftruthandspotlesspurity。Redwasemblematicbothoffireandlove，whilegreenfromitsanalogytothevegetableworld，wasindicativeoflifeandhope。Violetwasconsideredthecolorofpenitenceandsorrow。
BluewasforbiddenexceptasacolorpeculiarlyappropriatedtotheVirginMary，whileblackrepresenteduniversallysorrow，destructionanddeath。
TheartofdyeingwasalsowellunderstoodandpracticedinPersiainthemostancientperiods。ThemodernPersianshavechosenChristastheirpatron，andBischoffsaysatpresentcalladyehouseChrist’sworkshop，fromatraditiontheyhavethatHewasofthatprofession，whichisprobablyfoundedontheoldlegend“thatChristbeingputapprenticetoadyer，Hismasterdesiredhimtodyesomepiecesofclothofdifferentcolors；Heputthemallintoaboiler，andwhenthedyertookthemouthewasterriblyfrightenedonfindingthateachhaditspropercolor。”
This，orasimilarlegend，occursintheapocryphalbookentitled，“TheFirstGospeloftheInfancyofJesusChrist。”Thefollowingisthepassage：
“Onacertaindayalso，whentheLordJesuswasplayingwiththeboys，andrunningabout，Hepassedbyadyer’sshopwhosenamewasSalem，andtherewereinhisshopmanypiecesofclothbelongingtothepeopleofthatcity，whichtheydesignedtodyeofseveralcolors。ThentheLord，Jesus，goingintothedyer’sshop，tookalltheclothsandthrewthemintothefurnace。WhenSalemcamehomeandsawtheclothspoiled，hebegantomakeagreatnoiseandtochidetheLordJesus，saying：’WhathastThoudone，untome，OthousonofMary？Thouhastinjuredbothmeandmyneighbors；theyalldesiredtheirclothsofapropercolor，butThouhastcomeandspoiledthemall。’
TheLordJesusreplied：’Iwillchangethecolorofeveryclothtowhatcolorthoudesirest，’andthenHepresentlybegantotaketheclothsoutofthefurnace；andtheywerealldyedofthosesamecolorswhichthedyerdesired。AndwhentheJewssawthissurprisingmiracletheypraisedGod。”
Theancientsusedalsoanumberoftincturesasink，amongthemabrowncolor，sepia，inHebrewtekeleth。Asanaturalinkitsoriginantedateseveryotherink，artificialorotherwise，intheworld。Itisablack-brownliquor，secretedbyasmallglandintoanovalpouch，andthroughaconnectingductisejectedatwillbythecuttlefishwhichinhabitstheseasofEurope，especiallytheMediterranean。Thesefishconstantlyemploythecontentsoftheir“inkbags“
todiscolorthewater，wheninthepresenceofenemies，inordertofacilitatetheirescapefromthem。
TheblackbrothoftheSpartanswascomposedofthisproduct。TheEgyptianssometimesuseditforcoloringinscriptionsonstone。Itisthemostlastingofallnaturalinksubstances。
Sogreatistheantiquityofartificialinkthatthenameofitsinventorordateofitsinventionarealikeunknown。ThepoetWhiteheadreferstoitasfollows：
Hardthathisnameitshouldnotsave，Whofirstpouredforththesablewave。”
Thecommonblackinkoftheancientswasessentiallydifferentincompositionandlessliabletofadethanthoseusedatthepresenttime。Itwasnotastainlikeours，andwhenHoracewrote“Andyetasinkthefairestpaperstains，Soworthlessversepollutesthefairestdeeds。”
hemusthavehadinmindthevitriolicinkofhisowntime。
Butlittleinformationrelativetoblackinksoftheintermediatetimeshascomedowntous，anditisconveyedthroughquestionedwritingsofauthorswhoflourishedabouttheperiodofthelifeofJesusChrist；
theYoungerPlinyandDioscoridesarethemostprominentofthem。Theypresentmanycuriousrecipes。
Oneofthese，suggestedbyPliny，isthattheadditionofaninfusionofwormwoodtoinkwillpreventthedestructionofMSS。bymice。
FromamemoirbyM。Roussetuponthepigmentsanddyesusedbytheancients，itwouldappearthatthevarietywasveryconsiderable。Amongthewhitecolors，theywereacquaintedwithwhitelead；andfortheblacks，variouskindsofcharcoalandsootwereused。Animalskinsweredyedblackwithgallapplesandsulphateofironcopper。Brownpigmentsweremadebymixingdifferentkindsofochre。UnderthenameofAlexanderblue，theancients——EgyptiansaswellasGreeksandRomans——usedapigmentcontainingoxideofcopper，andalsoonecontainingcobalt。
Fabricsweredyedbluebymeansofpastel-wood。
Yellowpigmentswereprincipallyderivedfromweld，saffron，andothernativeplants。
Vermilion，redochre，andminiumredleadwereknownfromaremoteantiquity，althoughtheartificialpreparationofvermilionwasasecretpossessedonlybytheChinese。
ThetermscarletasemployedintheOldTestamentwasusedtodesignatetheblood-redcolorprocuredfromaninsectsomewhatresemblingcochineal，foundingreatquantitiesinArmeniaandothereasterncountries。TheArabiannameoftheinsectisKermezwhencecrimson。Itfrequentstheboughsofaspeciesoftheilextree：ontheseitlaysitseggsingroups，whichbecomecoveredwithasortofdown，sothattheypresenttheappearanceofvegetablegallsorexcrescencesfromthetreeitselfandaredescribedassuchbyPlinyXVI，12，whoalsogaveitthenameofgranum，probablyonaccountofitsresemblancetoagrainorberry，whichhasbeenadoptedbymorerecentwritersandistheoriginoftheterm“ingraincolor“
asnowinuse。Thedyeisprocuredfromthefemalegrubalone，which，whenaliveisaboutthesizeofthekernelofacherryandofadarkred-browncolor，butwhendead，shrivelsuptothesizeofagrainofwheatandiscoveredwithabluishmold。Ithasanagreeablearomaticsmellwhichitimpartstothatwithwhichitcomesintocontact。ItwasfirstfoundingeneraluseinEuropeinthetenthcentury。About1550，cochineal，introducedtherefromMexico，wasfoundtobefarricherincoloringmatterandthereforegraduallysupersededtheolderdyestuff。
IndigowasusedinIndiaandEgyptlongbeforetheChristianera；anditisassertedthatblueribbonsstripsfoundonEgyptianmummies4500yearsoldhadbeendyedwithindigo。ItwasintroducedintoEuropeonlyinthesixteenthcentury。
Theuseofmadderasareddyestuffdatesfromveryearlytimes。PlinymentionsitasbeingemployedbytheHindoos，PersiansandEgyptians。Inthemiddleagesthenamessandis，warantia，granza，garancia，wereappliedtomadder，thelattergarancebeingstillretainedinFrance。Thecoloryieldingsubstanceresidesalmostentirelyintheroots。
ChilzonwasthenamegivenbytheancientHebrewstoabluedyeprocuredfromaspeciesofshell-fish。
Herodotus，B。C。443，assertsthatontheshoresoftheCaspianSealivedapeoplewhopaintedtheformsofanimalsontheirgarmentswithvegetabledyes：
“Theyhavetreeswhoseleavespossessapeculiarproperty；theyreducethemtopowder，andthenstriptheminwater；thisformsadyeorcoloringmatterwithwhichtheypaintontheirgarmentsthefiguresofanimals。Theimpressionissuchthatitcannotbewashedout；itappears，indeed，tobewovenintothecloth，andwearsaslongasthegarmentitself。”
Weareinformedbyanotherancientwriterthatthepagannationswereaccustomedtoarraytheimagesoftheirgodsinrobesofpurple。WhentheprophetEzekieltookupalamentationforTyre，hespokeofthe“blueandpurplefromtheislesofElishah“inwhichthepeoplewereclothed。ThisreferenceissaidtodoubtlessrefertotheislandsoftheAegianSea，fromwhencemanyclaim，theTyriansobtainedtheshell-fish，——themurexandpapura，whichproducedthedark-blueandbright-scarletcoloringmaterials，theemploymentofwhichcontributedsomuchtothefameofancientTyre。
Plinytheyoungerconfirmsthisstatement：
“TheTyrian-purplewasthejuiceofthePurpurea，ashell-fish，theveinsofitsneckandjawssecretingthisroyalcolor，butsolittlewasobtainedthatitwasveryrareandcostonethousandDenariiabout$150。00perpound。”
Amoremodernwriterindiscussingacrimsonorrubycolorsays：
“ByamistakensensetheLatinwordpurpurus，hasbeencalledpurple，byalltheEnglishandFrenchwriters。”
Arbuthnot，London，1727，inhisbook“AncientCoins，WeightsandMeasures。”astheresultofhisexaminationsofthemostancientrecordsestimates：
“ThePurplewasverydear；thereweretwosortsofFisheswhereofitwasmade，thePelagii，whichwerethosethatwerecaughtinthedeep
andtheBuccini。ThePelagiumperPoundwasworth50Nummi，8s。103/4d。，andtheBuceinuntdoublethat，viz。17s。83/4d。HarduinreadsahundredPoundsatthatprice。TheTyriandoubleDyeperPoundcouldscarcebeboughtforL359s，13/4d。”
TheveryancientwritersstatethatthemostesteemedoftheTyrianpurpleswerethosewhichcomparedincolorwith“coagulatedbullocks’blood。”
ThisestimationseemstogobacktothetimeofthePhoenicians，whowereexcessivelyfondofthereddershadesofpurplewhichtheyobtainedalsofromseveralvarietiesofshell-fishandcomprehendedundertwospecies；oneBuccinumfoundincliffs，andtheotherPelagiawhichwascapturedatsea。ThefirstwasfoundonthecoastsoftheMediterraneanandAtlantic。
TheAtlanticshellsaffordedthedarkestcolor，whilethoseofthePhoeniciancoastitselfyieldedscarletshadesofwonderfulintensity。
RespectingthecostanddurabilityoftheTyrianpurple，itisrelatedthatAlexandertheGreatfoundinthetreasuryofthePersianmonarch5，000quintalsofHermionepurpleofgreatbeauty，and180yearsold，andthatitwasworth$125ofourmoneyperpoundweight。ThepriceofdyeingapoundofwoolinthetimeofAugustusisgivenbyPliny，andthatpriceisequaltoabout$160ofourmoney。Itisprobablethathisremarksrefertosomeparticulartintorqualityofcoloreasilydistinguished，althoughnotatallclearlydefinedbyPliny。Healsomentionsasortofpurple，orhyacinth，whichwasworth，inthetimeofJuliusCaesar，100denariiabout$15ofourmoneyperpound。
Thebestauthoritiesofthepresentday，however，areofopinionthatthecelebratedTyrian-purplewasextractedfromamolluskknownastheJanthinaprolongata，ashellabundantintheMediterraneanandverycommonnearNarbonne，wheretheTyrianpurpledye-workswereinoperationatleastsixhundredyearsbeforeChrist。
Thepricecurrentofsomeoftheinksandcolorsofantiquity，asquotedbyArbuthnot，arecitedherewith：
Armenianpurple30hs。=4s。101/3d。
IndiapurplefromoneDenarius，or73/4d。to30
Denarii，19s。412d。
Pelagium，thejuiceofonesortfishesthatdyedpurple，50hs。=8s。07/8d。
Buccinumthejuiceoftheotherfishthatdyedpurple，100hs。=16s。13/4d。
Cinnabar50hs。=8s。07/8d。
Tarentineredpurple，pricenotmentioned。
Melinum，asortofcolourthatcamefromMelos，oneNummus，=115/16d。
Paretonium，asortofcolourthatcamefromaegypt，verylasting，6Denarii，=3s。101/2d。
Myrobalanus，2Denarii，=1s。31/2d。
Thelast-namedsubstanceisthefruitoftheTermi-
nalia，aproductofChinaandtheEastIndies，bestknownasMyrabolamsandmusthavebeenutilizedsolelyforthetannintheycontain，whichLoeweestimatestobeidenticalwithellago-tannicacid，laterdiscoveredinthedivi-divi，afruitgrowninSouthAmerica，andbablahwhichisalsoafruitofaspeciesofAcacia，wellknownalsoforitsgum。
NomonumentsareextantoftheancientMyrabolamink。
AntimonyandgallswereusedbytheEgyptianladiestotinttheireyesandlashesandwhoknows
towritewith。
Manyofthedyesemployedasinkwerethoseoccurringnaturallyasanimalandvegetableproducts，orwhichcouldbeproducedtherefrombycomparativelysimplemeans，otherwisewewouldnotbeconfrontedwiththefactthatnospecimensofinkwritingofnaturaloriginremaintous。
Theveryfewspecimensofinkwritingwhichhaveoutlasteddecayanddisintegrationthroughsomanyages，arefoundtobecloselyalliedtomaterialslikebitumen，lampblackobtainedfromthesmokeofoil-
torchesorresins；orgold，silver，cinnabarandminium。
JosephusassertsthatthebooksoftheancientHebrewswerewritteningoldandsilver。
“Siccadewat“Asilverinkstandeth，astheancientArabicproverbruns。
Rosseliniasserts：
“themonumentalhireoglyphicsoftheEgyptianswerealmostinvariablypaintedwiththeliveliesttints；andwhensimilarhireoglyphicswereexecutedonareducedscale，andinamorecursiveformuponpapyriorscrollsmadefromtheleavesofthepapyrusthepageswerewrittenwithbothblackandcoloredinks。”
TheearlymodeofinkwritinginbiblicaltimesmentionedinNumbersv。23，whereItissaid“thepriestshallwritethecursesinabook，andblotthemoutwiththebitterwater。”waswithakindofinkpreparedforthepurpose，withoutanysaltsofironorothermaterialwhichcouldmakeapermanentdye；
thesemaledictionswerethenwashedintothewater，whichthewomanwasobligedtodrink，sothatshedranktheverywordsoftheexecration。TheinkstillusedintheEastisalmostallofthiskind；awetspongewillobliteratethefinestoftheirwritings。
InthebookofJeremiah，chap。xxxvi。verse18，itsays：“ThenBaruchanswered，Hepronouncedallthesewordsuntomewithhismouth，andIwroteTHEMwithinkinthebook。”andinEzek。ix。2，3，11，“Inkhorn“isreferredto。
SixhundredyearslaterintheNewTestamentisanothermentionofink“havingmanythingstowriteuntoyou。IwouldnotwritewithpaperandInk。”
&c。；secondepistle。ofJohn，12，andagaininhisthirdepistle，13，“Ihadmanythingstowrite，butIwillnotwithpenandInkwriteuntothee。”
TheillustrativehistoryoftheancientEgyptiansdoesnotpointtoatimebeforethereedwasusedasapen。Thevarioussculptures，carvings，potteryandpaintings，exhibitthescribesatworkintheiravocations，recordingdetailsaboutthehandsandearsofslaughteredenemies，thenumbersofcaptives，thebasketsofwheat，thenumerousanimals，thetribute，thetreatiesandthepublicrecords。Theseancientscribesemployedacylindricalboxforink，withwritingtablets，whichweresquaresectionsofwoodwithlateralgroovestoholdthesmallreedsforwriting。
DuringthetimeJosephwasViceroyofEgyptunderSethosisI，thefirstofthePharaohs，B。C。1717，heemployedasmallarmyofclerksandstorekeepersthroughoutEgyptinhisextensivegrainoperations。
Thescribeswhosedutiespertainedtomakingrecordsrespectingthisbusiness，usedbothredandblackinks，containedindifferentreceptaclesinadesk，which，whennotinuse，wasplacedinaboxortrunk，withleatherhandlesatthesides，andinthiswaywascarriedfromplacetoplace。Asthescribehadtwocolorsofink，heneededtwopensreedsandweseehimonthemonumentsofThebes，busywithonepenatwork，andtheotherplacedinthatmostancientpen-rack，behindtheear。Such，saysMr。Knight，ispresentedinapaintingatBeniHassan。
TheHistoricalSocietyofNewYorkpossessesasmallbundleofthesepens，withthestainsoftheinkyetuponthem，besidesabronzeknifeusedformakingsuchpensreeds，andwhichareallegedtobelongtoaperiodnotfarremovedfromJoseph’stime。
Theotherhistoryofink，longprecedingthedepartureofIsraelfromEgypt，andwithfewexceptionsuntilafterthemiddleages，canonlybeconsidered，asitisintimatelyboundupinthechronologyandstoryofhandwritingandwritingmaterials。Eventhenitmustnotbesupposedthatthehistoryofinkisauthenticandcontinuousfromthemomenthandwritingwasappliedtotherecordingofevents；fortheearliestrecordsarelosttousinalmosteveryinstance。Wearethereforedependentuponlaterwriters，whomadetheirrecordsintheinksoftheirowntime，andwhocouldrefertothoseprecedingthemonlybytheaidoflegendsandtraditions。
Thereisnoindependentdataindicatinganyvariationwhateverinthemethodsoftheadmixtureofblackorcoloredinks，whichdifferentiatesthemfromthoseusedintheearliesttimesoftheancientEgyptians，HebrewsorChinese。Onthecontraryifweexclude“Indian“andoneoftheredinks，foraperiodoffourteenhundredyearswefindtheirnumberdiminishinguntilthefirstcenturiesoftheChristianera。
Exaggeratedtraditionhasdescribedinksaswellasotherthingsandimaginationisnotlacking。Someoftheselegends，inlateryearsputinwriting，compelustodependontranslationsofobscureandobsoletetongues，whilethemajorityofthemaremingledwiththeerrorsandsuperstitiousofthetimeinwhichtheyweretranscribed。
Thevalueofsuchaccountsdependsuponavarietyofcircumstancesandwemustproceedwiththeutmostcautionanddiscriminationinexaminingandweighingtheauthenticityofthesesourcesofinformation。
Ifwereasonthattheartofhandwritingdidnotbecomeknowntoalltheancientnationsatonce，butwasgraduallyimpartedbyonetoanother，itfollowsthatrecordssupposedtobecontemporaneous，weremadeinsomecountriesatamuchearlierperiodthaninothers。ItmustalsobeobservedthattheAsiaticnationsandtheEgyptianspracticedtheartofwritingmanycenturiesbeforeitwasintroducedintoEurope。
Henceweareabletoestimatewithsomedegreeofcertaintythatink-writtenaccountsofsomeAsiaticnationsweremadewhileEuropewasinthisrespectburiedinutterdarkness。
AninterestingstorywhichbearsonthisstatementistoldbyKennett，inhis“AntiquitiesofRome。”
London，1743，astothediscoveryofancientMSS。fivehundredandtwentyyearsbeforetheChristianera，ofwhateventhenmusthavebeenremarkable：
“AstrangeoldwomancameoncetoTarquiniusSuperbuswithninebooks，which，shesaid，weretheoraclesoftheSybils，andprofferedtosellthem。
Butthekingmakingsomescrupleabouttheprice，shewentawayandburntthreeofthem；andreturningwiththesix，askedthesamesumasbefore。
Tarquinonlylaughedatthehumour；uponwhichtheoldwomanlefthimoncemore；andaftershehadburntthreeothers，cameagainwiththemthatwereleft，butstillkepttoheroldterms。Thekingnowbegantowonderatherobstinacy，andthinkingtheremightbesomethingmorethanordinaryinthebusiness，sentfortheaugarssoothsayers
toconsultwhatwastobedone。They，whentheirdivinationswereperformed，soonacquaintedhimwhatapieceofimpietyhehadbeenguiltyof，byrefusingatreasuresenttohimfromheaven，andcommandedhimtogivewhatevershedemandedforthebooksthatremained。Thewomanreceivedhermoney，anddeliveredthewritings；andonly，chargingthembyallmeanstokeepthemsacred，immediatelyvanished。Twoofthenobilitywerepresentlyafterchosentobethekeepersoftheseoracles，whichwerelaidupwithallimaginablecareintheCapitol，inachestunderground。TheycouldnotbeconsultedwithoutaspecialorderoftheSenate，whichwasnevergranted，unlessuponthereceivingofsomenotabledefeat；upontherisingofanyconsiderablemutiny，orseditionintheState；oruponsomeotherextraordinaryoccasion；severalofwhichwemeetwithinLivy。”
Someoftheancienthistoriansevensoughttobemisleadingrespectingtheeventsnotonlyoftheirowntimes，butofepochswhichprecededthem。Richardson，inhis“DissertationonAncientHistoryandMythology。”
publishedin1778，remarks：
“TheinformationreceivedhithertohasbeenalmostentirelyderivedthroughthemediumoftheGrecianwriters；whoseeleganceoftaste，harmonyoflanguage，andfinearrangementofideas，havecaptivatedtheimagination，misledthejudgment，andstampedwiththedignifiedtitleofhistory，theamusingexcursionsoffancifulromance。Tooproudtoconsidersurroundingnations，iftheEyptiansmaybeexceptedinanylightbutthatofbarbarians；theydespisedtheirrecords，theyalteredtheirlanguage，andframedtoooftentheirdetails，moretotheprejudicesoftheirfellowcitizens，thantothestandardoftruthorprobability。
WehavenamesofPersiankings，whichaPersiancouldnotpronounce；wehavefactsrelatedtheyapparentlyneverknew；andwehavecustomsascribedtothem，whichcontradicteverydistinguishingcharacteristicofanEasternpeople。ThestoryofLysimachusandoneGreekhistorianmayindeed，withjustice，beappliedtomanyothers。
Thisprince，inthepartitionofAlexander’sempire，becameKingofThrace：hehadbeenoneofthemostactiveofthatconqueror’scommanders；andwaspresentateveryeventwhichdeservedtheattentionofhistory。AGrecianhadwrittenanaccountofthePersianconquest；andbewishedtoreaditbeforetheking。Themonarchlistenedwithequalattentionandwonder：’Allthisisveryfine，’sayshe，whenthehistorianhadfinished，’butwherewasIwhenthosethingswereperformed？’“
CHAPTERII。
ANTIQUITYOFINK。
THEINVENTIONOFTHEARTOFWRITING——TOWHOM
ITBELONGS——ITSUTILIZATIONBYNATIONSAND
INDIVIDUALS——WHENITISFIRSTMENTIONEDINTHE
BIBLE——CITATIONSFROMTHEENCYCLOPaeDIABRITANNICA
ANDSMITHSDICTIONARYOFTHEBIBLE——SOME
REMARKSBYHUMPHREYSOFTHEORIGINANDPROGRESS
OFHANDWRITING——COMMENTSBYPLATOAND
THECOLLOQUYBETWEENKINGTHAMUSANDTHOTH，THEEGYPTIANGODOFTHELIBERALARTS——FIRST
APPEARANCEOFINKWRITTENROLLS——DESTRUCTION
OFTHETEMPLESWHICHCONTAINEDTHEM——COMMENTS
OFTHEHISTORIANROLLINS——DESTRUCTION
OFTHEMOSTANCIENTCHINESEINKWRITTENMSS。
THEREisadifferenceofopinionastowhatnationbelongsthehonoroftheinventionoftheartofhandwriting。SirIsaacNewtonobserves：
“Thereistheutmostuncertaintyinthechronologyofancientkingdoms，arisingfromthevanityofeachclaimingthegreatestantiquity，whilethosepretensionswerefavouredbytheirhavingnoexactaccountoftime。”
Itsantiquityhasbeenexhaustivelytreatedbymanywriters；thebestknownareMassey，1763，TheOriginandProgressofLetters；“Astle，1803，“TheOriginandProgressofWriting；“Silvestre，“UniversalPalaeography。”Paris，1839-41；andHumphreys，1855，“TheOriginandProgressoftheArtofWriting。”
They，withothers，havesoughttorecordtheoriginandgradualdevelopmentoftheartofwritingfromtheEgyptianHieroglyphicsof4000B。C。；theChineseFigurative，3000B。C。；IndianAlphabetic，2000ormoreB。C。；theBabylonianorCuneiform，2000
yearsB。C。；andthePhoenicianinwhichtheyincludetheHebreworSamaritanAlphabet，2000ormoreB。C。，downtothewritingsoftheneworWesternworldoftheChristianera。
Thedatapresentedandtheargumentssetforth，deserveprofoundrespect，andthoughwefindsomefavoringtheEgyptians，orthePhoenicians，theChaldeans，theSyrians，theIndians，thePersiansortheArabians，itisbesttoaccepttheconcensusoftheiropinion，whichseemstodividebetweenthePhoeniciansandtheEgyptiansasbeingtheinventorsoftheforemostofallthearts。“For，inPhoenicia，hadlivedTaautorThoththefirstHermes，itsinventor，andwholatercarriedhisartintoEgyptwheretheyfirstwroteinpictures，some2200yearsB。C。”
TheartappearstohavebeenfirstexercisedinGreeceandtheWestabout1500or1800B。C。，andlikeallarts，itwasdoubtlessslowandprogressive。
TheGreeksrefertheinventionofwrittenletterstoCadmus，merelybecauseheintroducedthemfromPhoenicia，thenonlysixteeninnumber。Tothese，fourmorewereaddedbySimonides。EvanderbroughtlettersintoLatiumfromGreece，theLatinlettersbeingatfirstnearlythesameformastheGreek。TheRomansemployedadeviceofscatteringgreensandupontables，fortheteachingofarithmeticandwriting，andinIndiaa“sandbox“consistingofasurfaceofsandlaidonaboardthefingerbeingutilizedtotraceforms，wasthemethodfollowedbythenativestoteachtheirchildren。
Itissaidthatsuchmethodsstillobtaineveninthisage，insomeruraldistrictsofEngland。
Aftertheinventionofwritingwell-informednationsandindividualskeptscribesorchroniclerstorecordinwriting，historicalandotherevents，mingledwithclaimsofantiquitybasedonpopularlegends。
Theseindividualswerenotalwaysheldinthehighestesteem。AmongtheHebrewsitwasconsideredanhonorablevocation，whiletheGreeksforalongtimetreateditspractitionersasoutcasts。ItwasanaccomplishmentpossessedbythefewevendowntothefifteenthcenturyoftheChristianera。TherulersofthedifferentcountriesweredeficientintheartanddependedonotherstowritetheirdocumentsandletterstowhichtheyappendedtheirmonogramorthesignoftheCrossagainsttheirnamesasanattestation。
SolateasA。D。1516anorderwasmadeinLondontoexamineallpersonswhocouldwriteinordertodiscovertheauthorshipofaseditiousdocument。
TheartofwritingisnotmentionedintheBiblepriortothetimeofMoses，althoughasbeforestated，inEgyptandthecountriesadjacenttheretoitwasnotonlyknownbutpracticed。
ItsfirstmentionrecordedinScripturewillbefoundinExodusxvii。v。14；“AndtheLordsaiduntoMoses，Writethis，foramemorial，inabook；andrehearseitintheearofJoshua；forIwillutterlyputouttheremembranceofAmalekfromunderheaven。”
ThiscommandwasgivenimmediatelyafterthedefeatoftheAmalekitesnearHoreb，andbeforethearrivaloftheIsraelitesatMountSinai。
Itisobservable，thatthereisnottheleasthinttoinduceustobelievethatwritingwasthennewlyinvented；
onthecontrary，wemayconclude，thatMosesunderstoodwhatwasmeantbywritinginabook；
otherwiseGodwouldhaveinstructedhim，ashehaddoneNoahinbuildingtheArk；forhewouldnothavebeencommandedtowriteinabook，ifhehadbeenignorantoftheartofwriting；butMosesexpressednodifficultyofcomprehensionwhenhereceivedthiscommand。WealsofindthatMoseswrotealltheworksandallthejudgmentsoftheLord，containedinthetwenty-firstandthetwosucceedingchaptersofthebookofExodus，beforethetwowrittentablesofstonewereevensomuchaspromised。Thedeliveryofthetablesisnotmentionedtilltheeighteenthverseofthethirty-firstchapter，afterGodhadmadeanendofcommuningwithhimuponthemount，thoughthetencommandmentswerepromulgatedimmediatelyafterhisthirddescent。
MosesmakesfrequentmentionofancientbooksoftheHebrews，butdescribesnone，exceptthetwotablesonwhichGodwrotethetencommandments。Thesehetellsus，wereofpolishedstone，engravenonbothsidesandasCalmetremarks：“itisprobablethatMoseswouldnothaveobservedtousthesetwoparticularssooftenashedoes，wereitnottodistinguishthemfromotherbooks，whichweremadeoftables，notofstone，butofwoodandcuriouslyengraven，butononesideonly。”
ItcannotbesaidthatMosesusesanylanguagewhichcanbeconstruedtomeantheemploymentofrollsofpapyrus，orbarksoftrees，muchlessofparchment。
Wehavethereforereasontobelievethatbythetermbook，healwaysmeanstable-books，madeofsmallthinboardsorplates。
Theedicts，aswellasthelettersofkings，werewrittenupontabletsandsenttothevariousprovinces，sealedwiththeirsignets。Scriptureplainlyalludestothecustomofsealingupletters，edictsandthetabletsonwhichtheprophetswrotetheirvisions。
Thepracticeofwritinguponrollsmadeofthebarksoftreesisveryancient。ItisalludedtointheBookofJob：“Oh！thatmineadversaryhadwrittenabook；
surelyIwouldtakeituponmyshoulders，andbinditasacrowntome。”Oldversion。Thenewoneruns：“AndthatIhadtheindictmentwhichmineadversaryhathwritten！“Therolls，orvolumes，generallyspeaking，werewrittenupononesideonly。
ThisisintimatedbyEzekielwhoobservesthathesawoneofinextraordinaryformwrittenonbothsides：“AndwhenIlooked，behold，anHandwassentuntome，andlo！arollofabookwastherein；andhespreaditbeforeme，anditwaswrittenwithinandwithout。”
Tohavebeenabletowriteondrytabletsofwoodorbarksoftreeswiththereedorbrush，thethenonlyink-writinginstrumentsinvoguewouldhavenecessitatedtheemploymentoflampblacksuspendedinavehicleofthickgum，orintheformofapaint。Bothofthesemaybetermedpigmentaryinks。Theuseofthininkswouldhavecausedspreadingorblottingandthusrenderedthewritingillegible。
TheEncyclopaediaBritannicageneralizesitsremarksonthissubject：——
“Theearliestwritingswerepurelymonumentalandaccordinglythosematerialswerechosenwhichweresupposedtolastthelongest。Thesameideaofperpetuitywhichinarchitecturefindsitsmoststrikingexpositioninthepyramidswasrepeated，inthecaseofliteraryrecords，inthetwocolumnsmentionedbyJosephus，theoneofstoneandtheotherofbrick，onwhichthechildrenofSethwrotetheirinventionsandastronomicaldiscoveries；inthepillarsinCreteonwhich，accordingtoPorphyry，theceremoniesoftheCorybanteswereinscribed；
intheleadentabletscontaininlutheworksofHesiod，depositedinthetempleoftheMuses，inBoeotia；
inthetencommandmentsonstonedeliveredbyMoses；andinthelawsofSolon，inscribedonplanksofwood。Thenotionofaliteraryproductionsurvivingthedestructionofthematerialsonwhichitwasfirstwritten——the’momentum，aereperennius’
ofHorace’sambition——wasunknownbeforethediscoveryofsubstancesforsystematictranscription。
“TabletsofivoryormetalwereincommonuseamongtheGreeksandRomans。Whenmadeofwood——sometimesofcitron，butusuallyofbeechorfir——theirinnersideswerecoatedwithwax，onwhichthelettersweretracedwithapointedpenorstilettostylus，oneendofwhichwasusedforerasure。ItwaswithhisstylusthatCaesarstabbedCascainthearmwhenattackedbyhismurderers。
WaxtabletsofthiskindcontinuedinpartialuseinEuropeduringthemiddleages；theoldestextantspecimen，nowinthemuseumatFlorence，belongstotheyear1301。”
LatertheHebrewScriptureswerewrittenininkorpaintupontheskinsofceremoniallycleananimalsorevenbirds。Thesewererolleduponsticksandfastenedwithacord，theendsofwhichweresealedwhensecuritywasanobject。Theywerewrittenincolumns，andusuallyupononeside，only。Thewritingwasfromrighttoleft；theuppermarginwasthreefingersbroad，theloweronefourfingers；abreadthoftwofingersseparatedthecolumns。Thecolumnsranacrossthewidthofthesheet，therolledendsofwhichwereheldverticallyintherespectivehands。Whenonecolumnwasread，anotherwasexposedtoviewbyunrollingitfromtheendinthelefthand，whiletheformerwashiddenfromviewbyrollinguptheendgraspedbytherightband。Thepenwasareed，theinkblack，carriedinabottlesuspendedfromthegirdle。
TheSamaritanPentateuchisveryancient，asisprovedbythecriticismsofTalmudicwriters。Acopyofitwasacquiredin1616byPietrodellaValle，oneofthefirstdiscoverersofthecuneiforminscriptions。
ItwasthusintroducedtothenoticeofEurope。ItisclaimedbytheSamaritansofNablusthattheircopywaswrittenbyAbisha，thegreat-grandsonofAaron，inthethirteenthyearofthesettlementofthelandofCanaanbythechildrenofIsrael。ThecopiesofitbroughttoEuropeareallwritteninblackinkonvellumor“cotton“paper，andvaryfrom12motofolio。ThescrollusedbytheSamaritansiswritteningoldletters。SeeSmith’s“DictionaryoftheBible。”
vol。III，pp。1106-1118。Itsclaimstogreatantiquityarenotadmittedbyscholars。
Theenumerationofsomeofthemodesofwritingmaybeinteresting：
TheMexicanwritingisinverticalcolumns，beginningatthebottom。
TheChineseandJapanesewriteinverticalcolumns，beginningatthetopandpassingfromlefttoright。
TheEgyptianhieroglyphicsarewritteninverticalcolumnsorhorizontallinesaccordingtotheshapeandpositionofthetablet。Itissaidthatwiththehorizontalwritingthedirectionisindifferent，butthatthefiguresofmenandanimalsfacethebeginningoftheline。Withfigures，theunitsstandontheleft。
TheEgyptiansalsowrotefromrighttoleftinthehieraticanddemoticandenchorialstyles。ThePalasgiansdidthesame，andwerefollowedbytheEtruscans。
Inthedemoticcharacter，Dr。Brugschremarksthatthoughthegeneraldirectionofthewritingwasusuallyfromrighttoleft，yettheindividualletterswereformedfromlefttoright，asisevidentfromtheunfinishedendsofhorizontalletterswhentheinkfailedinthepen。
Inwritingnumbersinthehieraticandenchorialtheunitswereplacedtotheleft。TheArabswritefromrighttoleft，butreceivedtheirnumeralsfromIndia，whencetheycallthem“Hindee。”andtherethearrangementoftheirnumeralsislikeourown，unitstotheright。
ThefollowingnoteworthypassageistakenfromHumphreys’work“OntheOriginandProgressoftheArtofWriting：“
“Nearlyalltheprincipalmethodsofancientwritingmaybedividedintosquarecapitals，roundedcapitals，andcursiveletters；thesquarecapitalsbeingtermedsimplycapitals，theroundedcapitalsuncials，andthesmallletters，orsuchashadchangedtheirformduringthecreationofarunninghand，minuscule。Capitalsare，strictlyspeaking，suchlettersasretaintheearliestsettledformofanalphabet；beinggenerallyofsuchangularshapesascouldconvenientlybecarvedonwoodorstone，orengravedinmetal，tobestampedoncoins。TheearliestLatinMSS。knownarewrittenentirelyincapitalslikeinscriptionsinmetalormarble。
*****
Theuncialletters，astheyaretermed，appeartohavearisenaswritingonpapyrusorvellumbecamecommon，whenmanyofthestraightlinesofthecapitals，inthatkindofwriting，graduallyacquiredacurvedform，tofacilitatetheirmorerapidexecution。Howeverthismaybe，fromthesixthtotheeighth，oreven10thcentury，theseuncialsorpartlyroundedcapitalsprevail。
“Themodernminuscule，differingfromtheancientcursivecharacter，appearstohaveariseninthefollowingmanner：Duringthe6thand7thcenturies，akindoftransitionstyleprevailedinItalyandsomeotherpartsofEurope，theletterscomposingwhichhavebeentermedsemi-uncials，which，inafurthertransition，becamemorelikethoseoftheoldRomancursive。Thismanner，whendefinitelyformed，becamewhatisnowtermedtheminusculemanner；itbegantoprevailoveruncialsinacertainclassofMSS。aboutthe8thcentury，andtowardsthe10thitsgeneralusewas，withfewexceptions，established。Itissaidtohavebeenoccasionallyusedasearlyasthe5thcentury；butIamunabletociteanauthenticexistingmonument。ThePsalterofAlfredtheGreat，writteninthe9thcentury，isinasmallRomancursivehand，whichhasinducedCasleytoconsiderittheworkofsomeItalianecclesiastic。”
Thelearnedwhohavemadealifestudyofthehistoryofthemostancientmanuscripts，mentionthemspecificallyingreatnumberandofdifferentcountries，whichwouldseemtoindicatethattheartofhandwritinghadmadegreatstridesintheveryoldentimes；manynationshadadoptedit，andB。C。650“ithadspreaditselfoverthethenknowngreaterpartofthecivilizedworld。”
Wecanwellbelievethistobetrueinreadingabouttheancientlibraries，notwithstandingthatsomerulershadsoughttoprohibititsexercise。
Plato，wholivedB。C。350，expresseshisviewsoftheimportanceofwritinginhisimaginarycolloquybetweenThamus，kingofEgypt，andThoth，thegodoftheliberalartsoftheEgyptians；heacquaintsus：
“Thatthediscourseturneduponletters。ThothmaintainedthevalueofWriting，ascapableofmakingthePeoplewiser，increasingthepowersofMemory；tothisthekingdissented，andexpressedhisopinionthatbytheexerciseofthisArtthemultitudewouldappeartobeknowingofthosethingsofwhichtheywerereallyignorant，possessingonlyanideaofWisdom，insteadofWisdomitself。”
Pythagoras，B。C。532，weareinformedbyAstle：
“WentintoEgyptwhereheresidedtwenty-twoyears；hewasinitiatedintothesacerdotalorder，and，fromhisspiritofinquiry，hehasbeenjustlysaidtohaveacquiredagreatdealofEgyptianlearning，whichheafterwardsintroducedintoItaly。
ThePythagoreanschoolswhichheestablishedinItalywhenwritingwastaught，weredestroyedwhenthePlatonicornewphilosophyprevailedovertheformer。Polybiuslib。ii。p。175andJamblichusinvitaPythag。mentionmanycircumstances，relativetothesefacts，quotedfromauthorsnowlost；asdothPorphyry，inhislifeofPythagoras。”
Forthehundredyearsormorefollowing，however，thedisseminationoflearningandthetranscriptionofeventswasnottobedenied。Wefindink-writtenvolumesrollsrelatingtodiversesubjectsbeingloanedtooneanother；correspondencebylettertoandfromdistantlandsoffrequentoccurrence，andtheartofhandwritingregularlytaughtintheschoolsoflearning。
ItsprogresswastobeinterruptedbythewarsofthePersians。Mr。Astleincallingattentiontoeventswhichhavecontributedtodepriveusoftheliterarytreasuresofantiquitythusreferstothem：
“Averyfatalblowwasgiventoliterature，bythedestructionofthePhoeniciantemples，andoftheEgyptiancolleges，whenthosekingdoms，andthecountriesadjacent，wereconqueredbythePersians，aboutthreehundredandfiftyyearsbeforeChrist。Ochus，thePersiangeneral，ravagedthesecountrieswithoutmercy，andfortythousandSidoniansburntthemselveswiththeirfamiliesandrichesintheirownhouses。TheconquerorthendroveNectanebusoutofEgypt，andcommittedthelikeravagesinthatcountry；afterwardshemarchedintoJudea，wherehetookJericho，andsentagreatnumberofJewsintocaptivity。ThePersianshadagreatdisliketothereligionofthePhoeniciansandtheEgyptians；thiswasonereasonfordestroyingtheirbooks，ofwhichEusebiusDePreparat。
Evang。says，theyhadagreatnumber。”
Theselosses，apparently，didnotinterferewiththeprogressoftheartinmorewesterncountries。ProfessorRollininhis“AncientHistory。”1823，remarks：
“PtolemySoter，KingofEgyptB。C。285，hadbeencarefultoimprovehimselfinpublicliterature，aswasevidentbyhiscompilingthelifeofAlexander，whichwasgreatlyesteemedbytheancients，butisnowentirelylost。Inordertoencouragethecultivationofthesciences，whichhemuchadmired，hefoundedanacademyatAlexandria，calledtheMuseum，whereasocietyoflearnedmendevotedthemselvestophilosophicstudies，andtheimprovementofallothersciences，almostinthesamemannerasthoseofLondonandParis。Forthispurpose，hebeganbygivingthemalibrary，whichwasprodigiouslyincreasedbyhissuccessors。
“HissonPhiladelphusleftahundredthousandvolumesinitatthetimeofhisdeath，andthesucceedingprincesofthatraceenlargeditstillmore，tillatlastitconsistedofsevenhundredthousandvolumes。
“Thislibrarywasformedbythefollowingmethod：AlltheGreekandotherbooksthatwerebroughtintoEgyptwereseized，andsenttotheMuseum，wheretheyweretranscribedbypersonsemployedforthatpurpose。Thecopieswerethendeliveredtotheproprietors，andtheoriginalsweredepositedinthelibrary。
“AstheMuseumwasatfirstinthatquarterofthecitywhichwascalledBruchion，andneartheroyalpalace，thelibrarywasfoundedinthesameplace，anditsoondrewvastnumbersthither；butwhenitwassomuchaugmented，astocontainfourhundredthousandvolumes，theybegantodeposittheadditionalbooksintheSerapion。Thislastlibrarywasasupplementtotheformer，forwhichreasonitreceivedtheappellationofitsDaughter，andinprocessoftimehadinitthreehundredthousandvolumes。
“InCaesar’swarwiththeinhabitantsofAlexandria，afire，occasionedbythosehostilities，consumedthelibraryofBruchion，withitsfourhundredthousandvolumes。Senecaseemstometobeoutofhumour，when，speakingoftheconflagration，hebestowshiscensuresbothonthelibraryitself，andtheeulogiummadeonitbyLivy，whostylesitanillustriousmonumentoftheopulenceoftheEgyptiankings，andoftheirjudiciousattentiontotheimprovementofthesciences。Seneca，insteadofallowingittobesuch，wouldhaveitconsideredonlyasaworkresultingfromtheprideandvanityofthosemonarchs，whohadamassedsuchanumberofbooks，notfortheirownuse，butmerelyforpompandostentation。Thisreflection，however，seemstodiscoververylittlesagacity；forisitnotevidentbeyondcontradiction，thatnonebutkingsarecapableoffoundingthesemagnificentlibraries，whichbecomeanecessarytreasuretothelearned，anddoinfinitehonourtothosestatesinwhichtheyareestablished？
“ThelibraryofSerapion，didnotsustainanydamage，anditwasundoubtedlytherethatCleopatradepositedthosetwohundredthousandvolumesfromthatofPergamus，whichwaspresentedtoherbyAntony。Thisaddition，withotherenlargementsthatweremadefromtimetotime，renderedthenewlibraryofAlexandriamorenumerousandconsiderablethanthefirst；andthoughitwasransackedmorethanonce，duringthetroublesandrevolutionswhichhappenedintheRomanempire，italwaysretrieveditslosses，andrecovereditsnumberofvolumes。Inthisconditionitsubsistedformanyages，displayingitstreasurestothelearnedandcurious，tilltheseventhcentury，whenitsufferedthesamefatewithitsparent，andwasburntbytheSaracens，whentheytookthatcityintheyearofourLord642。Themannerbywhichthismisfortunehappenedistoosingulartobepassedoverinsilence。
“John，surnamedtheGrammarian，afamousfollowerofAristotle，happenedtobeatAlexandria，whenthecitywastaken；andashewasmuchesteemedbyAmriEbnolAs，thegeneraloftheSaracentroops，heentreatedthatcommandertobestowuponhimtheAlexandrianlibrary。Amrireplied，thatitwasnotinhispowertograntsucharequest；
butthathewouldwritetotheKhalif，oremperoroftheSaracens，forhisordersonthathead，withoutwhichhecouldnotpresumetodisposeofthelibrary。HeaccordinglywrotetoOmar，thethenKhalif，whoseanswerwas，thatifthosebookscontainedthesamedoctrinewiththeKoran，theycouldnotbeofanyuse，becausetheKoranwassufficientinitself，andcomprehendedallnecessarytruths；
butiftheycontainedanyparticularscontrarytothatbook，theyoughttobedestroyed。Inconsequencetothisanswer，theywereallcondemnedtotheflames，withoutanyfurtherexamination；and，forthatpurpose，weredistributedamongthepublicbaths；where，forthespaceofsixmonths，theywereusedforfuelinsteadofwood。Wemayfromhenceformajustideaoftheprodigiousnumberofbookscontainedinthatlibrary；andthuswasthisinestimabletreasureoflearningdestroyed！
TheMuseumofBruchionwasnotburntwiththelibrarywhichwasattachedtoit。Straboacquaintsus，inhisdescriptionofit，thatitwasaverylargestructurenearthepalace，andfrontingtheport；andthatitwassurroundedwithaportico，inwhichthephilosopherswalked。Headds，thatthemembersofthissocietyweregovernedbyapresident，whosestationwassohonourableandimportant，that，inthetimeofthePtolemies，hewasalwayschosenbythekinghimself，andafterwardsbytheRomanemperor；andthattheyhadahallwherethewholesocietyatetogetherattheexpenseofthepublic，bywhomtheyweresupportedinaveryplentifulmanner。”
Amongtheothereventscontributingtothedeplorablelosseswhichmankindhassustainedinthisrespect，asadonewaswhenthemostancientinkwritingsoftheChinesewereorderedtobedestroyedbytheiremperorChee-Whange-Tee，inthethirdcenturybeforeChrist，withtheavowedpurposethateverythingshouldbeginanewasfromhisreign。Thesmallportionofthemwhichescapeddestructionwererecoveredandpreservedbyhissuccessors。
CHAPTERIII。
CLASSICALINKANDITSEXODUS。
THEMATERIALSANDMETHODSEMPLOYEDINPREPARING
THEINKMSS。OFANTIQUITY——THEINTRODUCTION
OFPARCHMENTASASUBSTITUTEFOR
PAPYRUS——MODEOFWRITINGONPARCHMENT——HOW
SEPARATEPIECESWEREFIRSTJOINEDINTOBOOK
FORM——EVIDENCEOFTHECHARACTEROFWRITING
UTENSILSTOBEFOUNDINANCIENTPICTURES——SOME
FORMULASBYTHEYOUNGERPLINYANDHISCONTEMPORARY
DIOSCORIDES——HOWTHEGREEKSAND
ROMANSKEPTTHEIRPAPYRIFROMBREAKING——WHEN
BLACKINKBEGANTOFALLINTODISUSEANDITS
CAUSE——THEADOPTIONOFTHESTYLUSANDITSACCOMPANYING
SHEETSOFLEAD，IVORY，METALAND
WOODCOATEDWITHWAX——THEEFFORTSMADETO
RESUMETHEUSEOFSOMEINKWHICHWOULDBIND
TOPARCHMENT——WHYTHEREARENOORIGINALMSS。
EXTANTBELONGINGTOTHETIMEOFCHRIST——THE
INVENTIONOFTHEVITRIOLICINKS——HUMPHREY’S
BLUNDERINLOCATINGDATESOFEARLYGREEK
MSS——THEDESTRUCTIONOFTHECITIESOFHERCULANEUM
ANDPOMPEII——AWAKENINGOFINTEREST
AGAINABOUTTHEEMPLOYMENTOFINKS——REDISCOVERIES
OFSOMEOFTHEMOREREMOTEANCIENT
RECIPES——THEWRITERSINGOLDANDSILVER——RECORDED
INSTANCESOFILLUMINATEDMSS——PASSAGE
FROMTHEBOOKOFJOBWRITTENBYST。
JEROME——DENIALOFTHEEMPLOYMENTOFTANNO-
GALLATEOFIRONINKINTHEFOURTHCENTURY——
DESTRUCTIONOFTHEINSPIREDWRITINGSBYORDER
OFTHEROMANSENATE——THEECLIPSEOFCLASSICAL
LITERATUREANDDISMEMBERMENTOFTHE
ROMANEMPIRE——POEMONTHETHOUSANDYEARS
KNOWNASTHEDARKAGESWHICHFOLLOWED。
THEOPHRASTUSsaysthatthepapyrusbooksoftheancientswerenootherthanrollspreparedinthefollowingmanner：Twoleavesoftherushwereplasteredtogether，usuallywiththemudoftheNile，insuchafashionthatthefibresofoneleafshouldcrossthefibresoftheotheratrightangles；theendsofeachbeingthencutoff，asquareleafwasobtained，equallycapableofresistingfracturewhenpulledortakenholdofinanydirection。Inthisformthepapyriwereexportedingreatquantities。Inordertoformthesesingleleavesintothe“scapi。”orrollsoftheancients，abouttwentyweregluedtogetherendtoend。Thewritingwasthenexecutedinparallelcolumnsafewincheswide，runningtransverselytothelengthofthescroll。Toeachendofthescrollswereattachedroundstavessimilartothoseweuseformaps。Tothesestaves，strings，knownas“umbilici。”wereattached，totheendsofwhichbullaeorweightswerefixed。