点击下载App，搜索"Enquiry Concerning Political Justice",免费读到尾

　　willitoftencomeouttobetruethathundredsofindividualsoughttobesubjectedtotheseverestandmostincessantlabour，thatonemanmayspendinidlenesswhatwouldaffordtothegeneralmassease，leisureandconsequentlywisdom？

　　Whoeverfrequentsthehabitationsoftheluxuriouswillspeedilybeinfectedwiththevicesofluxury。Theministersandattendantsofasovereign，accustomedtothetrappingsofmagnificence，willturnwithdisdainfromthemeritthatisobscuredwiththecloudsofadversity。Invainmayvirtueplead，invainmaytalentssolicitdistinction，ifpovertyseem，tothefastidioussenseofthemaninplace，toenvelopthem，asitwere，withitsnoisomeeffluvia。Theverylacqueyknowshowtorepelunfortunatemeritfromthegreatman’sdoor。

　　Herethenwearepresentedwiththelessonwhichis，loudlyandperpetually，readthroughallthehauntsofmonarchy。Moneyisthegreatrequisite，forthewantofwhichnothingcanatone。Distinction，thehomageandesteemofmankind，aretobebought，notearned。Therichmanneednottroublehimselftoinvitethem，theycomeunbiddentohissurlydoor。Rarelyindeeddoesithappenthatthereisanycrimethatgoldcannotexpiate，anybasenessandmeannessofcharacterthatwealthcannotshroudinoblivion。Moneythereforeistheonlyobjectworthyofyourpursuit，anditisoflittleimportancebywhatsinisterandunmanlymeans，soitbebutobtained。

　　Itistruethatvirtueandtalentsdonotstandinneedofthegreatman’sassistance，andmight，iftheydidbutknowtheirworth，repayhisscornwithajustandenlightenedpity。But，unfortunately，theyareoftenignorantoftheirstrength，andadopttheerrorstheyseeuniversallyespoused。

　　Wereitotherwise，theywouldindeedbehappier，butthegeneralmannerswouldperhapsremainthesame。Thegeneralmannersarefashionedbytheformandspiritofthenationalgovernment；andif，inextraordinarycases，theyceasetoyieldtothemould，theyspeedilychangetheformtowhichtheyfailtosubmit。

　　Theevilsindeedthatariseoutofavarice，aninordinateadmirationofwealthandanintemperatepursuitofitaresoobviousthattheyhaveconstitutedaperpetualtopicoflamentationandcomplaint。Theobjectinthisplaceistoconsiderhowfartheyareextendedandaggravatedbyamonarchicalgovernment，thatis，byaconstitutiontheveryessenceofwhichistoaccumulateenormouswealthuponasinglehead，andtorendertheostentationofsplendourtheestablishedinstrumentforsecuringhonourandveneration。Theobjectistoconsiderinwhatdegreetheluxuryofcourts，theeffeminatesoftnessoffavourites，thesystem，nevertobeseparatedfromthemonarchicalform，ofputtingmen’sapprobationandgoodwordataprice，ofindividualsbuyingthefavourofgovernment，andgovernmentbuyingthefavourofindividuals，isinjurioustothemoralimprovementofmankind。Aslongastheunvaryingpracticeofcourtsiscabal，andaslongastheunvaryingtendencyofcabalistobeardowntalents，anddiscouragevirtue，torecommendcunningintheroomofsincerity，aservileandsuppledispositioninpreferencetofirmnessandinflexibility，apliantandselfishmoralityasbetterthananingenuousone，andthestudyoftheredbookofpromotionratherthanthestudyofthegeneralwelfare，solongwillmonarchybethebitterestandmostpotentofalltheadversariesofthetrueinterestsofmankind。

　　NOTES：

　　1。Burke’sReflection。

　　2。p。413。

　　3。’Thepersonswhomyououghttoloveinfinitelymorethanmearethosetowhomyouareindebtedforyourexistence。’’Theirconductoughttoregulateyoursandbethestandardofyoursentiments。’’Therespectweowetoourfatherandmotherisasortofworship，asthephrasefilialpietyimplies。’

　　’Cequevousdevezaimeravantmoisansaucunecomparaison，cesontceux&aacute；quivousdevezlavie。’’Leurconduitedoitr&eacute；glerlav&ocirc；treetfixervotreopinion。’’Lerespectquenousdevons&aacute；notrep&eacute；reetanotrem&eacute；reestunculte，commel’exprimelemotpi&eacute；t&eacute；

　　filiale。’Le&ccedil；onsd’uneGouvernante，TomeI。

　　4。MaximesparM。LeDucdelaRochefoucault：DelaFausset&eacute；

　　desVertusHumaines，parM。Esprit。

　　5。SeePlutarch’sLives；LivesofCaesarandCicero：CiceronisEpistolaeadAtticum，Lib。XII。Epist。xl，xli。

　　CHAPTERVII

　　OFELECTIVEMONARCHY

　　Havingconsideredthenatureofmonarchyingeneral，itisincumbentonustoexaminehowfaritsmischiefsmaybequalifiedbyrenderingthemonarchyelective。

　　Oneofthemostobviousobjectionstothisremedyisthedifficultythatattendsupontheconductofsuchanelection。Therearemachinesthataretoomightyforthehumanhandtoconduct；thereareproceedingsthataretoogiganticandunwieldyforhumaninstitutionstoregulate。Thedistancebetweenthemassofmankindandasovereignissoimmense，thetrusttobeconfidedsoincalculablygreat，thetemptationsoftheobjecttobedecidedonsoalluring，astoseteverypassionthatcanvexthemindintumultuousconflict。Electionwillthereforeeitherdwindleintoanemptyform，acong&eacute；d’&eacute；lirewiththesuccessfulcandidate’snameatfulllengthintheconclusion，anelectionperpetuallycontinuedinthesamefamily，perhapsinthesamelinealorderofdescent；orwillbecomethesignalofathousandcalamities，foreigncabal，anddomesticwar。Theseevilshavebeensogenerallyunderstoodthatelectivemonarchy，inthestrictsenseofthatappellation，hashadveryfewadvocates。

　　Rousseau，who，inhisadvicetothePolishnation，appearstobeoneofthosefew，thatis，oneofthosewho，withoutlovingmonarchy，conceiveanelectivesovereigntytobegreatlypreferabletoanhereditaryone，endeavourstoprovideagainstthedisordersofanelectionbyintroducingintoitaspeciesofsortition。1*Inanotherpartofthepresentenquiry，itwillbeourbusinesstoexaminehowfarchance，andthedecisionbylot，arecompatiblewiththeprinciples，eitherofsoundmorality，orsoberreason。Forthepresent，itwillbesufficienttosaythattheprojectofRousseauwillprobablyfallunderonepartofthefollowingdilemma，andofconsequencewillberefutedbythesameargumentsthatbearuponthemodeofelectioninitsmostobviousidea。

　　Thedesignwithwhichelectioncanbeintroducedintotheconstitutionofamonarchymusteitherbethatofraisingtothekinglyofficeamanofsuperlativetalentsanduncommongenius，orofprovidingamoderateportionofwisdomandgoodintentionforthesefunctions，andpreventingthemfromfallingintothehandsofpersonsofnotoriousimbecility。Tothefirstofthesedesignsitwillbeobjectedbymany’thatgeniusisfrequentlynothingmoreinthehandsofitspossessorthananinstrumentforaccomplishingthemostperniciousintentions’。And，thoughinthisassertionthereismuchpartialandmistakenexaggeration，itcannothoweverbedeniedthatgenius，suchaswefinditamidstthepresentimperfectionsofmankind，iscompatiblewithveryseriousandessentialerrors。Ifthengeniuscan，bytemptationsofvarioussorts，beledintopracticalmistake，maywenotreasonablyentertainafearrespectingtheeffectofthatsituationwhichissosingularlypregnantwithtemptation？Ifconsiderationsofinferiornotebeapttomisleadthemind，whatshallwethinkofthismostintoxicatingdraught，ofaconditionsuperiortorestraint，strippedofallthoseaccidentsandvicissitudesfromwhichthemoralityofhumanbeingshasflowed，withnosalutarycheck，withnointellectualwarfare，wheremindmeetsmindonequalterms，butperpetuallysurroundedwithsycophants，servantsanddependents？Tosupposeamindinwhichgeniusandvirtueareunitedandpermanentisalsoundoubtedlytosupposesomethingwhichnocalculationwillteachustoexpectshouldofferuponeveryvacancy。And，ifthemancouldbefound，wemustimaginetoourselveselectorsalmostasvirtuousastheelected，orelseerrorandprejudice，factionandintrigue，willrenderhiselectionatleastprecarious，perhapsimprobable。Addtothisthatitissufficientlyevident，fromtheunalterableevilsofmonarchyalreadyenumerated，andwhichweshallpresentlyhaveoccasiontorecapitulate，thatthefirstactofsovereigntyinavirtuousmonarchwhosediscernmentwasequaltohisvirtuewouldbetoannihilatetheconstitutionwhichhadraisedhimtoathrone。

　　Butwewillsupposethepurposeofinstitutinganelectivemonarchy，nottobethatofconstantlyfillingthethronewithamanofsublimegenius，butmerelytopreventtheofficefromfallingintothehandsofapersonofnotoriousimbecility。Suchisthestrangeandperniciousnatureofmonarchythatitmaybedoubtedwhetherthisbeabenefit。Wherevermonarchyexists，courtsandadministrationsmust，aslongasmencanseeonlywiththeireyes，andactonlywiththeirhands，beitsconstantattendants。Butthesehavealreadyappearedtobeinstitutionssomischievousthatperhapsoneofthegreatestinjuriesthatcanbedonetomankindistopersuadethemoftheirinnocence。Underthemostvirtuousdespot，favourandintrigue，theunjustexaltationofoneman，anddepressionofanother，willnotfailtoexist。Underthemostvirtuousdespot，thetruespringthereisinmind，thedesiretopossessmerit，andtheconsciousnessthatmeritwillnotfailtomakeitselfperceivedbythosearoundit，andthroughtheiresteemtorisetoitspropersphere，willbecutoff；andmeanandfactitiousmotivesbesubstitutedinitsroom。Ofwhatconsequenceisitthatmymeritisperceivedbymortalswhohavenopowertoadvanceit？Themonarch，shutupinhissanctuary，andsurroundedwithformalities，willneverhearofit。Howshouldhe？Canheknowwhatispassingintheremotecornersofhiskingdom？Canhetracethefirsttenderblossomsofgeniusandvirtue？

　　Thepeoplethemselveswilllosetheirdiscernmentofthesethings，becausetheywillperceivetheirdiscernmenttobepowerlessineffects。Thebirthofmindisdailysacrificedbyhecatombstothegeniusofmonarchy。Theseedsofreasonandtruthbecomebarrenandunproductiveinthisunwholesomeclimate。Andtheexampleperpetuallyexhibited，ofthepreferenceofwealthandcraftoverintegrityandtalents，producesthemostpowerfuleffectsuponthatmassofmankind，whoatfirstsightmayappearleastconcernedintheobjectsofgenerousambition。Thismischief，towhateveritamounts，becomesmorestronglyfasteneduponusunderagoodmonarchthanunderabadone。Inthelattercase，itonlyrestrainsoureffortsbyviolence；

　　intheformer，itseducesourunderstandings。Topalliatethedefectsandskinoverthedeformityofwhatisfundamentallywrongiscertainlyveryperilous，perhapsveryfataltothebestinterestsofmankind。

　　Meanwhiletheideasheresuggestedshouldbelistenedtowithdiffidenceandcaution。Greatdoubtsmaywellbeentertainedrespectingthatbenefitwhichistobeproducedbyviceandcalamity。IfIlivedunderanelectivemonarchy，Icertainlyshouldnotventuretogivemyvotetoafickle，intemperateorstupidcandidate，inpreferencetoasoberandmoderateone。Yetmayitnothappenthatasuccession，suchasthatofTrajan，AdrianandtheAntonines，familiarizingmentodespotism，andpreparingthemtosubmittothetyrannyoftheirsuccessors，maybefraughtwithmoremischiefthanbenefit？Itshouldseemthatamildandinsidiouswayofreconcilingmankindtoacalamity，beforetheyaremadetofeelit，isarealandaheavymisfortune。

　　Aquestionhasbeenstartedwhetheritbepossibletoblendelectiveandhereditarymonarchy，andtheconstitutionofEnglandhasbeencitedasanexampleofthispossibility。Whatwasitthattheparliamenteffectedattherevolution，andwhentheysettledthesuccessionuponthehouseofHanover？Theyelectednotanindividual，butanewraceofmentofillthethroneofthesekingdoms。Theygaveapracticalinstanceoftheirpower，uponextraordinaryemergenciestochangethesuccession。Atthesametimehoweverthattheyeffectedthisinaction，theydenieditinwords。Theyemployedthestrongestexpressionsthatlanguagecouldfurnishtobindthemselves，theirheirsandposterity，forever，toadheretothissettlement。

　　Theyconsideredthepresentasanemergencewhich，takingintotheaccounttheprecautionsandrestrictionstheyhadprovided，couldneveroccuragain。

　　Inrealitywhatsortofsovereigntyisthatwhichispartlyhereditaryandpartlyelective？Thattheaccessionofafamily，orraceofmen，shouldoriginallybeamatterofelectionhasnothingparticularinit。Allgovernmentisfoundedinopinion；andundoubtedlysomesortofelection，madebyabodyofelectorsmoreorlessextensive，originatedeverynewestablishment。

　　Towhom，inthisamphibiousgovernment，doesthesovereigntybelong，uponthedeathofthefirstpossessor？Tohisheirsanddescendants。Whatsortofchoiceshallthatbeconsideredwhichismadeofamanhalfacenturybeforehebeginstoexist？Bywhatdesignationdoeshesucceed？Undoubtedlybythatofhereditarydescent。AkingofEnglandthereforeholdshiscrownindependently，or，asithasbeenenergeticallyexpressed，’incontempt’，ofthechoiceofthepeople。2*

　　NOTES：

　　1。Consid&eacute；rationssurleGouvernementdePologne，Chap。VIII。

　　2。Thisargumentisstated，withgreatcopiousness，andirresistibleforceofreasoning，byMrBurke，towardsthebeginningofhisReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance。

　　CHAPTERVIII

　　OFLIMITEDMONARCHY

　　Iproceedtoconsidermonarchy，notasitexistsincountrieswhereitisunlimitedanddespotic，but，asincertaininstancesithasappeared，abranchmerelyofthegeneralconstitution。

　　Hereitisonlynecessarytorecollecttheobjectionswhichappliedtoitinitsunqualifiedstate，inordertoperceivethattheybearuponit，withthesameexplicitness，ifnotwithequalforce，undereverypossiblemodification。Stillthegovernmentisfoundedinfalsehood，affirmingthatacertainindividualiseminentlyqualifiedforanimportantsituation，whosequalificationsareperhapsscarcelysuperiortothoseofthemeanestmemberofthecommunity。Stillthegovernmentisfoundedininjustice，becauseitraisesoneman，forapermanentduration，overtheheadsoftherestofthecommunity，notforanymoralrecommendationhepossesses，butarbitrarilyandbyaccident。Stillitreadsaconstantandpowerfullessonofimmoralitytothepeopleatlarge，exhibitingpompandsplendourandmagnificence，insteadofvirtue，astheindextogeneralvenerationandesteem。Theindividualis，notlessthaninthemostabsolutemonarchy，unfittedbyhiseducationtobecomeeitherrespectableoruseful。Heisunjustlyandcruellyplacedinasituationthatengendersignorance，weaknessandpresumption，afterhavingbeenstripped，inhisinfancy，ofalltheenergiesthatshoulddefendhimagainsttheirinroads。Finally，hisexistenceimpliesthatofatrainofcourtiers，andaseriesofintrigue，ofservility，secretinfluence，capriciouspartialitiesandpecuniarycorruption。SotrueistheobservationofMontesquieu，that“wemustnotexpect，underamonarchy，tofindthepeoplevirtuous“。1*

　　But，ifweconsiderthequestionmorenarrowly，weshallperhapsfindthatlimitedmonarchyhasotherabsurditiesandviceswhicharepeculiarlyitsown。Inanabsolutesovereignty，thekingmay，ifheplease，behisownminister；but，inalimitedone，aministryandacabinetareessentialpartsoftheconstitution。Inanabsolutesovereignty，princesareacknowledgedtoberesponsibleonlytoGod；but，inalimitedone，thereisaresponsibilityofaverydifferentnature。Inalimitedmonarchy，therearechecks，onebranchofthegovernmentcounteractingtheexcessesofanother，andacheckwithoutresponsibilityisthemostflagrantcontradiction。

　　Thereisnosubjectthatdeservestobemorematurelyconsidered，thanthisofresponsibility。Toberesponsible，istobeliabletobecalledintoanopenjudicature，wheretheaccuserandthedefendantproducetheirallegationsandevidenceonequalterms。Everythingshortofthis，ismockery。Everythingthatwouldgive，toeitherparty，anyotherinfluence，thanthatoftruthandvirtue，issubversiveofthegreatendsofjustice。

　　Hethatisarraignedofanycrime，mustdescend，aprivateindividual，tothelevelplainofjustice。Ifhecanbiasthesentimentsofhisjudgesbyhispossessionofpower，orbyanycompromiseprevioustohisresignation，orbythemeresympathyexcitedinhissuccessors，whowillnotbesevereintheircensures，lesttheyshouldbetreatedwithseverityinreturn，hecannottrulybesaidtoberesponsible。Fromthehonestinsolenceofdespotismwemayperhapspromiseourselvesbettereffects，thanfromthehypocriticaldisclaimersofalimitedgovernment。Nothingcanbemoreperniciousthanfalsehood，andnofalsehoodcanbemorepalpable，thanthatwhichpretendstoputaweaponintothehandsofthegeneralinterest，whichconstantlyprovesbluntandpowerlessintheveryacttostrike。

　　Itwasaconfusedfeelingofthesetruths，thatintroducedintolimitedmonarchiestheprinciple“thatthekingcandonowrong。”Observethepeculiarconsistencyofthisproceeding。Considerwhataspecimenitaffordsofplaindealing，franknessandingenuoussincerity。Anindividualisfirstappointed，andendowedwiththemostmomentousprerogatives；andthenitispretendedthat，nothe，butothermen，areanswerablefortheabuseoftheseprerogatives。Thispresencemayappeartolerabletomenbredamongthefictionsoflaw，butjustice，truthandvirtue，revoltfromitwithindignation。

　　Havingfirstinventedthisfiction，itbecomesthebusinessofsuchconstitutions，asnearlyaspossible，torealizeit。Aministrymustberegularlyformed；theymustconcerttogether；andthemeasurestheyexecutemustoriginateintheirowndiscretion。Thekingmustbereduced，asnearlyaspossible，toacypher。Sofarashefailstobecompletelyso，theconstitutionmustbeimperfect。

　　Whatsortoffigureisitthatthismiserablewretchexhibitsinthefaceoftheworld？Everythingis，withgreatparade，transactedinhisname。Heassumesalltheinflatedandorientalstylewhichhasbeenalreadydescribed，2*andwhichindeedwas，uponthatoccasion，transcribedfromthepracticeofalimitedmonarchy。WefindhimlikePharaoh’sfrogs，“inourhouses，anduponourbeds，inourovens，andourkneadingtroughs。”

　　Nowobservethemanhimselftowhomallthisimportanceisannexed。

　　Tobeidleistheabstractofhisduties。Heispaidanimmenserevenueonlytohuntandtoeat，towearascarletrobeandacrown。Hemaynotchooseanyoneofhismeasures。Hemustlisten，withdocility，totheconsultationsofhisministers，andsanction，withareadyassent，whatevertheydetermine。

　　Hemustnothearanyotheradvisers；fortheyarehisknownandconstitutionalcounsellors。Hemustnotexpresstoanymanhisopinion；forthatwouldbeasinisterandunconstitutionalinterference。Tobeabsolutelyperfect，hemusthavenoopinion，butbethevacantandcolourlessmirrorbywhichtheirsisreflected。Hespeaks；fortheyhavetaughthimwhatheshouldsay：heaffixeshissignature；fortheyinformhimthatitisnecessaryandproper。

　　Alimitedmonarchy，inthearticleswehavedescribed，mightbeexecutedwithgreatfacilityandapplauseifakingwere，whatsuchaconstitutionendeavourstorenderhim，amerepuppetregulatedbypulleysandwires。

　　Butitisamongthemostegregiousandpalpableofallpoliticalmistakestoimaginethatwecanreduceahumanbeingtothisneutralityandtorpor。

　　Hewillnotexertanyusefulandtrueactivity，buthewillbefarfrompassive。Themoreheisexcludedfromthatenergythatcharacterizeswisdomandvirtue，themoredepravedandunreasonablewillhebeinhiscaprices。

　　Isanypromotionvacant，anddoweexpectthathewillneverthinkofbestowingitonafavourite，orofproving，byanoccasionalelectionofhisown，thathereallyexists？Thispromotionmayhappentobeoftheutmostimportancetothepublicwelfare；or，ifnot——everypromotionunmeritedlygiven，ispernicioustonationalvirtue，andanuprightministerwillrefusetoassenttoit。Akingdoesnotfailtohearhispowerandprerogativesextolled，andhewill，nodoubt，atsometime，wishtoessaytheirrealityinanunprovokedwaragainstaforeignnation，oragainsthisowncitizens。

　　Tosupposethatakingandhisministersshould，throughaperiodofyears，agreeintheirgenuinesentiments，uponeverypublictopic，iswhathumannature，innodegree，authorizes。Thisistoattributetothekingtalentsequaltothoseofthemostenlightenedstatesmenofhisage，oratleasttoimaginehimcapableofunderstandingalltheirprojects，andcomprehendingalltheirviews。Itistotosupposehimunspoiledbyeducation，undebauchedbyrank，andwithaminddisposedtoreceivetheimpartiallessonsoftruth。

　　“Butiftheydisagree，thekingcanchooseotherministers。”Weshallpresentlyhaveoccasiontoconsiderthisprerogativeinageneralview；

　　letusforthepresentexamineit，initsapplicationtothedifferencesthatmayoccur，betweenthesovereignandhisservants。Itisanengineforeversuspendedovertheheadsofthelatter，topersuadethemtodepartfromthesinglenessoftheirintegrity。Thecompliancethatthekingdemandsfromthemisperhaps，atfirst，butsmall；andtheminister，stronglypressed，thinksitbettertosacrificehisopinion，inthisinferiorpoint，thantosacrificehisoffice。Onecomplianceofthissortleadsontoanother，andhethatbegan，perhapsonlywiththepreferenceofanunworthycandidatefordistinction，endswiththemostatrociouspoliticalguilt。Themoreweconsiderthispoint，thegreaterwillitsmagnitudeappear。Itwillrarelyhappenbutthattheministerwillbemoredependentforhisexistenceonthekingthanthekinguponhisminister。Whenitisotherwise，therewillbeamutualcompromise，andbothinturnwillpartwitheverythingthatisfirm，generous，independentandhonourableinman。

　　And，inthemeantime，whatbecomesofresponsibility？Themeasuresaremixedandconfoundedastotheirsource，beyondthepowerofhumaningenuitytounravel。Responsibilityis，inreality，impossible。“Farotherwise。”

　　criestheadvocateofmonarchicalgovernment：“itistruethatthemeasuresarepartlythoseoftheking，andpartlythoseoftheminister，buttheministerisresponsibleforall。”Whereisthejusticeofthat？Itwerebettertoleaveguiltwhollywithoutcensurethantocondemnamanforcrimesofwhichheisinnocent。Inthiscasethegrandcriminalescapeswithimpunity，andtheseverityofthelawfallswhollyuponhiscoadjutors。

　　Thecoadjutorsreceivethattreatmentwhichconstitutestheessenceofallbadpolicy：punishmentisprofuselymenacedagainstthem，andantidoteiswhollyforgotten。Theyarepropelledtovicebyirresistibletemptations，theloveofpower，andthedesiretoretainit；andthencensuredwitharigouraltogetherdisproportionedtotheirfault。Thevitalprincipleofthesociety，istaintedwithinjustice；andthesameneglectofequity，andpartialrespectofpersons，willextenditselfoverthewhole。

　　Iproceedtoconsiderthatprerogativeinlimitedmonarchywhich，whateverothersmaybegivenordenied，isinseparablefromitssubstance，theprerogativeofthekingtonominatetopublicoffices。Ifanythingbeofimportance，surelythismustbeofimportance，thatsuchanominationbemadewithwisdomandintegrity，thatthefittestpersonsbeappointedtothehighesttruststhestatehastoconfer，thatanhonestandgenerousambitionbecherished，andthatmenwhoshallmostardentlyqualifythemselvesforthecareofthepublicwelfare，besecureofhavingthelargestshareinitssuperintendence。

　　Thisnominationisamostarduoustask，andrequiresthewariestcircumspection。

　　Itfalls，moreaccuratelythananyotheraffairofpoliticalsociety，withinthelineofapure，undefinablediscretion。Inothercasesthepathofrectitudeseemsvisibleanddistinct。Justiceinthecontestsofindividuals，justiceinquestionsofpeaceandwar，justiceintheestablishmentofmaximsandjudicature，willnotperhapsobstinatelywithdrawitselffromtheresearchofanimpartialandjudiciousenquirer。Buttoobservethevariousportionsofcapacityscatteredthroughanation，andminutelytoweighthequalificationsofmultipliedcandidates，must，afterallouraccuracy，becommittedtosomedegreeofuncertainty。

　　Thefirstdifficultythatoccurs，istodiscoverthosewhomgeniusandabilityhavemade，inthebestsense，candidatesfortheoffice。Abilityisnotalwaysintrusive；talentsareoftentobefoundintheremotenessofavillage，ortheobscurityofagarret。And，thoughself-consciousnessandself-possessionare，toacertaindegree，theattributesofgenius，yettherearemanythingsbesidefalsemodesty，thatmayteachitspossessortoshuntheairofacourt。

　　Ofallmenakingisleastqualifiedtopenetratetheserecesses，anddiscovermeritinitshidingplace。Encumberedwithforms，hecannotmixatlargeinthesocietyofhisspecies。Heistoomuchengrossedwiththesemblanceofbusiness，orasuccessionofamusements，tohaveleisureforsuchobservations，asshouldaffordajustestimateofmen’scharacters。

　　Inreality，thetaskistoomightyforanyindividual，andthebenefitcanonlybesecuredthroughthemodeofelection。

　　Otherdisadvantages，attendantonthisprerogativeofchoosinghisownministers，itisneedlesstoenumerate。Ifenoughhavenotbeenalreadysaid，toexplainthecharacterofamonarch，asgrowingoutofthefunctionswithwhichheisinvested，alabouredrepetitioninthisplacewouldbebothtediousanduseless。Iftherebeanydependencetobeplacedupontheoperationofmoralcauses，akingwill，inalmosteveryinstance，befoundamongthemostundiscriminating，themostdeceived，theleastinformed，andtheleastheroicallydisinterestedofmankind。

　　Suchthenisthegenuineanduncontrovertiblesceneofamixedmonarchy。

　　Anindividualplacedatthesummitoftheedifice，thecentreandthefountainofhonour，andwhoisneutral，ormustseemneutral，inthecurrenttransactionsofhisgovernment。Thisisthefirstlessonofhonour，virtueandtruth，whichmixedmonarchyreadstoitssubjects。Nexttothekingcomehisadministration，andthetribeofcourtiers；mendrivenbyafatalnecessity，tobecorrupt，intriguingandvenal；selectedfortheirtrustbythemostignorantandillformedinhabitantoftherealm；madesolelyaccountableformeasuresofwhichtheycannotsolelybetheauthors；threatened，ifdishonest，withthevengeanceofaninjuredpeople；and，ifhonest，withthesurervengeanceoftheirsovereign’sdispleasure。Therestofthenation，thesubjectsatlarge——

　　Wasevernamesofraughtwithdegradationandmeannessasthisofsubjects？

　　Iam，itseems，bytheveryplaceofmybirth，becomeasubject。AsubjectIknowIoughttobetothelawsofjustice；asubjectIknowIam，tothecircumstancesandemergenciesunderwhichIamplaced。Buttobethesubjectofanindividual，ofabeingwiththesameform，andthesameimperfectionsasmyself；howmuchmustthehumanmindbedegraded，howmuchmustitsgrandeurandindependencebeemasculated，beforeIcanlearntothinkofthiswithpatience，withindifference，nay，assomemendo，withprideandexultation？Suchistheidolthatmonarchyworships，inlieuofthedivinityoftruth，andthesacredobligationofpublicgood。Itisoflittleconsequencewhetherwevowfidelitytothekingandthenation，ortothenationandtheking，solongasthekingintrudeshimselftotarnishandunderminethetruesimplicity，thealtarofvirtue。

　　Aremerenamesbeneathournotice，andwilltheyproducenosinisterinfluenceuponthemind？Maywebendthekneebeforetheshrineofvanityandfollywithoutinjury？Farotherwise。Mindhaditsbeginninginsensation，anditdependsuponwordsandsymbolsfortheprogressofitsassociations。

　　Thetrulygoodmanmustnotonlyhaveaheartresolved，butafronterect。

　　Wecannotpractiseabjection，hypocrisyandmeanness，withoutbecomingdegradedinothermen’seyesandinourown。Wecannot“bowtheheadinthetempleofRimmon。”withoutinsomedegreeapostatisingfromthedivinityoftruth。Hethatcallsakingamanwillperpetuallyhearfromhisownmouththelesson，thatheisunfitforthetrustreposedinhim：hethatcallshimbyanysublimerappellationishasteningfastintothegrossestandmostdangerouserrors。

　　Butperhaps“mankindaresoweakandimbecilethatitisinvaintoexpect，fromthechangeoftheirinstitutions，theimprovementoftheircharacter。”Whomadethemweakandimbecile？Previouslytohumaninstitutionsandhumansociety，theyhadcertainlynoneofthisdefect。Man，consideredinhimself，ismerelyabeingcapableofimpression，arecipientofperceptions。

　　Whatisthereinthisabstractcharacterthatprecludeshimfromadvancement？

　　Wehaveafaintdiscoveryinindividualsatpresentofwhatournatureiscapable：whyshouldindividualsbefitforsomuch，andthespeciesfornothing？Isthereanythinginthestructureoftheglobethatforbidsustobevirtuous？Ifno，ifnearlyallourimpressionsofrightandwrongflowfromourintercoursewitheachother，whymaynotthatintercoursebesusceptibleofmodificationandamendment？Itisthemostcowardlyofallsystemsthatwouldrepresentthediscoveryoftruthasuseless，andteachusthat，whendiscovered，itisourwisdomtoleavethemassofourspeciesinerror。

　　Thereis，inreality，littleroomforscepticismrespectingtheomnipotenceoftruth。Truthisthepebbleinthelake；and，howeverslowly，inthepresentcase，thecirclessucceedeachother，theywillinfalliblygoon，tilltheyoverspreadthesurface。Noorderofmankindwillforeverremainignorantoftheprinciplesofjustice，equalityandpublicgood。Nosoonerwilltheyunderstandthem，thantheywillperceivethecoincidenceofvirtueandpublicgoodwithprivateinterest：norwillanyerroneousestablishmentbeableeffectuallytosupportitselfagainstgeneralopinion。Inthiscontestsophistrywillvanish，andmischievousinstitutionssinkquietlyintoneglect。Truthwillbringdownallherforces，mankindwillbeherarmy，andoppression，injustice，monarchyandvice，willtumbleintoacommonruin。

　　NOTES：

　　1。“Iln’estpasrarequ’ilyaitdesprincesvertueux；maisilesttresdifficiledansunemonarchiequelepeuplelesoit。”EspritdesLoix，Liv。III，Chap。v。

　　2。SeeaboveBookV，Chap。VI。

　　CHAPTERIX

　　OFAPRESIDENTWITHREGALPOWERS

　　Stillmonarchyitseemshasonerefugeleft。“Wewillnot。”saysomemen，“haveanhereditarymonarchy，weacknowledgethattobeanenormousinjustice。Wearenotcontentedwithanelectivemonarchy，wearenotcontentedwithalimitedone。Weadmittheofficehoweverreduced，ifthetenurebeforlife，tobeanintolerablegrievance。Butwhynothavekings，aswehavemagistratesandlegislativeassemblies，renewablebyfrequentelections？

　　Wemaythenchangetheholderoftheofficeasoftenasweplease。”

　　Letusnotbeseducedbyamereplausibilityofphrase，noremploywordswithouthavingreflectedontheirmeaning。Whatarewetounderstandbytheappellationaking？Iftheofficehaveanymeaning，itseemsreasonablethatthemanwhoholdsitshouldpossesstheprivilege，eitherofappointingtocertainemploymentsathisowndiscretion，orofremittingthedecreesofcriminaljustice，orofconvokinganddismissingpopularassemblies，orofaffixingandrefusinghissanctiontothedecreesofthoseassemblies。

　　MostoftheseprivilegesmayclaimarespectableauthorityinthepowersdelegatedtotheirpresidentbytheUnitedStatesofAmerica。

　　Letushoweverbringtheseideastothetouchstoneofreason。Nothingcanappearmoreadventurousthanthereposing，unlessincasesofabsolutenecessity，thedecisionofanyaffairofimportancetothepublicinthebreastofoneman。Butthisnecessitywillscarcelybeallegedinanyofthearticlesjustenumerated。Whatadvantagedoesonemanpossessoverasocietyorcouncilofmeninanyoftheserespects？Thedisadvantagesunderwhichhelaboursareobvious。Heismoreeasilycorrupted，andmoreeasilymisled。Hecannotpossesssomanyadvantagesforobtainingaccurateinformation。Heisabundantlymoreliabletotheattacksofpassionandcaprice，ofunfoundedantipathytoonemanandpartialitytoanother，ofuncharitablecensureorblindidolatry。Hecannotbealwaysuponhisguard；

　　therewillbemomentsinwhichthemostexemplaryvigilanceisliabletosurprise。Meanwhile，weareplacingthesubjectinmuchtoofavourablealight。Wearesupposinghisintentionstobeuprightandjust；butthecontraryofthiswillbemorefrequentlythetruth。Wherepowers，beyondthecapacityofhumannature，areentrusted，vices，thedisgraceofhumannature，willbeengendered。Addtothis，thatthesamereasons，whichprovethatgovernment，whereveritexists，shouldbedirectedbythesenseofthepeopleatlarge，equallyprovethat，whereverpublicofficersarenecessary，thesenseofthewhole，orofabodyofmenmostnearlyapproachinginspirittothewhole，oughttodecideontheirpretensions。

　　Theseobjectionsareapplicabletothemostinnocentoftheprivilegesaboveenumerated，thatofappointingtotheexerciseofcertainemployments。

　　Thecasewillbestillworseifweconsidertheotherprivileges。Weshallhaveoccasionhereaftertoexaminetheproprietyofpardoningoffences，consideredindependentlyofthepersonsinwhomthatpowerisvested：but，inthemeantime，cananythingbemoreintolerable，thanforanindividualtobeauthorised，withoutassigningareason，orassigningareasonuponwhichnooneisallowedtopronounce，tosupersedethegravedecisionsofacourtofjustice，foundeduponacarefulandpublicexaminationofevidence？Cananythingbemoreunjust，thanforanindividualtoassumethefunctionofinforminganation，whentheyaretodeliberate，andwhentheyaretoceasefromdeliberation？

　　Theremainingprivilegeisoftooiniquitousanaturetobeanobjectofmuchterror。Itisnotinthecompassofcredibilitytoconceive，thatanypeoplewouldremainquietspectators，whilethesenseofonemanwas，openlyandundisguisedly，setagainstthesenseofthenationalrepresentativeinfrequentassembly，andsufferedtooverpowerit。Twoorthreedirectinstancesoftheexerciseofthisnegative，couldnotfailtoannihilateit。Accordingly，whereveritissupposedtoexist，wefinditsoftenedandnourishedbythegenialdewofpecuniarycorruption；eitherrenderedunnecessarybeforehand，byasinisterapplicationtothefrailtyofindividualmembers，ordisarmedandmadepalatableinthesequel，byacopiouseffusionofvenalemollients。Ifitcaninanycasebeendured，itmustbeincountrieswherethedegeneraterepresentativenolongerpossessesthesympathyofthepublic，andthehaughtypresidentismadesacredbythebloodofanexaltedancestrywhichflowsthroughhisveins，ortheholyoilwhichtherepresentativesoftheMostHighhavepouredonhishead。Acommonmortal，periodicallyselectedbyhisfellow-citizenstowatchovertheirinterests，canneverbesupposedtopossessthisstupendousvirtue。

　　Iftherebeanytruthinthesereasonings，itinevitablyfollowsthattherearenoimportantfunctionsofgeneralsuperintendence，whichcanjustlybedelegatedtoasingleindividual。Iftheofficeofapresidentbenecessary，eitherinadeliberativeassembly，oranadministrativecouncil，supposingsuchacounciltoexist，hisemploymentwillhaverelationtotheorderoftheirproceedings，andbynomeansconsistinthearbitrarypreferringandcarryingintoeffect，hisprivatedecision。Aking，ifunvaryingusagecangivemeaningtoaword，describesaman，uponwhosesinglediscretionsomepartofthepublicinterestismadetodepend。Whatusecantherebeforsuchamaninanunpervertedandwellorderedstate？Withrespecttoitsinternalaffairs，certainlynone。Howfartheofficecanbeofadvantage，inourtransactionswithforeigngovernments，weshallhereafterhaveoccasiontodecide。

　　Letusbeware，byanunjustifiableperversionofterms，ofconfoundingthecommonunderstandingofmankind。Akingisthewellknownandstandingappellationforanoffice，which，iftherebeanytruthintheargumentsoftheprecedingchapters，hasbeenthebaneandthegraveofhumanvirtue。

　　Whyendeavourtopurifyandexorcizewhatisentitledonlytoexecration？

　　Whynotsufferthetermtobeaswellunderstood，andascordiallydetested，astheoncehonourableappellationoftyrantafterwardswasamongtheGreeks？

　　Whynotsufferittorestaperpetualmonumentofthefolly，thecowardiceandmiseryofourspecies？

　　*******

　　Inproceeding，fromtheexaminationofmonarchical，tothatofaristocraticalgovernment，itisimpossiblenottoremark，thatthereareseveraldisadvantagescommontoboth。Oneoftheseisthecreationofaseparateinterest。Thebenefitofthegovernedismadetolieononeside，andthebenefitofthegovernorsontheother。Itistonopurposetosaythatindividualinterest，accuratelyunderstood，willalwaysbefoundtocoincidewithgeneral，ifitappearinpractice，thattheopinionsanderrorsofmankindareperpetuallyseparatingthem，andplacingtheminoppositiontoeachother。Themorethegovernorsarefixedinaspheredistinctanddistantfromthegoverned，themorewillthiserrorbecherished。Theory，inordertoproduceanadequateeffectuponthemind，shouldbefavoured，notcounteracted，bypractice。Whatprincipleinhumannatureismoreuniversallyconfessed，thanself-love，thatis，thanapropensitytothinkindividuallyofaprivateinterest，todiscriminateanddivideobjects，whichthelawsoftheuniversehaveindissolublyunited？None，unlessitbetheespritdecorps，thetendencyofbodiesofmentoaggrandizethemselves，aspirit，which，thoughlessardentthanselflove，isstillmorevigilant，andnotexposedtotheaccidentsofsleep，indispositionandmortality。Thusitappearsthat，ofallimpulsestoanarrow，self-interestedconduct，thoseaffordedbymonarchyandaristocracyarethegreatest。

　　Normustwebetoohastyandundistinguishinginapplyingtheprinciplethatindividualinterest，accuratelyunderstood，willalwaysbefoundtocoincidewithgeneral。Relativelytoindividualsconsideredasmen，itis，forthemostpart，certainlytrue；relativelytoindividualsconsideredaslordsandkings，itisfalse。Themanwillperhapsbeserved，bythesacrificeofallhislittlepeculiumtothepublicinterest，butthekingwillbeannihilated。Thefirstsacrificethatjusticedemands，atthehandofmonarchyandaristocracy，isthatoftheirimmunitiesandprerogatives。

　　Publicinterestdictatestheunlimiteddisseminationoftruth，andtheimpartialadministrationofjustice。Kingsandlordssubsistonlyunderfavouroferrorandoppression。Theywillthereforeresisttheprogressofknowledgeandillumination；themomentthedeceitisdispelled，theiroccupationisgone。

　　Inthusconcludinghowever，wearetakingforgranted，thataristocracywillbefoundanarbitraryandperniciousinstitution，asmonarchyhasalreadyappearedtobe。Itistimethatweshouldenquireinwhatdegreethisisactuallythecase。

　　CHAPTERX

　　OFHEREDITARYDISTINCTION

　　Aprincipledeeplyinterwovenwithbothmonarchyandaristocracyintheirmostflourishingstate，butmostdeeplywiththelatter，isthatofhereditarypre-eminence。Noprinciplecanpresentadeeperinsultuponreasonandjustice。Examinethenew-bornsonofapeer，andofamechanic，Hasnaturedesignatedindifferentlineamentstheirfuturefortune？Isoneofthembornwithcalloushandsandanungainlyform？Canyoutraceintheothertheearlypromiseofgeniusandunderstanding，ofvirtueandhonour？Wehavebeentoldindeed’thatnaturewillbreakout’，andthatTheeagletofavaliantnestwillquicklytowerUptotheregionofhisfire；1*

　　andthetalewasoncebelieved。Butmankindwillnotsoonagainbepersuadedthatthebirthrightofonelineageofhumancreaturesisbeautyandvirtue，andofanother，dullness，grossnessanddeformity。

　　Itisdifficultaccuratelytodecidehowmuchofthecharactersofmenisproducedbycausesthatoperateduponthemintheperiodprecedingtheirbirth，andhowmuchisthemoraleffectofeducation，initsextensivesense。Childrencertainlybringintotheworldwiththemapartofthecharacteroftheirparents；nay，itisprobablethatthehumanraceismeliorated，somewhatinthesamewayastheracesofbrutes，andthateverygeneration，inacivilizedstate，isfurtherremoved，initsphysicalstructure，fromthesavageanduncultivatedman。

　　Butthesecausesoperatetoouncertainlytoaffordanyjustbasisofhereditarydistinction。Ifachildresembleshisfatherinmanyparticulars，thereareparticulars，perhapsmorenumerousandimportant，inwhichhediffersfromhim。Thesonofapoetisnotapoet，thesonofanoratoranorator，northesonofagoodmanasaint；andyet，inthiscase，awholevolumeofmoralcausesisoftenbroughttoco-operatewiththephysical。

　　Thishasbeenaptlyillustrated，byaproposition，humorouslysuggested，2*

　　forrenderingtheofficeofpoetlaureathereditary。But，ifthequalitiesanddispositionsofthefatherwerefounddescendibleintheson，inamuchgreaterdegreethanwehaveanyreasontosuppose，thecharactermustbeexpectedtowearoutinafewgenerations，eitherbythemixtureofbreeds，orby，whatthereisgreatreasontosupposeisstillmorepernicious，thewantofmixture。Thetitlemadehereditarywillthenremainabranduponthedegeneratesuccessor。Itisnotsatire，butasimplestatementoffact，whenweobservethatitisnoteasytofindasetofmeninsocietysunkmorebelowtheordinarystandardofmaninhisconstituentcharacteristicsthanthebodyoftheEnglish，oranyother，peerage。

　　Letusproceedtoenquireintotheefficacyofhighbirthandnobility，consideredasamoralcause。

　　Thepersuasionofitsexcellenceinthisrespectisanopinionprobablyasoldastheinstitutionofnobilityitself。Theetymologyofthewordexpressingthisparticularformofgovernmentmayperhapsbeconsideredashavingareferencetothisidea。Itiscalledaristocracy，orthegovernmentofthebest[apisoi]。InthewritingsofCicero，andthespeechesoftheRomansenate，thisorderofmenisstyledthe’optimates’，the’virtuous’，the’liberal’，andthe’honest’。Itisasserted，andwithsomedegreeofjustice，’thatthemultitudeisanunrulybeast，withnofixedsentimentsofhonourorprinciple，guidedbysordidvenality，ornotlesssordidappetite，envious，tyrannical，inconstantandunjust’。Hencetheydeducedasaconsequence’thenecessityofmaintaininganorderofmenofliberaleducationandelevatedsentiments，whoshouldeitherengrossthegovernmentofthehumblerandmorenumerousclassincapableofgoverningthemselves，oratleastshouldbeplacedasarigidguardupontheirexcesses，withpowersadequatetotheircorrectionandrestraint’。Thegreaterpartofthesereasoningswillfallunderourexaminationwhenweconsiderthedisadvantagesofdemocracy。3*

　　Somuchasrelatestotheexcellenceofaristocracyitisnecessaryatpresenttodiscuss。

　　Thewholeproceedsuponasuppositionthat’ifnobilityshouldnot，asitshereditaryconstitutionmightseemtoimply，befoundoriginallysuperiortotheordinaryrateofmortals，itisatleastrenderedeminentlysobythepowerofeducation。Menwhogrowupinunpolishedignoranceandbarbarism，andarechilledwiththeicytouchofpoverty，mustnecessarilybeexposedtoathousandsourcesofcorruption，andcannothavethatdelicatesenseofrectitudeandhonourwhichliteratureandmanlyrefinementarefoundtobestow。Itisundertheauspicesofindulgenceandeasethatcivilisationisengendered。Anationmusthavesurmountedthedisadvantagesofafirstestablishment，andhavearrivedatsomedegreeofleisureandprosperity，beforetheloveofletterscantakerootamongthem。Itisinindividuals，asinlargebodiesofmen。Afewexceptionswilloccur；but，excludingthese，itcanscarcelybeexpectedthatmenwhoarecompelledineverydaybylaboriousmanualeffortstoprovideforthenecessitiesofthedayshouldarriveatgreatexpansionofmindandcomprehensivenessofthinking。’

　　Incertainpartsofthisargumentthereisconsiderabletruth。Thesoundmoralistwillbethelastmantodenythepowerandimportanceofeducation。

　　Itisthereforenecessary，eitherthatasystemshouldbediscoveredforsecuringleisureandprosperitytoeverymemberofthecommunity；orthatacertaininfluenceandauthorityshouldbegiventotheliberalandthewise，overtheilliterateandignorant。Now，supposing，forthepresent，thattheformerofthesemeasuresisimpossible，itmayyetbereasonabletoenquirewhetheraristocracybethemostjudiciousschemeforobtainingthelatter。Somelightmaybecollectedonthissubjectfromwhathasalreadyappearedrespectingeducationundertheheadofmonarchy。

　　Educationismuch，butopulenteducationisofallitsmodestheleastefficacious。Theeducationofwordsisnottobedespised，buttheeducationofthingsisonnoaccounttobedispensedwith。Theformerisofadmirableuseinenforcinganddevelopingthelatter；but，whentakenalone，itispedantryandnotlearning，abodywithoutasoul。Whatevermaybetheabstractperfectionofwhichmindiscapable，weseematpresentfrequentlytoneedbeingexcited，inthecaseofanyuncommoneffort，bymotivesthataddressthemselvestotheindividual。But，sofarasrelatestothesemotives，thelowerclassesofmankind，hadtheysufficientleisure，havegreatlytheadvantage。Theplebeianmustbethemakerofhisownfortune；thelordfindshisalreadymade。Theplebeianmustexpecttofindhimselfneglectedanddespisedinproportionasheisremissincultivatingtheobjectsofesteem；thelordwillalwaysbesurroundedwithsycophantsandslaves。

　　Thelordthereforehasnomotivetoindustryandexertion；nostimulustorousehimfromthelethargic，’obliviouspool’，outofwhicheveryhumanintellectoriginallyrose。Itmustindeedbeconfessedthattruthdoesnotneedtheallianceofcircumstances，andthatamanmayarriveatthetempleoffamebyotherpathsthanthoseofmiseryanddistress。Butthelorddoesnotcontenthimselfwithdiscardingthestimulusofadversity：

　　hegoesfurtherthanthis，andprovidesfruitfulsourcesofeffeminacyanderror。Mancannotoffendwithimpunityagainstthegreatprincipleofuniversalgood。Hethatmonopolizestohimselfluxuriesandtitlesandwealthtotheinjuryofthewholebecomesdegradedfromtherankofman；

　　and，howeverhemaybeadmiredbythemultitude，willbepitiedbythewise，andnotseldombewearisometohimself。Henceitappearsthattoelectmentotherankofnobilityistoelectthemtoapostofmoraldangerandameansofdepravity；butthattoconstitutethemhereditarilynobleistoprecludethem，exclusivelyofafewextraordinaryaccidents，fromallthecausesthatgenerateabilityandvirtue。

　　Thereasoningshererepeateduponthesubjectofhereditarydistinctionaresoobviousthatnothingcanbeastrongerinstanceofthepowerofprejudiceinstilledinearlyyouththanthefactoftheirhavingbeen，atanytime，disputedorforgotten。Frombirthasaphysicalcause，itsufficientlyappearsthatlittlefundamentalorregularcanbeexpected：

　　and，sofarasrelatestoeducation，itispracticable，inacertaindegree，norisiteasytosetlimitstothatdegree，toinfuseemulationintoayouthfulmind；butwealthisthefatalblastthatdestroysthehopesofafutureharvest。Therewasonceindeedagallantkindofvirtuethat，byirresistiblyseizingthesenses，seemedtocommunicateextensively，toyoungmenofbirth，themixedandequivocalaccomplishmentsofchivalry；

　　but，sincethesubjectsofmoralemulationhavebeenturnedfrompersonalprowesstotheenergiesofintellect，andespeciallysincethefieldofthatemulationhasbeenmorewidelyopenedtothespecies，thelistshavebeenalmostuniformlyoccupiedbythosewhosenarrowcircumstanceshavegoadedthemtoambition，orwhoseundebauchedhabitsandsituationinlifehaverescuedthemfromthepoisonofflatteryandeffeminateindulgence。

　　NOTES：

　　1。TragedyofDouglas，Actiii。

　　2。Paine’sRightsofMan。

　　3。Chap。XIV。

　　CHAPTERXI

　　MORALEFFECTSOFARISTOCRACY

　　Thefeaturesofaristocraticallyinstitutionareprincipallytwo：privilege，andanaggravatedmonopolyofwealth。Thefirstoftheseistheessenceofaristocracy；thesecond，thatwithoutwhicharistocracycanrarelybesupported。Theyarebothofthemindirectoppositiontoallsoundmorality，andallgenerousindependenceofcharacter。

　　Inequalityofwealthisperhapsthenecessaryresultoftheinstitutionofproperty，inanystateofprogressatwhichthehumanmindhasyetarrived；

　　andcannot，tillthecharacterofthehumanspeciesisessentiallyaltered，besupersededbutbyadespoticandpositiveinterference，moreinjurioustothecommonwelfare，thantheinequalityitattemptedtoremove。Inequalityofwealthinvolveswithitinequalityofinheritance。

　　Butthemischiefofaristocracyisthatitinexpressiblyaggravatesandembittersanevilwhich，initsmildestform，isdeeplytobedeplored。

　　Thefirstsentimentofanuncorruptedmind，whenitentersuponthetheatreofhumanlife，is，Removefrommeandmyfellowsallarbitraryhindrances；

　　letusstartfair；renderalltheadvantagesandhonoursofsocialinstitutionaccessibletoeveryman，inproportiontohistalentsandexertions。

　　Isittrue，ashasoftenbeenpretended，thatgenerousandexaltedqualitiesare-hereditaryinparticularlinesofdescent？Theydonotwanttheallianceofpositiveinstitutiontosecuretothemtheirproperascendancy，andenablethemtocommandtherespectofmankind。Isitfalse？Letitsharethefateofexposureanddetectionwithotherimpostures。IfIconceivedofayoungpersonthathewasdestined，fromhisearliestinfancy，tobeasublimepoet，oraprofoundphilosopher，shouldIconceivethatthereadiestroadtotheencouragingandfosteringhistalentswas，fromthemomentofhisbirth，toputastaruponhisbreast，tosalutehimwithtitlesofhonour，andtobestowuponhim，independentlyofallexertion，thoseadvantageswhichexertionusuallyproposestoitselfasitsultimateobjectofpursuit？No；Ishouldsendhimtotheschoolofman，andobligehimtoconversewithhisfellowsupontermsofequality。

　　Privilegeisaregulationrenderingafewmen，andthoseonly，bytheaccidentoftheirbirth，eligibletocertainsituations。Itkillsallliberalambitionintherestofmankind，byopposingtoitanapparentlyinsurmountablebar。Itdiminishesitinthefavouredclassitself，byshowingthemtheprincipalqualificationasindefeasiblytheirs。Privilegeentitlesafavouredfewtoengrosstothemselvesgratificationswhichthesystemoftheuniverseleftatlargetoallhersons；itputsintothehandsofthesefewthemeansofoppressionagainsttherestoftheirspecies；itfillsthemwithvain-glory，andaffordsthemeveryincitementtoinsolenceandaloftydisregardtothefeelingsandinterestsofothers。

　　Privilege，aswehavealreadysaid，istheessenceofaristocracy；and，inarareconditionofhumansociety，suchasthatoftheancientRomans，privilegehasbeenabletomaintainitselfwithouttheaccessionofwealth，andtoflourishinillustriouspoverty。Butthiscanbethecaseonlyunderaverysingularcoincidenceofcircumstances。Ingeneral，anaggravatedmonopolyofwealthhasbeenoneoftheobjectsaboutwhichtheabettorsofaristocracyhavebeenmostincessantlysolicitous。Hencetheoriginofentails，renderingproperty。initsownnaturetooaversetoagenerouscirculation，athousandtimesmorestagnantandputrescentthanbefore，ofprimogeniture，whichdisinheritseveryothermemberofafamily，toheapunwholesomeabundanceuponone；andofvariouslimitations，fillingthecourtsofcivilizedEuropewithendlesslitigation，andmakingitinmanycasesimpossibletodecidewhoitisthathastherightofconveyingaproperty，andwhatshallamounttoalegaltransfer。

　　Thereisonething，morethanalltherest，ofimportancetothewellbeingofmankind，justice。Aneglectofjusticeisnotonlytobedeploredforthedirectevilitproduces；itisperhapsstillmoreinjuriousbyitseffectsinpervertingtheunderstanding，overturningourcalculationsofthefuture，andthusstrikingattherootofmoraldiscernment，andgenuinepoweranddecisionofcharacter。

　　Ofalltheprinciplesofjustice，thereisnonesomaterialtothemoralrectitudeofmankindasthatnomancanbedistinguishedbutbyhispersonalmerit。Whenamanhasprovedhimselfabenefactortothepublic，whenhehasalready，bylaudableperseverance，cultivatedinhimselftalentswhichneedonlyencouragementandpublicfavourtobringthemtomaturity，letthatmanbehonoured。Inastateofsocietywherefictitiousdistinctionsareunknown，itisimpossibleheshouldnotbehonoured。Butthatamanshouldbelookeduptowithservilityandawebecausethekinghasbestowedonhimaspuriousname，ordecoratedhimwitharibband；thatanothershouldrevelinluxurybecausehisancestorthreecenturiesagobledinthequarrelofLancasterorYork；doweimaginethattheseiniquitiescanbepracticedwithoutinjury？

　　Letthosewhoentertainthisopinionconversealittlewiththelowerordersofmankind。Theywillperceivethattheunfortunatewretchwho，withunremittedlabour，findshimselfincapableadequatelytofeedandclothehisfamilyhasasenseofinjusticeranklingathisheart。

　　Butletussupposethattheirsenseofinjusticewerelessacutethanisheresupposed，whatfavourableinferencecanbededucedfromthat？Isnottheinjusticereal？Ifthemindsofmenaresowitheredandstupifiedbytheconstancywithwhichitispracticedthattheydonotfeeltherigourthatgrindsthemintonothing，howdoesthatimprovethepicture？

　　Letusfairlyconsider，foramoment，whatistheamountofinjusticeincludedintheinstitutionofaristocracy。Iamborn，suppose，aPolishprincewithanincomeof&pound；300，000perannum。Youarebornamanerialserf，oraCreolianNegro，attachedtothesoil，andtransferable，bybarterorotherwise，totwentysuccessivelords。Invainshallbeyourmostgenerousefforts，andyourunweariedindustry，tofreeyourselffromtheintolerableyoke。Doomed，bythelawofyourbirth，towaitatthegatesofthepalaceyoumustneverenter；tosleepunderaruined，weather-beatenroof，whileyourmastersleepsundercanopiesofstate；tofeedonputrefiedoffals，whiletheworldisransackedfordelicaciesforhistable；tolabour，withoutmoderationorlimit，underaparchingsun，whilehebasksinperpetualsloth；andtoberewardedatlastwithcontempt，reprimand，stripesandmutilation。Infactthecaseisworsethanthis。IcouldendureallthatinjusticeorcapricecouldinflictprovidedIpossessed，intheresourceofafirmmind，thepoweroflookingdownwithpityonmytyrant，andofknowingthatIhadthatwithinthatsacredcharacteroftruth，virtueandfortitudewhichallhisinjusticecouldnotreach。Butaslaveandaserfarecondemnedtostupidityandvice，aswellastocalamity。

　　Isallthisnothing？Isallthisnecessaryforthemaintenanceofcivilorder？Letitberecollectedthat，forthisdistinction，thereisnotthesmallestfoundationinthenatureofthings，that，aswehavealreadysaid，thereisnoparticularmouldfortheconstructionoflords，andthattheyarebornneitherbetternorworsethanthepoorestoftheirdependents。

　　Itisthisstructureofaristocracy，inallitssanctuariesandfragments，againstwhichreasonandmoralityhavedeclaredwar。Itisalikeunjust，whetherweconsideritinthecallsofIndia；thevillainageofthefeudalsystem；orthedespotismofancientRome，wherethedebtorsweredraggedintopersonalservitude，toexpiate，bystripesandslavery，theusuriousloanstheycouldnotrepay。Mankindwillneverbe，inaneminentdegree，virtuousandhappy，tilleachmanshallpossessthatportionofdistinctionandnomore，towhichheisentitledbyhispersonalmerits。Thedissolutionofaristocracyisequallytheinterestoftheoppressorandtheoppressed。

　　Theonewillbedeliveredfromthelistlessnessoftyranny，andtheotherfromthebrutalizingoperationofservitude。Howlongshallwebetoldinvain’thatmediocrityoffortuneisthetruerampartofpersonalhappiness？

　　CHAPTERXII

　　OFTITLES

　　Thecaseofmeretitlesissoabsurdthatitwoulddeservetobetreatedonlywithridiculewereitnotfortheseriousmischiefstheyimposeonmankind。Thefeudalsystemwasaferociousmonster，devouring，whereveritcame，allthatthefriendofhumanityregardswithattachmentandlove。

　　Thesystemoftitlesappearsunderadifferentform。Themonsterisatlengthdestroyed，andtheywhofollowedinhistrain，andfatteneduponthecarcasesofthoseheslew，havestuffedhisskin，and，byexhibitingit，hopestilltoterrifymankindintopatienceandpusillanimity。ThesystemoftheNortherninvaders，howeverodious，escapedtheridiculeofthesystemoftitles。Whenthefeudalchieftainsassumedageographicalappellation，itwasfromsomeplacereallysubjecttotheirauthority；

　　andtherewasnomoreabsurdityinthestyletheyassumedthaninourcallingaman，atpresent，thegovernorofTangiersorthegovernorofGibraltar。

　　Thecommanderinchief，orthesovereign，didnotthengiveanemptyname；

　　heconferredanearldomorabarony，asubstantialtractofland，withhousesandmen，andproducingarealrevenue。Henowgrantsnothingbutaprivilege，equivalenttothatofcallingyourselfTom，whowerebeforetimecalledWill；and，toaddtotheabsurdity，yournewappellationisborrowedfromsomeplaceperhapsyouneversaw，orsomecountryyounevervisited。

　　Thestylehoweveristhesame；wearestillearlsandbarons，governorsofprovincesandcommandersofforts，andthatwiththesameevidentproprietyastheelectorofHanover，andarchtreasureroftheempire，styleshimselfkingofFrance。

　　CantherebeanythingmoreludicrousthanthatthemanwhowasyesterdayMrStJohn，themosteloquentspeakeroftheBritishhouseofcommons，themostpenetratingthinker，theumpireofmaddeningparties，therestorerofpeacetobleedingandexhaustedEurope，shouldbeto-daylordBolingbroke？1*

　　Inwhatishebecomegreaterandmorevenerablethanhewas？Inthepretendedfavourofastupidandbesottedwoman，whoalwayshatedhim，assheuniformlyhatedtalentsandvirtue，though，forherowninterest，shewasobligedtoendurehim。

　　Thefriendsofamanuponwhomatitlehasrecentlybeenconferredmusteitherbewhollyblindedbythepartialityoffriendship，nottofeeltheridiculeofhissituation；orcompletelydebasedbytheparasiticalspiritofdependence，nottobetraytheirfeelings。Everytimetheyessaytospeak，theyareindangerofblunderingupontheingloriousappellationsofMrandSir。2*Everytimetheirtonguefalterswithunconfirmedpractice，thequestionrushesuponthemwithirresistibleforce。’Whatchangehasmyoldfriendundergone；inwhatishewiserorbetter，happierormorehonourable？’Thefirstweekofanewtitleisaperpetualwarofthefeelingsineveryspectator；thegenuinedictatesofcommonsense，againstthearbitraryinstitutionsofsociety。Tomakethefarcemoreperfect，thesetitlesaresubjecttoperpetualfluctuations，andthemanwhoisto-dayearlofKensingtonwilltomorrowresign，withunblushingeffrontery，allappearanceofcharacterandhonour，tobecalledmarquisofKew。HistorylaboursundertheGothicandunintelligibleburden；nomortalpatiencecanconnectthedifferentstories，ofhimwhoisto-daylordKimbolton，andto-morrowearlofManchester；

　　to-dayearlofMulgrave，andto-morrowmarquisofNormanbyanddukeofBuckinghamshire。

　　Theabsurdityofthesetitlesstrikesusthemore，becausetheyareusuallytherewardofintrigueandcorruption。But，wereitotherwise，stilltheywouldbeunworthyoftheadherentsofreasonandjustice。WhenwespeakofMrStJohn，asofthemanwhobyhiseloquenceswayedcontendingparties，whowithdrewtheconqueringswordfromsufferingFrance，andgavethirtyyearsofpeaceandcalmpursuitoftheartsoflifeandwisdomtomankind，wespeakofsomethingeminentlygreat。Cananytitleexpressthesemerits？Isnottruththeconsecratedandsinglevehicleofjustice？Isnottheplainandsimpletruthworthallthecunningsubstitutionsintheworld？Couldanoakengarland，oragildedcoronet，haveaddedoneatomtohisrealgreatness？Garlandsandcoronetsmaybebestowedontheunworthy，andprostitutedtotheintriguing。Tillmankindbesatisfiedwiththenakedstatementofwhattheyreallyperceive，tilltheyconfessvirtuetobethenmostillustrious，whenshemostdisdainstheaidofornament，theywillneverarriveatthatmanlyjusticeofsentimentatwhichtheyseemdestinedonedaytoarrive。Bythisschemeofnakedtruth，virtuewillbeeverydayagainer；everysucceedingobserverwillmorefullydoherjustice，whilevice，deprivedofthatvarnishwithwhichshedelightedtoglossheractions，ofthatgaudyexhibitionwhichmaybemadealikebyeverypretender，willspeedilysinkintounheededcontempt。

　　NOTES：

　　1。Footnote34fromBookV

　　2。Inrealitytheseappellationsarelittlelessabsurdthanthosebywhichtheyaresuperseded。

　　CHAPTERXIII

　　OFTHEARISTOCRATICALCHARACTER

　　Aristocracy，initspropersignification，isneitherlessnormorethanaschemeforrenderingmorepermanentandvisible，bytheinterferenceofpoliticalinstitution，theinequalityofmankind。Aristocracy，likemonarchy，isfoundedinfalsehood，theoffspringofartforeigntotherealnatureofthings，andmusttherefore，likemonarchy，besupportedbyartificeandfalsepretences。Itsempirehoweverisfoundedinprinciplesmoregloomyandunsocialthanthoseofmonarchy。Themonarchoftenthinksitadvisabletoemployblandishmentsandcourtshipwithhisbaronsandofficers；butthelorddeemsitsufficienttorulewitharodofiron。

　　Bothdependfortheirperpetuityuponignorance。Couldthey，likeOmar，destroytheproductionsofprofanereasoning，andpersuademankindthattheAlcorancontainedeverythingwhichitbecamethemtostudy，theymightthenrenewtheirleaseofempire。Buthereagainaristocracydisplaysitssuperiorharshness。Monarchyadmitsofacertaindegreeofmonkishlearningamongitsfollowers。Butaristocracyholdsastricterhand。Shouldthelowerranksofsocietyoncecometobegenerallyabletowriteandread，itspowerwouldbeatanend。Tomakemenserfsandvillains，itisindispensiblynecessarytomakethembrutes。Thisisaquestionwhichhaslongbeencanvassedwitheagernessandavidity。Theresoluteadvocatesoftheoldsystemhave，withnocontemptibleforesight，opposedthecommunicationofknowledgeasamostalarminginnovation。Intheirwellknownobservation’thataservantwhohasbeentaughttowriteandreadceasestobeanylongerthepassivemachinetheyrequire’，iscontainedtheembryofromwhichitwouldbeeasytoexplainthewholephilosophyofEuropeansociety。

　　Andwhoistherethatcanponderwithunruffledthoughtstheinjuriouscontrivancesoftheseself-centredusurpers，contrivancesthepurposeofwhichistoretainthehumanspeciesinastateofendlessdegradation？

　　Itisinthesubjectswearehereexaminingthatthecelebratedmaximof’manymadeforone’isbroughttothetest。Thosereasonerswere，nodoubt，’wiseintheirgeneration’，whotwocenturiesagoconceivedalarmattheblasphemousdoctrine’thatgovernmentwasinstitutedforthebenefitofthegoverned，and，ifitproposedtoitselfanyotherobject，wasnobetterthananusurpation’。Itwillperpetuallybefoundthatthemenwho，ineveryage，havebeentheearliesttogivethealarmofinnovation，andhavebeenridiculedonthataccountasbigotedandtimid，were，inreality，personsofmorethancommondiscernment，whosaw，thoughbutimperfectly，intherudeprinciple，theinferencestowhichitinevitablyled。Itistimethatmenofreflectionshouldchoosebetweenthetwosidesofthealternative：eithertogoback，fairlyandwithoutreserve，totheprimitiveprinciplesoftyranny；or，adoptinganyoneofthemaximsoppositetothese，howeverneutralitmayatfirstappear，notfeeblyandignorantlytoshuttheireyesuponthesystemofconsequencesitdrawsalongwithit。