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　　Ifwecontemplatethehumanpowers，whetherofbodyormind，weshallfindthemmuchbettersuitedtothesuperintendenceofourprivateconcerns，andtotheadministeringoccasionalassistancetoothers，thantotheacceptingtheformaltrust，ofsuperintendingtheaffairs，andwatchingforthehappinessofmillions。Ifwerecollectthephysicalandmoralequalityofmankind，itwillappearaveryviolentusurpationuponthisprincipletoplaceoneindividualatsovastanintervalfromtherestofhisspecies。Letusthenconsiderhowsuchpersonsareusuallyeducated，ormaybeexpectedtobeeducated，andhowwelltheyarepreparedforthisillustriousoffice。

　　Itisacommonopinion“Thatadversityistheschoolinwhichallextraordinaryvirtuemustbeformed。HenrythefourthofFrance，andElizabethofEngland，experiencedalongseriesofcalamitiesbeforetheywereelevatedtoathrone。Alfred，ofwhomtheobscurechroniclesofabarbarousagerecordsuchsuperiorvirtues，passedthroughthevicissitudesofavagabondandafugitive。Eventhemixed，and，uponthewhole，thevicious，yetaccomplished，charactersofFredericandAlexanderwerenotformedwithouttheinterferenceofinjusticeandpersecution。”

　　Thishypothesishoweverseemstohavebeenpushedtoofar。Itisnomorereasonabletosupposethatvirtuecannotbematuredwithoutinjusticethantobelieve，whichhasbeenanotherprevailingopinion，thathumanhappinesscannotbesecuredwithoutimpostureanddeceit。1*Boththeseerrorshaveacommonsource，adistrustoftheomnipotenceoftruth。Iftheiradvocateshadreflectedmoredeeplyuponthenatureofthehumanmind，theywouldhaveperceivedthatallourvoluntaryactionsarejudgementsoftheunderstanding，andthatactionsofthemostjudiciousandusefulnaturemustinfalliblyflowfromarealandgenuineconvictionoftruth。

　　But，thoughtheexaggeratedopinionherestated，oftheusefulnessofadversity，beerroneous，itis，likemanyotherofourerrors，alliedtoimportanttruth。Ifadversitybenotnecessary，itmustbeallowedthatprosperityispernicious。Notagenuineandphilosophicalprosperity，whichrequiresnomorethansoundhealthwithasoundintellect，thecapacityofprocuringforourselves，byamoderateandwellregulatedindustry，themeansofsubsistence，virtueandwisdom：butprosperityasitisusuallyunderstood，thatis，acompetenceprovidedforusbythecapriceofhumaninstitution，invitingourbodiestoindolence，andourmindstolethargy；

　　andstillmoreprosperity，asitisunderstoodinthecaseofnoblemenandprinces，thatis，asuperfluityofwealth，whichdeprivesusofallintercoursewithourfellowmenuponequalterms，andmakesusprisonersofstate，gratifiedindeedwithbaublesandsplendour，butshutoutfromtherealbenefitsofsociety，andtheperceptionoftruth。Iftruthbesointrinsicallypowerfulastomakeadversityunnecessarytoexciteourattentiontoit，itisneverthelesscertainthatluxuryandwealthhavethemostfataleffectsindistortingit。Ifitrequirenoforeignaidtoassistitsenergies，weoughthowevertobeuponourguardagainstprinciplesandsituationsthetendencyofwhichmaybeperpetuallytocounteractit。

　　Noristhisall。Oneofthemostessentialingredientsofvirtueisfortitude。ItwastheplanofmanyoftheGrecianphilosophers，andmostofallofDiogenes，toshowtomankindhowverylimitedisthesupplythatournecessitiesrequire，andhowlittledependentourrealwelfareandprosperityareuponthecapriceofothers。Amonginnumerableincidentsuponrecordthatillustratethisprinciple，asingleonemaysufficetosuggesttoourmindsitsgeneralspirit。DiogeneshadaslavewhosenamewasMenas，andMenasthoughtproperuponsomeoccasiontoelope。’Ha！’

　　saidthephilosopher，’canMenaslivewithoutDiogenes，andcannotDiogeneslivewithoutMenas？’Therecanbenolessonmoreimportantthanthatwhichishereconveyed。Themanthatdoesnotknowhimselfnottobeatthemercyofothermen，thatdoesnotfeelthatheisinvulnerabletoallthevicissitudesoffortune，isincapableofaconstantandinflexiblevirtue。Hetowhomtherestofhisspeciescanreasonablylookupwithconfidencemustbefirm，becausehismindisfilledwiththeexcellenceoftheobjecthepursues；

　　andcheerful，becauseheknowsthatitisoutofthepowerofeventstoinjurehim。Ifanyoneshouldchoosetoimaginethatthisideaofvirtueisstrainedtoohigh，yetallmustallowthatnomancanbeentitledtoourconfidencewhotremblesateverywind，whocanendurenoadversity，andwhoseveryexistenceislinkedtotheartificialcharacterhesustains。

　　Nothingcanmorereasonablyexciteourcontemptthanamanwho，ifhewereoncereducedtothegenuineandsimpleconditionofman，wouldbedriventodespair，andfindhimselfincapableofconsultingandprovidingforhisownsubsistence。Fortitudeisahabitofmindthatgrowsoutofasenseofourindependence。Iftherebeamanwhodaresnoteventrusthisownimaginationwiththefanciedchangeofhiscircumstances，hemustnecessarilybeeffeminate；irresoluteandtemporizing。Hethatlovessensualityorostentationbetterthanvirtuemaybeentitledtoourpity，butamadmanonlywouldentrusttohisdisposalanythingthatwasdeartohim。

　　Again，theonlymeansbywhichtruthcanbecommunicatedtothehumanmindisthroughtheinletofthesenses。Itisperhapsimpossiblethatamanshutupinacabinetcaneverbewise。Ifwewouldacquireknowledge，wemustopenoureyes，andcontemplatetheuniverse。Tillweareacquaintedwiththemeaningofterms，andthenatureoftheobjectsaroundus，wecannotunderstandthepropositionsthatmaybeformedconcerningthem。

　　Tillweareacquaintedwiththenatureoftheobjectsaroundus，wecannotcomparethemwiththeprincipleswehaveformed，andunderstandthemodesofemployingthem。Thereareotherwaysofattainingwisdomandabilitybesidetheschoolofadversity，butthereisnowayofattainingthembutthroughthemediumofexperience。Thatis，experiencebringsinthematerialswithwhichintellectworks；foritmustbegrantedthatamanoflimitedexperiencewilloftenbemorecapablethanhewhohasgonethroughthegreatestvarietyofscenes；orratherperhaps，thatonemanmaycollectmoreexperienceinasphereofafewmilessquarethananotherwhohassailedroundtheworld。

　　Toconceivetrulythevalueofexperience，wemustrecollectthenumerousimprovementsthehumanmindhasreceived，andhowfaranenlightenedEuropeandiffersfromasolitarysavage。Howevermultifariousaretheseimprovements，therearebuttwowaysinwhichtheycanbeappropriatedbyanyindividual；

　　eitheratsecondhandbybooksandconversation，oratfirsthandbyourownobservationsofmenandthings。Theimprovementwereceiveinthefirstofthesemodesisunlimited；butitwillnotdoalone。Wecannotunderstandbookstillwehaveseenthesubjectsofwhichtheytreat。

　　Hethatknowsthemindofmanmusthaveobserveditforhimself；hethatknowsitmostintimatelymusthaveobserveditinitsgreatestvarietyofsituations。Hemusthaveseenitwithoutdisguise，whennoexteriorsituationputsacurbuponitspassions，andinducestheindividualtoexhibitastudied，notaspontaneouscharacter。Hemusthaveseenmenintheirunguardedmoments，whentheeagernessoftemporaryresentmenttipstheirtonguewithfire，whentheyareanimatedanddilatedbyhope，whentheyaretorturedandwrungwithdespair，whenthesoulpoursoutitsinmostselfintothebosomofanequalandafriend。Lastly，hemusthimselfhavebeenanactorinthescene，havehadhisownpassionsbroughtintoplay，haveknowntheanxietyofexpectationandthetransportofsuccess，orhewillfeelandunderstandaboutasmuchofwhatheseesasmankindingeneralwouldofthetransactionsofthevitrifiedinhabitantsoftheplanetMercury，orthesalamandersthatliveinthesun-Suchistheeducationofthetruephilosopher，thegenuinepolitician，thefriendandbenefactorofhumankind。

　　Whatistheeducationofaprince？Itsfirstqualityisextremetenderness。

　　Thewindsofheavenarenotpermittedtoblowuponhim。Heisdressedandundressedbyhislacqueysandvalets。Hiswantsarecarefullyanticipated；

　　hisdesires，withoutanyeffortofhis，profuselysupplied。Hishealthisoftoomuchimportancetothecommunitytopermithimtoexertanyconsiderableefforteitherofbodyormind。Hemustnothearthevoiceofreprimandorblame。Inallthingsitisfirstofalltoberememberedthatheisaprince，thatis，somerareandpreciouscreature，butnotofhumankind。

　　Asheistheheirtoathrone，itisneverforgottenbythoseabouthimthatconsiderableimportanceistobeannexedtohisfavourorhisdispleasure。Accordingly，theyneverexpressthemselvesinhispresencefranklyandnaturally，eitherrespectinghimorthemselves。Theyaresupportingapart。Theyplayunderamask。Theirownfortuneandemolumentisalwaysuppermostintheirminds，atthesametimethattheyareanxioustoappeargenerous，disinterestedandsincere。Allhiscapricesaretobecompliedwith。Allhisgratificationsaretobestudied，Theyfindhimadepravedandsordidmortal；theyjudgeofhisappetitesandcapacitiesbytheirown；andthegratificationstheyrecommendservetosinkhimdeeperinfollyandvice。

　　Whatistheresultofsuchaneducation？Havingneverexperiencedcontradiction，theyoungprinceisarrogantandpresumptuous。Havingalwaysbeenaccustomedtotheslavesofnecessityortheslavesofchoice，hedoesnotunderstandeventhemeaningofthewordfreedom。Histemperisinsolent，andimpatientofparleyandexpostulation。Knowingnothing，hebelieveshimselfsovereignlyinformed，andrunsheadlongintodanger，notfromfirmnessandcourage，butfromthemostegregiouswillfulnessandvanity。LikePyrrhoamongtheancientphilosophers，ifhisattendantswereatadistance，andhetrustedhimselfaloneintheopenair，hewouldperhapsberunoverbythenextcoach，orfalldownthefirstprecipice。Hisviolenceandpresumptionarestrikinglycontrastedwiththeextremetimidityofhisdisposition。Thefirstoppositionterrifieshim，thefirstdifficulty，seenandunderstood，appearsinsuperable。Hetremblesatashadow，andattheverysemblanceofadversityisdissolvedintotears。Ithasaccordinglybeenobservedthatprincesarecommonlysuperstitiousbeyondtherateofordinarymortals。

　　Aboveall，simple，unqualifiedtruthisastrangertohisear。Iteitherneverapproaches；or，ifsounexpectedaguestshouldonceappear，itmeetswithsocoldareceptionastoaffordlittleencouragementtoasecondvisit。Thelongerhehasbeenaccustomedtofalsehoodandflattery，themoregratingwillitsound。Thelongerhehasbeenaccustomedtofalsehoodandflattery，themoreterriblewillthetalkappeartohimtochangehistastes，anddiscardhisfavourites。Hewilleitherplaceablindconfidenceinallmen，or，havingdetectedtheinsincerityofthosewhoweremostagreeabletohim，willconcludethatallmenareknavishanddesigning。

　　Asaconsequenceofthislastopinion，hewillbecomeindifferenttomankind，andcalloustotheirsufferings，andwillbelievethateventhevirtuousareknavesunderacraftiermask。Suchistheeducationofanindividualwhoisdestinedtosuperintendtheaffairs，andwatchforthehappiness，ofmillions。

　　Inthispicturearecontainedthefeatureswhichmostobviouslyconstitutetheeducationofaprince，intotheconductofwhichnopersonofenergyandvirtuehasbyaccidentbeenintroduced。Inreallifeitwillbevariouslymodified，butthemajorityofthefeatures，unlessinrareinstances，willremainthesame。Innocasecantheeducationofafriendandbenefactorofhumankind，assketchedinaprecedingpage，byanyspeculativecontrivancebecommunicated。

　　Noristhereanydifficultyinaccountingfortheuniversalmiscarriage。

　　Thewisestpreceptor，thuscircumstanced，mustlabourunderinsuperabledisadvantages。Nosituationcanbesoartificialasthatofaprince，sodifficulttobeunderstoodbyhimwhooccupiesit，soirresistiblypropellingthemindtomistake。Thefirstideasitsuggestsareofatranquillizingandsoporificnature。Itfillshimwiththeopinionofhissecretlypossessingsomeinherentadvantageovertherestofhisspecies，bywhichheisformedtocommand，andtheytoobey。Ifyouassurehimofthecontrary，youcanexpectonlyanimperfectandtemporarycredit；forfacts，when，asinthiscase，theyarecontinuallydeposingagainstyou，speakalanguagemoreemphaticandintelligiblethanwords。Ifitwerenotashesupposes，whyshouldeveryonethatapproachesbeeagertoservehim？Thesordidandselfishmotivesbywhichtheyarereallyactuated，heisverylateindetecting。

　　Itmayevenbedoubtedwhethertheindividualwhowasneverledtoputtheprofessionsofotherstothetestbyhisrealwants，has，inanyinstance，beencompletelyawareofthelittlecreditthatisusuallyduetothem。

　　Aprincefindshimselfcourtedandadoredlongbeforehecanhaveacquiredameritentitlinghimtosuchdistinctions。Bywhatargumentscanyoupersuadehimlaboriouslytopursuewhatappearssocompletelysuperfluous？Howcanyouinducehimtobedissatisfiedwithhispresentacquisitions，whileeveryotherpersonassureshimthathisaccomplishmentsareadmirable，andhismindamirrorofsagacity？Howwillyoupersuadehimwhofindsallhiswishesanticipatedtoengageinanyarduousundertaking，orproposeanydistantobjectforhisambition？

　　But，evenshouldyousucceedinthis，hispursuitsmaybeexpectedtobeeithermischievousoruseless。Hisunderstandingisdistorted；andthebasisofallmorality，therecollectionthatothermenarebeingsofthesameorderwithhimself，isextirpated。Itwouldbeunreasonabletoexpectfromhimanythinggenerousandhumane。Unfortunateasheis，hissituationiscontinuallypropellinghimtovice，anddestroyingthegermsofintegrityandvirtue，beforetheyareunfolded。Ifsensibilitybegintodiscoveritself，itisimmediatelypoisonedbytheblightingwindsofflattery。

　　Amusementandsensualitycallwithanimperiousvoice，andwillnotallowhimtimetofeel。Artificialasisthecharacterhefills，evenshouldheaspiretofame，itwillbebytheartificialmethodsoffalserefinement，orthebarbarousinventionsofusurpationandconquest，notbytheplainandunornamentedroadofbenevolence。

　　Someideaofthemethodsusuallypursued，andtheeffectsproducedintheeducationofaprince，maybecollectedfromalatepublicationofmadamedeGenlis，inwhichshegivesanaccountofherownproceedingsinrelationtothechildrenofthedukeofOrleans。Shethusdescribesthefeaturesoftheirdispositionandhabits，atthetimetheywerecommittedtohercare。’ThedukedeValoistheeldestisfrequentlycoarseinhismanners，andignobleinhisexpressions。Hefindsgreathumourincallingmeanandcommonobjectsbytheirmostvulgarappellations；allthisseasonedwiththeproverbialpropensityofSancho，andsetoffwithaloudforcedlaugh。Hisprateiseternal，nordoeshesuspectbutthatitmustbeanexquisitegratificationtoanyonetobeentertainedwithit；andhefrequentlyheightensthejestbyafalsehoodutteredinthegravestmannerimaginable。

　　Neitherhenorhisbrotherhastheleastregardforanybodybutthemselves；

　　theyareselfishandgrasping，consideringeverythingthatisdoneforthemastheirdue，andimaginingthattheyareinnorespectobligedtoconsultthehappinessofothers。Theslightestreproofisbeyondmeasureshockingtothem，andtheindignationtheyconceiveatitimmediatelyventsitselfinsullennessortears。Theyareinanuncommondegreeeffeminate，afraidofthewindorthecold，unabletorunortoleap，orevensomuchastowalkataroundpace，orformorethanhalfanhouratatime。ThedukedeValoishasanextremeterrorofdogs，tosuchadegreeastoturnpaleandshriekatthesightofone。’’WhenthechildrenofthedukeofOrleanswerecommittedtomycare，theyhadbeenaccustomed，inwinter，towearunder-waistcoats，twopairofstockings，gloves，muffs，etc。Theeldest，whowaseightyearsofage，nevercamedownstairswithoutbeingsupportedbythearmofoneortwopersons；thedomesticswereobligedtorenderthemthemeanestservices，and，foracoldoranyslightindisposition，satupwiththemfornightstogether。’2*

　　MadamedeGenlis，awomanofuncommontalents，thoughherselfinfectedwithaconsiderablenumberoferrors，correctedthesedefectsintheyoungprinces。ButfewprinceshavethegoodfortunetobeeducatedbyapersonofsomuchindependenceandfirmnessasmadamedeGenlis，andwemaysafelytakeourstandardfortheaveragecalculationratherfromherpredecessorsthanherself。Evenwereitotherwise，wehavealreadyseenwhatitisthatapreceptorcandointheeducationofaprince。Norshoulditbeforgottenthatthechildrenunderhercarewerenotoftheclassofprinceswhoseemeddestinedtoathrone。

　　NOTES：

　　1。Chap。XV。

　　2。’M。deValoisaencoredesmani&egrave；resbiend&eacute；sagr&eacute；ables，desexpressionsignobles，etdetemsen’temsleplusmauvaiston。Apr&eacute；sentqu’ilest&agrave；sonaiseavecmoi，ilmed&eacute；biteavecconfiancetouteslesgentillessesqu’onluiaapprises。Toutcelaassaisonn&eacute；

　　detouslesproverbesdeSancho，etd’ungrosrireforc&eacute；，quin’estpaslemoindredesesd&eacute；sagr&eacute；ments。Enoutre，ilesttr&egrave；sbavard，grandconteur，etilmentsouventpoursedivertir；aveccelalaplusgrandeindiff&eacute；rencepourM。etMdedeChartres，n’ypensantjamais，lesvoyantfroidement，ned&eacute；sirantpointlesvoir——Ils&eacute；toientl’unetl’autredelaplusgrandeimpolitesse，ouietnontoutcourt，ouunsignedet&ecirc；te，peureconnoissant，parcequ’ilscroientqu’iln’estpointdesoins，d’attentions，nid’&eacute；gardsqu’onnelesdoive。Ils’&eacute；toitpaspossibledelesreprendresanslesmettreaud&eacute；sespoir；danscecas，toujoursdespleursondel’humeur。

　　Ils&eacute；toienttr&egrave；sdouillets，craignantlevent，lefroid，nepouvant，nonseulementnicourirnisauter，maism&ecirc；menimarcherd’unbonpas，etplusd’unedemi-heure。EtM。leducdeValoisayantunepeuraffreusedeschiensaupointdep&acirc；liretdecrieiquandilenvoyoitun。’

　　’Quandonm’aremisceuxquej’ai&eacute；lev&eacute；s，ilsavoientl’habitudedeporterenhiverdesgillets，desdoublespairesdebas，desgrandsmanchons，etc。L’a&icirc；n&eacute；，quiavoithuitans，nedescendoitjamaisunescaliersanss’appuyersurlebrasd’uneondeuxpersonnes。

　　Onobligeoitdesdomestiquesdecesenfans&agrave；leurrendrelesserviceslesplusvils：pourunrhume，pourunel&eacute；g&egrave；reincommodit&eacute；，cesdomestiquespassoientsanscesselesnuits，etc。’Le&ccedil；onsd’uneGouvernanteasesEl&egrave；ves。parMdedeSilleryBrulartci-devantcomtessedeGenlis，TomeII。

　　CHAPTERIII

　　PRIVATELIFEOFAPRINCE

　　Suchistheculture；thefruitthatitproducesmayeasilybeconjectured。

　　Thefashionwhichisgiventothemindinyouth，itordinarilyretainsinage；anditiswithordinarycasesonlythatthepresentargumentisconcerned。Iftherehavebeenkings，astherehavebeenothermen，intheformingofwhomparticularhaveoutweighedgeneralcauses，therecollectionofsuchexceptionshaslittletodowiththequestion，whethermonarchybe，generallyspeaking，abenefitoranevil。Naturehasnoparticularmouldinwhichsheformstheintellectsofprinces；monarchyiscertainlynotjuredivino；andofconsequence，whateversystemwemayadoptuponthesubjectofnaturaltalents，theordinaryrateofkings，willpossess，atbest，buttheordinaryrateofhumanunderstanding。Inwhathasbeensaid，andinwhatremainstosay，wearenottofixourmindsuponprodigies，buttothinkofthespeciesasitisusuallyfound。

　　But，thougheducationforthemostpartdeterminesthecharacterofthefutureman，itmaynotbeuselesstofollowthedisquisitionalittlefurther。Education，inonesense，istheaffairofyouth；but，inastricterandmoreaccuratesense，theeducationofanintellectualbeingcanterminateonlywithhislife。Everyincidentthatbefallsus，istheparentofasentiment，andeitherconfirmsorcounteractsthepreconceptionsofthemind。

　　Nowthecausesthatacteduponkingsintheirminority，continuetoactuponthemintheirmatureryears。Everythingiscarefullykeptoutofsight，thatmayremindthemtheyaremen。Everymeansisemployedwhichmaypersuadethem，thattheyareofadifferentspeciesofbeings，andsubjecttodifferentlawsofexistence。“Aking。”suchatleastisthemaximofabsolutemonarchies，“thoughobligedbyarigidsystemofduties，isaccountableforhisdischargeofthosedutiesonlytoGod。”Thatis，exposedtoahundredfoldmoreseductionsthanordinarymen，hehasnot，likethem，thechecksofavisibleconstitutionofthings，perpetually，throughthemediumofthesenses，makingtheirwaytothemind。Heistaughttobelievehimselfsuperiortotherestraintsthatbindordinarymen，andsubjecttoarulepeculiarlyhisown。Everythingistrustedtothemotivesofaninvisibleworld；which，whatevermaybetheestimatetowhichtheyareentitledintheviewofphilosophy，mankindarenotnowtolearn，areweaklyfeltbythosewhoareimmersedinsplendouroraffairs，andhavelittlechanceofsuccess，incontendingwiththeimpressionsofsense，andtheallurementsofvisibleobjects。

　　Itisamaximgenerallyreceivedintheworld，“thateverykingisadespotinhisheart。”andthemaximcanseldomfailtobeverifiedintheexperiment。Alimitedmonarch，andanabsolutemonarch，thoughinmanyrespectsdifferent，approachinmorepointsthantheyseparate。Amonarchstrictlywithoutlimitationisperhapsaphenomenonthatneveryetexisted。

　　Allcountrieshavepossessedsomecheckupondespotism，which，totheirdeludedimaginations，appearedasufficientsecurityfortheirindependence。

　　Allkingshavepossessedsuchaportionofluxuryandease，havebeensofarsurroundedwithservilityandfalsehood，andtosuchadegreeexemptfrompersonalresponsibility，astodestroy。thenaturalandwholesomecomplexionofthehumanmind。Beingplacedsohigh，theyfindbutonestepbetweenthemandthesummitofsocialauthority，andtheycannotbuteagerlydesiretopassthatstep。Havingsofrequentoccasionsofseeingtheircommandsimplicitlyobeyed，beingtrainedinsolongasceneofadulationandservility，itisimpossibletheyshouldnotfeelsomeindignation，atthehonestfirmnessthatsetslimitstotheiromnipotence。Buttosay，“thateverykingisadespotinhisheart。”willpresentlybeshowntobethesamething，astosay，thateverykingis，byunavoidablenecessity，theenemyofthehumanrace。

　　Theprincipalsourceofvirtuousconduct，istorecollecttheabsent。

　　Hethattakesintohisestimatepresentthingsalone，willbetheperpetualslaveofsensualityandselfishness。Hewillhavenoprinciplebywhichtorestrainappetite，ortoemployhimselfinjustandbenevolentpursuits。

　　Thecauseofvirtueandinnocence，howeverurgent，willnosoonerceasetobeheardthanitwillbeforgotten。Accordingly，nothingisfoundmorefavourabletotheattainmentofmoralexcellencethanmeditation：nothingmorehostilethananuninterruptedsuccessionofamusements。Itwouldbeabsurdtoexpectfromkingstherecollectionofvirtueinexileordisgrace。

　　Ithasgenerallybeenobservedthat，evenforthelossofaflattererorafavourite，theyspeedilyconsolethemselves。Imageafterimagesospeedilysucceedintheirsensoriumthatnooneleavesadurableimpression。Acircumstancewhichcontributestothismoralinsensibilityistheeffeminacyandcowardicewhichgrowoutofperpetualindulgence。Theirmindsirresistiblyshrinkfrompainfulideas，frommotivesthatwouldawakenthemtoeffort，andreflectionsthatdemandseverityofdisquisition。

　　Whatsituationcanbemoreunfortunate，thanthatofastranger，whocannotspeakourlanguage，knowsnothingofourmannersandcustoms，andentersintothebusysceneofouraffairs，withoutonefriendtoadvisewithorassisthim？Ifanythingistobegotbysuchaman，wemaydependuponseeinghiminstantlysurroundedwithagroupofthieves，sharpersandextortioners。Theywillimposeuponhimthemostincrediblestories，willoverreachhimineveryarticleofhisnecessitiesorhiscommerce，andhewillleavethecountryatlast，asunfriended，andinasabsoluteignorance，asheenteredit。Suchastrangerisaking；butwiththisdifference，thattheforeigner，ifhebeamanofsagacityandpenetration，maymakehiswaythroughthiscrowdofintruders，anddiscoverasetofpersonsworthyofhisconfidence，whichcanscarcelyinanycasehappentoaking。

　　Heisplacedinaspherepeculiarlyhisown。Heissurroundedwithanatmosphere，throughwhichitisimpossibleforhimtodiscoverthetruecoloursandfigureofthings。Thepersonsthatarenearhim，areinacabalandconspiracyoftheirown；andthereisnothingaboutwhichtheyaremoreanxiousthantokeeptruthfromapproachinghim。Theman，whoisnotaccessibletoeverycomer，whodeliversuphispersonintothecustodyofanother，andmay，foranythingthathecantell，beprecludedfromthatveryintercourseandknowledgeitismostimportantforhimtopossess，whatevernamehemaybear，is，inreality，aprisoner。

　　Whateverthearbitraryinstitutionsofmenmaypretend，themorepowerfulinstitutionsofournature，forbidonemantotransacttheaffairs，andprovideforthewelfareofmillions。Akingsoonfindsthenecessityofentrustinghisfunctionstotheadministrationofhisservants。Heacquiresthehabitofseeingwiththeireyes，andactingwiththeirhands。Hefindsthenecessityofconfidingimplicitlyintheirfidelity。Likeamanlongshutupinadungeon，hisorgansarenotstrongenoughtobeartheirradiationoftruth。Accustomedtoreceiveinformationofthefeelingsandsentimentsofmankind，throughthemediumofanother，hecannotbeardirectlytoconversewithbusinessandaffairs。Whoeverwoulddetachhisconfidencefromhispresentfavourites，andinducehimtopassoveragain，inscrutiny，theprinciplesanddatawhichhehasalreadyadopted，requiresofhimtoopainfulatask。Hehastensfromhisadviser，tocommunicatetheaccusationtohisfavourite；andthetonguethathasbeenaccustomedtogaincredit，easilyvarnishesoverthisnewdiscovery。Hefliesfromuncertainty，anxietyanddoubt，tohisroutineofamusements；oramusementpresentsitself，isimportunatetobereceived，andpresentlyobliteratesthetalethatoverspreadhismindwithmelancholyandsuspicion。Muchhasbeensaidofintrigueandduplicity。Theyhavebeenallegedtointrudethemselvesintothewalksofcommerce，tohaunttheintercourseofmenofletters，andtorendthepettyconcernsofavillagewithfaction。But，whereverelsetheymaybestrangers，incourtstheyundoubtedlyfindacongenialclimate。Theintrusivetale-bearer，whocarriesknowledgetotheearofkings，is，withinthatcircle，anobjectofgeneralabhorrence。Thefavouritemarkshimforhisvictim；andtheinactiveandunimpassionedtemperofthemonarchsoonresignshimtothevindictiveimportunityofhisadversary。ItisinthecontemplationofthesecircumstancesthatFenelonhasremarkedthat“kingsarethemostunfortunateandthemostmisledofallhumanbeings。”1*

　　But，inreality，weretheyinpossessionofpurersourcesofinformation，itwouldbetolittlepurpose。Royaltyinevitablyalliesitselftovice。

　　Virtue，inproportionasithastakenpossessionofanycharacter，isjust，consistentandsincere。Butkings，debauchedfromtheirbirth，andruinedbytheirsituation，cannotendureanintercoursewiththeseattributes。

　　Sincerity，thatwouldtellthemoftheirerrors，andremindthemoftheircowardice；justice，that，uninfluencedbythetrappingsofmajesty，wouldestimatethemanathistruedesert；consistency，thatnotemptationwouldinducetopartwithitsintegrity；areodiousandintolerableintheireyes。Fromsuchintruders，theyhastentomenofapliantcharacter，whowillflattertheirmistakes，putavarnishontheiractions，andbevisitedbynoscruplesinassistingtheindulgenceoftheirappetites。Thereisscarcelyinhumannatureaninflexibilitythatcanresistperpetualflatteryandcompliance。Thevirtuesthatgrowupamongus，areculturedintheopenfoilofequality，notintheartificialclimateofgreatness。Weneedthewindstoharden，asmuchastheheattocherishus。Manyamind，thatpromisedwellinitsoutset，hasbeenfoundincapabletostandthetestofperpetualindulgenceandease，withoutoneshocktowaken，andonecalamitytostopitinitssmoothcareer。

　　Monarchyis，inreality，sounnaturalaninstitutionthatmankindhave，atalltimes，stronglysuspecteditwasunfriendlytotheirhappiness。

　　Thepoweroftruth，uponimportanttopics，issuch，thatitmayratherbesaidtobeobscured，thanobliterated；andfalsehoodhasscarcelyeverbeensosuccessful，asnottohavehadarestlessandpowerfulantagonistintheheartofitsvotaries。Themanwhowithdifficultyearnshisscantysubsistence，cannotbeholdtheostentatioussplendourofaking，withoutbeingvisitedbysomesenseofinjustice。Heinevitablyquestions，inhismind，theutilityofanofficer，whoseservicesarehiredatsoenormousaprice。Ifheconsiderthesubjectwithanydegreeofaccuracy，heisledtoperceive，andthatwithsufficientsurprise，thatakingisnothingmorethanacommonmortal，exceededbymany，andequalledbymore，ineveryrequisiteofstrength，capacityandvirtue。Hefeelsthereforethatnothingcanbemoregroundlessandunjust，thanthesupposingthatonesuchmanasthis，isthefittestandmostcompetentinstrumentforregulatingtheaffairsofnations。

　　Thesereflectionsaresounavoidablethatkingsthemselveshaveoftenbeenawareofthedangertotheirimaginaryhappinesswithwhichtheyarepregnant。Theyhavesometimesbeenalarmedwiththeprogressofthinking，andoftenerregardedtheeaseandprosperityoftheirsubjectsasasourceofterrorandapprehension。Theyjustlyconsidertheirfunctions，asasortofpublicexhibition，thesuccessofwhichdependsuponthecredulityofthespectators，andwhichgoodsenseandcouragewouldspeedilybringtocontempt。Hencethewellknownmaximsofmonarchicalgovernment，thateaseistheparentofrebellion；andthatitisnecessarytokeepthepeopleinastateofpovertyandenduranceinordertorenderthemsubmissive。

　　Henceithasbeentheperpetualcomplaintofdespotism，that“therestiveknavesareoverrunwithease，andplentyeveristhenurseoffaction。”2*

　　Henceithasbeenthelessonperpetuallyreadtomonarchs：“Renderyoursubjectsprosperous，andtheywillspeedilyrefusetolabour；theywillbecomestubborn，proud，unsubmissivetotheyoke，andripeforrevolt。

　　Itisimpotenceandpenuryalonethatwillrenderthemsupple，andpreventthemfromrebellingagainstthedictatesofauthority。”3*

　　Itisacommonandvulgarobservationthatthestateofakingisgreatlytobepitied。“Allhisactionsarehemmedinwithanxietyanddoubt。Hecannot，likeothermen，indulgethegayandcarelesshilarityofhismind；

　　butisobliged，ifhebeofanhonestandconscientiousdisposition，toconsiderhownecessarythetime，whichheisthoughtlesslygivingtoamusement，maybe，tothereliefofaworthyandoppressedindividual；howmanybenefitsmight，inathousandinstances，resultfromhisinterference；howmanyaguilelessandundesigningheartmightbecheeredbyhisjustice。Theconductofkingsisasubjectfortheseverestcriticismwhichthenatureoftheirsituationdisablesthemtoencounter。Athousandthingsaredoneintheirnameinwhichtheyhavenoparticipation；athousandstoriesaresodisguisedtotheirear，astorenderthetruthundiscoverable；andthekingisthegeneralscape-goat，loadedwiththeoffencesofallhisdependents。”

　　Nopicturecanbemorejust，judiciousandhumanethanthatwhichisthusexhibited。Whythenshouldtheadvocatesofantimonarchicalprinciplesbeconsideredastheenemiesofkings？Theywouldrelievethemfrom“aloadthatwouldsinkanavy，toomuchhonour。”4*Theywouldexaltthemtothehappyandenviableconditionofprivateindividuals。Inreality，nothingcanbemoreiniquitousandcruelthantoimposeuponamantheunnaturalofficeofaking。Itisnotlessinequitabletowardshimthatexercisesit，thantowardsthemwhoaresubjectedtoit。Kings，iftheyunderstoodtheirowninterests，wouldbethefirsttoespousetheseprinciples，themosteagertolistentothem，themostferventinexpressingtheiresteemofthemenwhoundertaketoimpressupontheirspeciesthisimportanttruth。

　　NOTES：

　　1。“Lesplusmalheureux&amp；lesplusaveuglesdetousleshommes。”

　　T&eacute；l&eacute；maque，Liv。XIII。Moreforcibleandimpressivedescriptionisscarcelyanywheretohefound，thanthatoftheevilsinseparablefrommonarchicalgovernment，containedinthisandthefollowingbookofFenelon’swork。

　　2。JaneShore，ActIII。

　　3。“SivousmettezlespeuplesdansI’abondance，ilsnetravaillerontplus，ilsdeviendrontfiers，indociles，etseronttoujourspr&ecirc；t&agrave；

　　serevolter：iln’yaquelafoiblesseetlamiserequilesrendentsouples，etquilesemp&ecirc；chentderesister&agrave；l’autorit&eacute；。”T&eacute；l&eacute；maque，Liv。XIII。

　　4。Shakespeare：HenrytheEighth，ActIII。

　　CHAPTERIV

　　OFAVIRTUOUSDESPOTISM

　　Thereisaprinciple，frequentlymaintaineduponthissubject，1*whichisentitledtoimpartialconsideration。Itisgranted，bythosewhoespouseit，“thatabsolutemonarchy，fromtheimperfectionofthosebywhomitisadministered，is，forthemostpart，productiveofevil；“buttheyassert，“thatitisthebestandmostdesirableofallformsunderagoodandvirtuousprince。Itisexposed。”saythey，“tothefateofallexcellentnatures，and，fromthebestthing，frequently，ifcorrupted，becomestheworst。”

　　Thisremarkiscertainlynotverydecisiveofthegeneralquestion，solongasanyweightshallbeattributedtotheargumentswhichhavebeenadducedtoevincewhatsortofcharacteranddispositionmaybeordinarilyexpectedinprinces。Itmayhoweverbeallowed，iftrue，tocreateinthemindofasortofpartialretrospecttothishappyandperfectdespotism；

　　and，ifitcanbeshowntobefalse，itwillrendertheargumentfortheabolitionofmonarchy，sofarasitisconcerned，moreentireandcomplete。

　　Now，whateverdispositionsanymanmaypossessinfavourofthewelfareofothers，twothingsarenecessarytogivethemvalidity；discernmentandpower。Icanpromotethewelfareofafewpersons，becauseIcanbesufficientlyinformedoftheircircumstances。Icanpromotethewelfareofmanyincertaingeneralarticles，because，forthispurpose，itisonlynecessarythatIshouldbeinformedofthenatureofthehumanmindassuch，notofthepersonalsituationoftheindividualsconcerned。Butforonemantoundertaketoadministertheaffairsofmillions，tosupply，notgeneralprinciplesandperspicuousreasoning，butparticularapplication，andmeasuresadaptedtothenecessitiesofthemoment，isofallundertakingsthemostextravagantandabsurd。

　　Themostsimpleandobvioussystemofpracticaladministrationisforeachmantobethearbiterofhisownconcerns。Iftheimperfection，thenarrowviews，andthemistakesofhumanbeings，renderthis，incertaincases，inexpedientandimpracticable，thenextresourceistocallintheopinionofhispeers，personswho，fromtheirvicinity，maybepresumedtohavesomegeneralknowledgeofthecase，andwhohaveleisureandmeansminutelytoinvestigatethemeritsofthequestion。Itcannotreasonablybedoubted，thatthesameexpedientwhichisresortedtoinourcivilandcriminalconcerns，would，byplainanduninstructedmortals，beadoptedintheassessmentoftaxes，inthedeliberationsofcommerce，andineveryotherarticleinwhichtheircommoninterestswereinvolved，onlygeneralizingthedeliberativeassembly，orpannel，inproportiontothegeneralityofthequestiontobedecided。

　　Monarchy，insteadofreferringeveryquestiontothepersonsconcernedortheirneighbours，refersittoasingleindividual，placedatthegreatestdistancepossiblefromtheordinarymembersofthesociety。Insteadofdistributingthecausestobejudgedintoasmanyparcelsasconveniencewouldadmit，forthesakeofprovidingleisureandopportunitiesofexamination，itdrawsthemtoasinglecentre，andrendersenquiryandexaminationimpossible。

　　Adespot，howevervirtuouslydisposed，isobligedtoactinthedark，toderivehisknowledgefromothermen’sinformation，andtoexecutehisdecisionsbyothermen’sinstrumentality。Monarchyseemstobeaspeciesofgovernmentproscribedbythenatureofman；andthosepersons，whofurnishedtheirdespotwithintegrityandvirtue，forgottoaddomniscienceandomnipotence，qualitiesnotlessnecessarytofithimfortheofficetheyhadprovided。

　　Letussupposethishonestandincorruptibledespottobeservedbyministers，avaricious，hypocriticalandinterested。Whatwillthepeoplegainbythegoodintentionsoftheirmonarch？Hewillmeanthemthegreatestbenefits，buthewillbealtogetherunacquaintedwiththeirsituation，theircharacterandtheirwants。Theinformationhereceives，willfrequentlybetheveryreverseofthetruth。Hewillbetaughtthatoneindividualishighlymeritorious，andapropersubjectofreward，whoseonlymeritistheprofligateservilitywithwhichhehasfulfilledthepurposesofhisadministration。Hewillbetaughtthatanotheristhepestofthecommunity，whoisindebtedforthisreport，tothesteadyvirtuewithwhichhehastraversedanddefeatedthewickednessofgovernment。Hewillmeanthegreatestbenefitstohispeople；but，whenheprescribessomethingcalculatedfortheiradvantage，hisservants，underpretenceofcomplying，shall，inreality，perpetratediametricallythereverse。Nothingwillbemoredangerous，thantoendeavourtoremovetheobscuritywithwhichhisministerssurroundhim。Theman，whoattemptssohardyatask，willbecometheincessantobjectoftheirhatred。Howeverincorruptiblemaybethejusticeofthesovereign，thetimewillcomewhenhisobservationwillbelaidasleep，whilemaliceandrevengeareevervigilant。Couldheunfoldthesecretsofhisprison-housesofstate，hewouldfindmencommittedinhisname，whosecrimesheneverknew，whosenamesheneverheardof，perhapsmenwhomhehonouredandesteemed。

　　Suchisthehistoryofthebenevolentandphilanthropicdespotswhommemoryhasrecorded；andtheconclusionfromthewholeis，that，whereverdespotismexists，thereitwillalwaysbeattendedwiththeevilsofdespotism，capriciousmeasuresandarbitraryinfliction。

　　“Butwillnotawisekingprovidehimselfwithgoodandvirtuousservants？“

　　Undoubtedlyhewilleffectapartofthis，buthecannotsupersedethenatureofthings。Hethatexecutesanofficeasadeputywillneverdischargeitinthesamespirit，asifheweretheprincipal。Eithertheministermustbetheauthoroftheplanswhichhecarriesintoeffect，andthenitisoflittleconsequence，exceptsofarasrelatestohisintegrityinthechoiceofhisservants，whatsortofmortalthesovereignshallbefound；orhemustplayasubordinatepart，andthenitisimpossibletotransfuseintohismindtheperspicacityandenergyofhismaster。Whereverdespotismexists，itcannotremaininasinglehand，butmustbetransmittedwholeandentirethroughtheprogressivelinksofauthority。Torenderdespotismauspiciousandbenign，itisnecessary，notonlythatthesovereignshouldpossesseveryhumanexcellence，butthatallhisofficersshouldbemenofpenetratinggeniusandunspottedvirtue。Iftheyfallshortofthis，theywill，liketheministersofElizabeth，besometimesspeciousprofligates，2*andsometimesmenwho，howeveradmirablyadaptedforthetechnicalemergenciesofbusiness，consult，onmanyoccasionsexclusively，theirprivateadvantage，worshiptherisingsun，enterintovindictivecabals，andcuffdownnew-fledgedmerit。3*Whereverthecontinuityisbroken，thefloodofvicewillbeardownallbeforeit。Oneweakordisingenuousmanwillbethesourceofunboundedmischief。

　　Anotherposition，notlessgenerallyassertedthanthedesirablenessofavirtuousdespotism，is；thatrepublicanismisaspeciesofgovernmentpracticableonlyinasmallstate，whilemonarchyisbestfittedtoembracetheconcernsofavastandflourishingempire。”Thereverseofthis，sofaratleastasrelatestomonarchy，appearsatfirstsighttobethetruth。

　　Thecompetenceofanygovernmentcannotbemeasuredbyapurerstandardthantheextentandaccuracyofitsinformation。Inthisrespectmonarchyappearsinallcasestobewretchedlydeficient；butifitcaneverbeadmitted，itmustsurelybeinthosenarrowandlimitedinstanceswhereanindividualcan，withleastabsurdity，besupposedtobeacquaintedwiththeaffairsandinterestsofthewhole。4*

　　NOTES

　　1。SeeTomJones，BookXII，Chap。XII。

　　2。DudleyearlofLeicester。

　　3。CecilearlofSalisbury，lordtreasurer；HowardearlofNottingham，lordadmiral，etc。

　　4。Paine’sLettertotheRepublican。

　　CHAPTERV

　　OFCOURTSANDMINISTERS

　　Weshallbebetterenabledtojudgeofthedispositionswithwhichinformationiscommunicated，andmeasuresareexecuted，inmonarchicalcountries，ifwereflectuponanotheroftheillconsequencesattendantuponthisspeciesofgovernment，theexistenceandcorruptionofcourts。

　　Thecharacterofthis，aswellasofeveryotherhumaninstitution，arisesoutofthecircumstanceswithwhichitissurrounded。Ministersandfavouritesareasortofpeoplewhohaveastateprisonerintheircustody，thewholemanagementofwhoseunderstandingandactionstheycaneasilyengross。Thistheycompletelyeffectwithaweakandcredulousmaster，norcanthemostcautiousandpenetratingentirelyeludetheirmachinations。

　　Theyunavoidablydesiretocontinueintheadministrationofhisfunctions，whetheritbeemolument，ortheloveofhomage，oranymoregenerousmotive，bywhichtheyareattachedtoit。But，themoretheyareconfidedinbythesovereign，thegreaterwillbethepermanenceoftheirsituation；and，themoreexclusiveistheirpossessionofhisear，themoreimplicitwillbehisconfidence。Thewisestofmortalsareliabletoerror；themost-judiciousprojectsareopentospeciousandsuperficialobjections；anditcanrarelyhappenbutaministerwillfindhiseaseandsecurityinexcluding，asmuchaspossible，otherandoppositeadvisers，whoseacutenessandingenuityareperhapsadditionallywhettedbyadesiretosucceedtohisoffice。

　　Ministersbecomeasortofminiaturekingsintheirturn。Thoughtheyhavethegreatestopportunityofobservingtheimpotenceandunmeaningnessofthecharacter，theyenvyit。Itistheirtradeperpetuallytoextolthedignityandimportanceofthemastertheyserve；andmencannotlonganxiouslyendeavourtoconvinceothersofthetruthofanypropositionwithoutbecominghalfconvincedofitthemselves。Theyfeelthemselvesdependentforallthattheymostardentlydesire，uponthisman’sarbitrarywill；butasenseofinferiorityisperhapstheneverfailingparentofemulationorenvy。Theyassimilatethemselvestherefore，ofchoice，toamantowhosecircumstancestheirownareconsiderablysimilar。

　　Inrealitytherequisiteswithoutwhichmonarchicalgovernmentcannotbepreservedinexistencearebynomeanssufficientlysuppliedbythemereinterventionofministers。Theremustbetheministersofministers，andalongbeadrollofsubordination，descendingbytediousandcomplicatedsteps。Eachoftheselivesonthesmileoftheminister，ashelivesonthesmileofthesovereign。Eachofthesehashispettyintereststomanage，andhisempiretoemployundertheguiseofservility。Eachimitatesthevicesofhissuperior，andexactsfromotherstheadulationheisobligedtopay。

　　Ithasalreadyappearedthatakingisnecessarily，andalmostunavoidably，adespotinhisheart。1*Hehasbeenusedtohearthosethingsonlywhichwereadaptedtogivehimpleasure；anditiswithagratinganduneasysensationthathelistenstocommunicationsofadifferentsort。Hehasbeenusedtounhesitatingcompliance；anditiswithdifficultyhecandigestexpostulationandopposition。Ofconsequencethehonestandvirtuouscharacter，whoseprinciplesareclearandunshaken，isleastqualifiedforhisservice；hemusteitherexplainawaytheseverityofhisprinciples，orhemustgiveplacetoamorecraftyandtemporizingpolitician。Thetemporizingpoliticianexpectsthesamepliabilityinothersthatheexhibitsinhimself，andthefaultwhichhecanleastforgiveisanilltimedaninauspiciousscrupulosity。

　　Expectingthiscompliancefromallthecoadjutorsandinstrumentsofhisdesigns，hesooncomestosetitupasastandardbywhichtojudgeofthemeritofothermen。Heisdeaftoeveryrecommendationbutthatofafitnessforthesecretserviceofgovernment，oratendencytopromotehisinterest，andextendthesphereofhisinfluence。Theworstman，withthisargumentinhisfavour，willseemworthyofencouragement；thebestman，whohasnoadvocatebutvirtuetopleadforhim，willbetreatedwithsuperciliousnessandneglect。Thegenuinecriterionofhumandesertcanscarcelyindeedbesupersededandreversed。Butitwillappeartobereversed，andappearancewillproducemanyoftheeffectsofreality。Toobtainhonour，itwillbethoughtnecessarytopayaservilecourttoadministration，tobear，withunalteredpatience，theircontumelyandscorn，toflattertheirvices，andrenderourselvesusefultotheirprivategratification。

　　Toobtainhonour，itwillbethoughtnecessary，byassiduityandintrigue，tomakeourselvesaparty，toprocuretherecommendationoflords，andthegoodwordofwomenofpleasure，andclerksinoffice。Toobtainhonour，itwillbethoughtnecessarytomeritdisgrace。Thewholesceneconflictsinhollowness，duplicityandfalsehood。Theministerspeaksfairtothemanhedespises，andtheslavepretendsagenerousattachment，whilehethinksofnothingbuthispersonalinterest。Thattheseprinciplesareinterspersed，undertheworstgovernments，withoccasionaldeviationsintobetter，itwouldbefollytodeny；thattheydonotformthegreatprevailingfeatures，whereveracourtandamonarcharetobefound，itwouldbemadnesstoassert。

　　Thereisonefeatureaboveallotherswhichhasneverescapedthemostsuperficialdelineatorofthemannersofacourt；Imeantheprofounddissimulationwhichistherecultivated。Theministerhas，inthefirstplace，todeceivethesovereign，continuallytopretendtofeelwhateverhismasterfeels，toingratiatehimselfbyanuniforminsincerity，andtomakeashowofthemostunreservedaffectionandattachment。Hisnextduty，istocheathisdependentsandthecandidatesforoffice；tokeeptheminaperpetualfeverofdesireandexpectation。Recollectthesceneofaministeriallevee。

　　Tojudgebytheexternalappearance，weshouldsupposethistobethechosenseatofdisinterestedkindness。Allthatiserectanddecisiveinmanisshamelesslysurrendered。Noprofessionsofsubmissioncanbesobase，noformsofadulationsoextravagant，butthattheyareeagerlypractisedbythesevoluntaryprostitutes。Yetitisnotoriousthat，inthissceneaboveallothers，hatredhasfixeditsdwelling；jealousyranklesineverybreast；andthemostofitspersonageswouldrejoiceintheopportunityofruiningeachotherforever。Hereitisthatpromises，protestationsandoathsaresowantonlymultipliedasalmosttohavelosttheirmeaning。

　　Thereisscarcelyamansoweakas，whenhehasreceivedacourtpromise，nottotremble，lestitshouldbefoundasfalseandunsubstantialbyhim，asithasprovedtosomanyothers。

　　Atlength，bytheconstantpracticeofdissimulation，thetruecourtiercomestobeunabletodistinguish，amonghisownsentiments，thepretendedfromthereal。Hearrivesatsuchproficiencyinhisartastohaveneitherpassionsnorattachments。Personalkindness，andallconsiderationforthemeritofothers，areswallowedupinanarrowandsordidambition；

　　notthatgenerousambitionfortheesteemofmankind，whichreflectsasortofsplendouruponviceitself，butanambitionofselfishgratificationandilliberalintrigue。Suchamanhasbidalongfarewelltoeverymoralrestraint，andthinkshispurposescheaplypromotedbythesacrificeofhonour，sincerityandjustice。Hischiefstudyandgreatestboastaretobeimpenetrable；thatnomanshallbeabletodiscoverwhathedesigns；

　　that，thoughyoudiscoursewithhimforever，heshallconstantlyeludeyourdetection。Consummateinhisart，hewilloftenpractiseitwithoutexcuseornecessity。Thushistoryrecordsherinstancesoftheprofusekindnessandendearmentwithwhichmonarchshavetreatedthosetheyhadalreadyresolvedtodestroy。Agratuitousprideseemstohavebeenplacedinexhibitingthelastrefinementofprofligacyanddeceit。Ministersofthischaracterarethemortalenemiesofvirtueinothers。Acabalofsuchcourtiersisintheutmostdegreedeadly。Theydestroybysecretwaysthatgivenowarning，andleavenotrace。Iftheyhavetodowithablunt，justmanwhoknowsnodisguise，oragenerousspiritthatscornstopractisedissimulationandartifice，theymarkhimtheircertainvictim。Nogoodorliberalcharactercanescapetheirmachinations；andtheimmoralityofthecourt，whichthrowsintoshadeallotherwickedness，spreadsitscontagionthroughtheland，andemasculatesthesentimentsofthemostpopulousnation。

　　Afundamentaldisadvantageinmonarchicalgovernmentisthatitrendersthingsofthemostessentialimportance，subject，throughsuccessivegradations，tothecapriceofindividuals。Thesuffrageofabodyofelectorswillalwaysbeararesemblance，moreorlessremote，tothepublicsentiment。

　　Thesuffrageofanindividualwilldependuponcaprice，personalconvenienceorpecuniarycorruption。Ifthekingbehimselfinaccessibletoinjustice，iftheministerdisdainabribe，yetthefundamentalevilremains，thatkingsandministers，falliblethemselves，must，uponathousandoccasions，dependupontherecommendationofothers。Whowillanswerforthese，throughalltheirclasses，officersofstate，anddeputiesofoffice，humblefriends，andofficiousvalets，wivesanddaughters，concubinesandconfessors？

　　Itissupposedbymanythattheexistenceofpermanenthereditarydistinctionisnecessarytothemaintenanceoforder，amongbeingssoimperfectasthehumanspecies。Butitisallowedbyallthatpermanenthereditarydistinctionisafictionofpolicy，notanordinanceofimmutabletruth。Whereveritexists，thehumanmind，sofarasrelatestopoliticalsociety，ispreventedfromsettlinguponitstruefoundation。Thereisaconstantstrugglebetweenthegenuinesentimentsoftheunderstanding，whichtellusthatallthisisanimposition，andtheimperiousvoiceofgovernment，whichbidsus，Reverenceandobey。Inthisunequalcontest，alarmandapprehensionwillperpetuallyhauntthemindsofthosewhoexerciseusurpedpower。Inthisartificialstateofman，powerfulenginesmustbeemployedtopreventhimfromrisingtohistruelevel。Itisthebusinessofthegovernorstopersuadethegovernedthatitistheirinteresttobeslaves。Theyhavenoothermeansbywhichtocreatethisfictitiousinterestbutthosewhichtheyderivefromthepervertedunderstandings，andburdenedproperty，ofthepublic，tobereturnedintitles，ribandsandbribes。Hencethatsystemofuniversalcorruptionwithoutwhichmonarchycouldnotexist。

　　Ithassometimesbeensupposedthatcorruptionisparticularlyincidenttoamixedgovernment。’Insuchagovernmentthepeoplepossessaportionoffreedom；privilegefindsitsplaceaswellasprerogative；acertainsturdinessofmanner，andconsciousnessofindependence，arethenativesofthesecountries。Thecountry-gentlemanwillnotabjurethedictatesofhisjudgementwithoutavaluableconsideration。Thereisheremorethanoneroadtosuccess；popularfavourisassureameansofadvancementascourtlypatronage。Indespoticcountriesthepeoplemaybedrivenlikesheep：howeverunfortunateistheircondition，theyknownoother，andtheysubmittoitasaninevitablecalamity。Theircharacteristicfeatureisatorpiddullness，inwhichalltheenergiesofmanareforgotten。But，inacountrycallingitselffree，themindsoftheinhabitantsareinaperturbedandrestlessstate，andextraordinarymeansmustbeemployedtocalmtheirvehemence。’Ithassometimeshappenedtomenwhoseheartshavebeenpervadedwiththeloveofvirtue，ofwhichpecuniaryprostitutionisthemostodiouscorruption，toprefer，whiletheyhavecontemplatedthispicture，anacknowledgeddespotismtoastateofspeciousandimperfectliberty。

　　Butthepictureisnotaccurate。Asmuchofitasrelatestoamixedgovernmentmustbeacknowledgedtobetrue。Butthefeaturesofdespotismaretoofavourablytouched。Whetherprivilegebeconcededbytheformsoftheconstitutionorno，awholenationcannotbekeptignorantofitsforce。Nopeoplewereeveryetsosunkinstupidityastoimagineoneman，becauseheboretheappellationofaking，literallyequaltoamillion。

　　Inawholenation，asmonarchicalnationsatleastmustbeexpectedtobeconstituted，therewillbenobilityandyeomanry，richandpoor。Therewillbepersonswho，bytheirsituation，theirwealth，ortheirtalents，formamiddlerankbetweenthemonarchandthevulgar，andwho，bytheirconfederaciesandtheirintrigues，canholdthethroneinawe。Thesemenmustbeboughtordefied。Thereisnodispositionthatclingssoclosetodespotismasincessantterrorandalarm。Whatelsegavebirthtothearmiesofspies，andthenumerousstateprisons，undertheoldgovernmentofFrance？Theeyeofthetyrantisneverdosed。Hownumerousaretheprecautionsandjealousiesthattheseterrorsdictate？Nomancangooutorcomeintothecountry，butheiswatched。Thepressmustissuenoproductionsthathavenottheimprimaturofgovernment。Allcoffeehouses，andplacesofpublicresort，areobjectsofattention。Twentypeoplecannotbecollectedtogether，unlessforthepurposesofsuperstition，butitisimmediatelysuspectedthattheymaybeconferringabouttheirrights。Isittobesupposedthat，wherethemeansofjealousyareemployed，themeansofcorruptionwillbeforgotten？Wereitsoindeed，thecasewouldnotbemuchimproved。

　　Nopicturecanbemoredisgustful，nostateofmankindmoredepressing，thanthatinwhichawholenationisheldinobediencebythemereoperationoffear，inwhichallthatismosteminentamongthem，andthatshouldgiveexampletotherest，isprevented，undertheseverestpenalties，fromexpressingitsrealsentiments，and，bynecessaryconsequence，fromforminganysentimentsthatareworthytobeexpressed。But，inreality，fearwasnevertheonlyinstrumentemployedforthesepurposes。Notyrantwaseversounsocialastohavenoconfederatesinhisguilt。Thismonstrousedificewillalwaysbefoundsupportedbyallthevariousinstrumentsforpervertingthehumancharacter，severity，menaces，blandishments，professionsandbribes。Tothisitis，inagreatdegree，owingthatmonarchyissocostlyanestablishment。Itisthebusinessofthedespottodistributehislotteryofseductionintoasmanyprizesaspossible。Amongtheconsequencesofapecuniarypolitythesearetobereckonedtheforemostthateverymanissupposedtohavehisprice，andthat，thecorruptionbeingmanagedinanunderhandmanner，manyamanwhoappearsapatriotmaybereallyahireling；

　　bywhichmeansvirtueitselfisbroughtintodiscredit，iseitherregardedasmerefollyandromance，orobservedwithdoubtandsuspicion，asthecloakofvices，whichareonlythemorehumiliatingthemoretheyareconcealed。

　　NOTES：

　　1。p。22。

　　CHAPTERVI

　　OFSUBJECTS

　　Letusproceedtoconsiderthemoraleffectswhichtheinstitutionofmonarchicalgovernmentiscalculatedtoproduceupontheinhabitantsofthecountriesinwhichitflourishes。Andhereitmustbelaiddownasafirstprinciplethatmonarchyisfoundedinimposture。Itisfalsethatkingsareentitledtotheeminencetheyobtain。Theypossessnointrinsicsuperiorityovertheirsubjects。Thelineofdistinctionthatisdrawnistheoffspringofpretence，anindirectmeansemployedforeffectingcertainpurposes，andnotthelanguageoftruth。Ittramplesuponthegenuinenatureofthings，anddependsforitssupportuponthisargument，’that，wereitnotforimpositionsofasimilarnature，mankindwouldbemiserable’。

　　Secondly，itisfalsethatkingscandischargethefunctionsofroyalty。

　　Theypretendtosuperintendtheaffairsofmillions，andtheyarenecessarilyunacquaintedwiththeseaffairs。Thesensesofkingsareconstructedlikethoseofothermen：theycanneitherseenorhearwhatistransactedintheirabsence。Theypretendtoadministertheaffairsofmillions，andtheypossessnosuchsupernaturalpowers，asshouldenablethemtoactatadistance。Theyarenothingofwhattheywouldpersuadeustobelievethem。Thekingisoftenignorantofthatofwhichhalftheinhabitantsofhisdominionsareinformed。Hisprerogativesareadministeredbyothers，andthelowestclerkinofficeisfrequently，tothisandthatindividual，moreeffectuallythesovereignthanthekinghimselfHeiswhollyunacquaintedwithwhatissolemnlytransactedinhisname。

　　Toconductthisimposturewithsuccess，itisnecessarytobringovertoitspartyoureyesandourears。Accordinglykingsarealwaysexhibitedwithallthesplendourofornament，attendanceandequipage。Theyliveamidstasumptuousnessofexpense；andthis，notmerelytogratifytheirappetitesbutasanecessaryinstrumentofpolicy。Themostfatalopinionthatcouldlayholduponthemindsoftheirsubjectsisthatkingsarebutmen。Accordingly，theyarecarefullywithdrawnfromtheprofanenessofvulgarinspection；and，whentheyareshowntothepublic，itiswitheveryartificethatmaydazzleoursense，andmisleadourjudgement。

　　Theimposturedoesnotstopwithoureyes，butaddressitselftoourears。Hencetheinflatedstyleofregalformality。Thenameofthekingeverywhereobtrudesitselfuponus。Itwouldseemasifeverythinginthecountry，thelands，thehouses，thefurniture，andtheinhabitants，werehisproperty。Ourestatesaretheking’sdominions。Ourbodiesandmindsarehissubjects。Ourrepresentativesarehisparliament。Ourcourtsoflawarehisdeputies。Allmagistrates，throughouttherealm，aretheking’sofficers。Hisnameoccupiestheforemostplaceinallstatutesanddecrees。

　　Heistheprosecutorofeverycriminal。Heis’OurSovereignLordtheKing’。

　　Wereitpossiblethatheshoulddie，’thefountainofourblood，themeansbywhichwelive’，wouldbegone：everypoliticalfunctionwouldbesuspended。

　　Itisthereforeoneofthefundamentalprinciplesofmonarchicalgovernmentthat’thekingcannotdie’。Ourmoralprinciplesaccommodatethemselvestoourveracity：and，accordingly，thesumofourpoliticaldutiesthemostimportantofalldutiesisloyalty；tobetrueandfaithfultotheking；tohonouramanwhom，itmaybe。weoughttodespise；andtoobey；

　　thatis，toconvertourshameintoourpride，andtobeostentatiousofthesurrenderofourownunderstandings。Themoralityofadultsinthissituationiscopiedfromthebasestpartofthemoralitysometimestaughttochildren；andtheperfectionofvirtueisplacedinblindcomplianceandunconditionalsubmission。

　　Whatmustbetheeffectsofthismachineuponthemoralprinciplesofmankind？Undoubtedlywecannottriflewiththeprinciplesofmoralityandtruthwithimpunity。Howevergravelytheimposturemaybecarriedon，itisimpossiblebutthattherealstateofthecaseshouldbestronglysuspected。

　　Maninastateofsociety，ifundebauchedbyfalsehoodslikethese，whichconfoundthenatureofrightandwrong，isnotignorantofwhatitisinwhichmeritsconsists。Heknowsthatonemanisnotsuperiortoanother，exceptsofarasheiswiserorbetter。Accordinglythesearethedistinctionstowhichheaspiresforhimself。Thesearethequalitieshehonoursandapplaudsinanother，andwhichthereforethefeelingsofeachmaninstigatehisneighbourstoacquire。Butwhatarevolutionisintroducedamongtheseoriginalandundebauchedsentimentsbythearbitrarydistinctionswhichmonarchyengenders？Westillretaininourmindsthestandardofmerit：

　　butitdailygrowsmorefeebleandpowerless；wearepersuadedtothinkthatitisofnorealuseinthetransactionsoftheworld，andpresentlylayitasideasUtopianandvisionary。

　　Noristhisthewholeoftheinjuriousconsequencesproducedbythehyperbolicalpretensionsofmonarchy。Thereisasimplicityintruththatrefusesalliancewiththisimpudentmysticism。Nomanisentirelyignorantofthenatureofman。Hewillnotindeedbeincreduloustoadegreeofenergyandrectitudethatmayexceedthestandardofhispreconceivedideas。

　　Butforonemantopretendtothinkandactforanationofhisfellowsissopreposterousastosetcredibilityatdefiance。Ishepersuadedthattheimpositionissalutary？Hewillinglyassumestherightofintroducingsimilarfalsehoodsintohisprivateaffairs。Hebecomesconvincedthatvenerationfortruthistobeclassedamongourerrorsandprejudices，andthat，sofarfrombeing，asitpretendstobe，inallcasessalutary，itwouldlead，ifingenuouslypractised，tothedestructionofmankind。

　　Again，ifkingswereexhibitedsimplyastheyareinthemselvestotheinspectionofmankind，the’salutaryprejudice’，asithasbeencalled，1*

　　whichteachesustoveneratethemwouldspeedilybeextinct：ithasthereforebeenfoundnecessarytosurroundthemwithluxuryandexpense。ThusluxuryandexpensearemadethestandardOfhonour，andofconsequencethetopicsofanxietyandenvy。Howeverfatalthissentimentmaybetothemoralityandhappinessofmankind，itisoneofthoseillusionswhichmonarchicalgovernmentiseagertocherish。Inreality，thefirstprincipleofvirtuousfeeling，ashasbeenelsewheresaid，2*istheloveofindependence。Hethatwouldbejustmust，beforeallthings，estimatetheobjectsabouthimattheirtruevalue。Buttheprincipleinregalstateshasbeentothinkyourfatherthewisestofmen，becauseheisyourfather，3*andyourkingtheforemostofhisspeciesbecauseheisaking。Thestandardofintellectualmeritisnolongertheman，buthistitle。Tobedrawninacoachofstatebyeightmilk-whitehorsesisthehighestofallhumanclaimstoourveneration。Thesameprincipleinevitablyrunsthrougheveryorderofthestate，andmendesirewealthunderamonarchicalgovernmentforthesamereasonthat，underothercircumstances，theywouldhavedesiredvirtue。

　　Letussupposeanindividualwhobyseverelabourearnsascantysubsistence，tobecome，byaccidentorcuriosity，aspectatorofthepompofaroyalprogress。Isitpossiblethatheshouldnotmentallyapostrophizethiselevatedmortal，andask，’Whathasmadetheetodifferfromme？’Ifnosuchsentimentpassthroughhismind，itisaproofthatthecorruptinstitutionsofsocietyhavealreadydivestedhimofallsenseofjustice。Themoresimpleanddirectishischaracter，themorecertainlywillthesesentimentsoccur。Whatanswershallwereturntohisenquiry？Thatthewellbeingofsocietyrequiresmentobetreatedotherwisethanaccordingtotheirintrinsicmerit？Whetherhebesatisfiedwiththisanswerorno，willhenotaspiretopossessthatwhichinthisinstanceiswealthtowhichthepolicyofmankindhasannexedsuchhighdistinction？Isitnotindispensablethat，beforehebelievesintherectitudeofthisinstitution，hisoriginalfeelingsofrightandwrongshouldbewhollyreversed？Ifitbeindispensable，thenlettheadvocateofthemonarchicalsystemingenuouslydeclarethat，accordingtothatsystem，theinterestofsociety，inthefirstinstance，requiresthesubversionofallprinciplesofmoraltruthandjustice。

　　Withthisviewletusagainrecollectthemaximadoptedinmonarchicalcountries，’thatthekingneverdies’。Thus，withtrueorientalextravagance，wesalutethisimbecilemortal，’Oking，liveforeverI’Whydowethis？

　　Becauseuponhisexistencetheexistenceofthestatedepends。Inhisnamethecourtsoflawareopened。Ifhispoliticalcapacitybesuspendedforamoment，thecentretowhichallpublicbusinessislinkedisdestroyed。

　　Insuchcountrieseverythingisuniform：theceremonyisall，andthesubstancenothing。Inthe，riotsintheyear1780，themaceofthehouseoflordswasproposedtobesentintothepassages，bytheterrorofitsappearancetoquiettheconfusionbutitwasobservedthat，ifthemaceshouldberudelydetainedbytherioters，thewholewouldbethrownintoanarchy。

　　Businesswouldbeatastand；theirinsignia，and，withtheirinsignia，theirlegislativeanddeliberativefunctionswouldbegone。Whocanexpectfirmnessandenergyinacountrywhereeverythingismadetodepend，notuponjustice，publicinterestandreason，butuponapieceofgildedwood？

　　Whatconsciousdignityandvirtuecantherebeamongapeoplewho，ifdeprivedoftheimaginaryguidanceofonevulgarmortal，aretaughttobelievethattheirfacultiesarebenumbed，andalltheirjointsunstrung？

　　Lastly，oneofthemostessentialingredientsinavirtuouscharacterisundauntedfirmness；andnothingcanmorepowerfullytendtodestroythisprinciplethanthespiritofamonarchicalgovernment。Thefirstlessonofvirtueis，Fearnoman；thefirstlessonofsuchaconstitutionis，Feartheking。Thetrueinterestofmanrequirestheannihilationoffactitiousandimaginarydistinctions；itisinseparablefrommonarchytosupportandrenderthemmorepalpablethanever。Hethatcannotspeaktotheproudestdespotwithaconsciousnessthatheisamanspeakingtoaman，andadeterminationtoyieldhimnosuperioritytowhichhisinherentqualificationsdonotentitlehim，iswhollyincapableofanillustriousvirtue。Howmanysuchmenarebredwithinthepaleofmonarchy？Howlongwouldmonarchymaintainitsgroundinanationofsuchmen？Surelyitwouldbewisdominsociety，insteadofconjuringupathousandphantomstoseduceusintoerror，insteadofsurroundinguswithathousandfearstodepriveusofenergy，to’removeeveryobstacletoourprogress，andsmooththepathofimprovement。

　　Virtuewasneveryetheldinmuchhonourandesteeminamonarchicalcountry。Itistheinclinationandtheinterestofcourtiersandkingstobringitintodisrepute；andtheyarebuttoosuccessfulintheattempt。

　　Virtueis，intheirconception，arrogant，intrusive，unmanageableandstubborn。

　　Itisanassumedoutside，bywhichthosewhopretendtoit，intendtogratifytheirrudetempers，ortheirsecretviews。Withinthecircleofmonarchy，virtueisalwaysregardedwithdishonourableincredulity。Thephilosophicalsystem，whichaffirmsself-lovetobethefirstmoverofallouractions，andthefalsityofhumanvirtues，isthegrowthofthesecountries。4*

　　Whyisitthatthelanguageofintegrityandpublicspiritisconstantlyregardedamongusashypocrisy？Itwasnotalwaysthus。ItwasnottilltheusurpationofCaesar，thatbookswerewritten，bythetyrantandhispartisans，toprovethatCatowasnobetterthanasnarlingpretender。5*

　　Thereisafurtherconsiderationwhichhasseldombeenadvertedtouponthissubject，butwhichseemstobeofnoinconsiderableimportance。Inourdefinitionofjustice，itappearedthatourdebttoourfellowmenextendedtoalltheeffortswecouldmakefortheirwelfare，andallthereliefwecouldsupplytotheirnecessities。Notatalentdowepossess，notamomentoftime，notashillingofproperty，forwhichwearenotresponsibleatthetribunalofthepublic，whichwearenotobligedtopayintothegeneralbankofcommonadvantage。Ofeveryoneofthesethingsthereisanemploymentwhichisbest，andthatbestjusticeobligesustoselect。Buthowextensiveistheconsequenceofthisprinciplewithrespecttotheluxuriesandostentationofhumanlife？Howmanyoftheseluxuriesaretherethatwouldstandthetest，andapprovethemselves，uponexamination，tobethebestobjectsuponwhichourpropertycouldbeemployed？