Withwhatfeelingsmustanenlightenedobservercontemplatethefurrowofalashimprinteduponthebodyofaman？Whatheartbeatsnotinunisonwiththesublimelawofantiquity，’ThoushaltnotinflictstripesuponthebodyofaRoman？’Thereisbutonealternativeinthiscase，onthepartofthesufferer。Eitherhismindmustbesubduedbythearbitrarydictatesofthesuperiorfortohimallisarbitrarythatdoesnotstandapprovedtothejudgementofhisownunderstanding；hewillbegovernedbysomethingthatisnotreason，andashamedofsomethingthatisnotdisgrace；
orelseeverypangheendureswillexcitethehonestindignationofhisheart，andfixthecleardisapprobationofhisintellect，willproducecontemptandalienationagainsthispunisher。
Thejusticeofpunishmentisbuiltuponthissimpleprinciple：Everymanisboundtoemploysuchmeansasshallsuggestthemselvesforpreventingevilssubversiveofgeneralsecurity，itbeingfirstascertained，eitherbyexperienceorreasoning，thatallmildermethodsareinadequatetotheexigencyofthecase。Theconclusionfromthisprincipleisthatwearebound，undercertainurgentcircumstances，todeprivetheoffenderofthelibertyhehasabused。Furtherthanthisperhapsnocircumstancecanauthorizeus。Hewhosepersonisimprisonedifthatbetherightkindofseclusion
cannotinterruptthepeaceofhisfellows；andtheinflictionoffurtherevil，whenhispowertoinjureisremoved，isthewildandunauthorizeddictateofvengeanceandrage，thewantonsportofunquestionedsuperiority。
Whenindeedthepersonoftheoffenderhasbeenfirstseized，thereisafurtherdutyincumbentonhispunisher，thedutyofendeavouringhisreform。Butthismakesnopartofthedirectconsideration。Thedutyofeverymantocontributetotheintellectualhealthofhisneighbourisofgeneralapplication。Besidewhichitispropertorecollect，whathasbeenalreadyproved。thatcoercionofnosortisamongthelegitimatemeansofreformation。Restraintheoffenderaslongasthesafetyofthecommunityprescribesit，forthisisjust。Restrainhimnotaninstantfromasimpleviewtohisownimprovement，forthisiscontrarytoreasonandmorality。
Meanwhile，thereisonecircumstancebymeansofwhichrestraintandreformationarecloselyconnected。Thepersonoftheoffenderistoberestrainedaslongasthepublicsafetywouldbeendangeredbyhisliberation。
Butthepublicsafetywillceasetobeendangeredassoonashispropensitiesanddispositionshaveundergoneachange。Theconnectionwhichthusresultsfromthenatureofthingsrendersitnecessarythat，indecidinguponthespeciesofrestrainttobeimposed，thesecircumstancesbeconsideredjointly，howthepersonallibertyoftheoffendermaybeleastentrenchedupon，andhowhisreformationmaybebestpromoted。
Themostcommonmethodpursuedindeprivingtheoffenderofthelibertyhehasabusedistoerectapublicjail，inwhichoffendersofeverydescriptionarethrusttogether，andlefttoformamongthemselveswhatspeciesofsocietytheycan。Variouscircumstancescontributetoimbuethemwithhabitsofindolenceandvice，andtodiscourageindustry；andnoeffortismadetoremoveorsoftenthesecircumstances。Itcannotbenecessarytoexpatiateupontheatrociousnessofthissystem。Jailsare，toaproverb，seminariesofvice；andhemustbeanuncommonproficientinthepassionandthepracticeofinjustice，oramanofsublimevirtue，whodoesnotcomeoutofthemamuchworsemanthanheentered。
Anactiveobserverofmankind，1*withthepurestintentions，andwhohadpaidasingularattentiontothissubject，wasstruckwiththemischievoustendencyofthereigningsystem，andcalledtheattentionofthepublictoaschemeofsolitaryimprisonment。Butthis，thoughfreefromthedefectsoftheestablishedmode，isliabletoveryweightyobjections。
Itmuststrikeeveryreflectingmindasuncommonlytyrannicalandsevere。
Itcannotthereforebeadmittedintothesystemofmildcoercionwhichformsthetopicofourenquiry。Manisasocialanimal。Howfarheisnecessarilysowillappearifweconsiderthesumofadvantagesresultingfromthesocial，andofwhichhewouldbedeprivedinthesolitarystate。But，independentlyofhisoriginalstructure，heiseminentlysocialbyhishabits。Willyoudeprivethemanyouimprisonofpaperandbooks，oftoolsandamusements？
Oneoftheargumentsinfavourofsolitaryimprisonmentisthatitisnecessarytheoffendershouldbecalledofffromwronghabitsofthinking，andobligedtoenterintohimself。Thistheadvocatesofsolitaryimprisonmentprobablybelievewillbemosteffectuallydonethefewerbetheavocationsoftheprisoner。Butletussupposethatheisindulgedintheseparticulars，andonlydeprivedofsociety。Howmanymenaretherethatcanderiveamusementfrombooks？Weare，inthisrespect，thecreaturesofhabit，anditisscarcelytobeexpectedfromordinarymenthattheyshouldmouldthemselvestoanyspeciesofemploymenttowhichintheiryouththeywerestrangers。
Buthethatismostfondofstudyhashismomentswhenstudypleasesnolonger。Thesoulyearns，withinexplicablelongings，forthesocietyofitslike。Becausethepublicsafetyunwillinglycommandstheconfinementofanoffender，mustheforthatreasonneverlightuphiscountenancewithasmile？Whocantellthesufferingsofhimwhoiscondemnedtouninterruptedsolitude？Whocantellthatthisisnot，tothemajorityofmankind，thebitteresttormentthathumaningenuitycaninflict？Amindsufficientlysublimemightperhapsconquerthisinconvenience：butthepowersofsuchaminddonotenterintothepresentquestion。
Fromtheexaminationofsolitaryimprisonment，initselfconsidered，wearenaturallyledtoenquireintoitsrealtendencyastothearticleofreformation。Tobevirtuous，itisrequisitethatweshouldconsidermen，andtheirrelationtoeachother。Asapreliminarytothisstudy，isitnecessarythatweshouldbeshutoutfromthesocietyofmen？Shallwebemosteffectuallyformedtojustice，benevolenceandprudenceinourintercoursewitheachother，inastateofsolitude？Willnotourselfishandunsocialdispositionsbeperpetuallyincreased？Whattemptationhashetothinkofbenevolenceorjustice，whohasnoopportunitytoexerciseit？Thetruesoilinwhichatrociouscrimesarefoundtogerminateisagloomyandmorosedisposition。Willhisheartbecomemucheithersoftenedorexpanded，whobreathestheatmosphereofadungeon？Surelyitwouldbebetterinthisrespecttoimitatethesystemoftheuniverse，and，ifwewouldteachjusticeandhumanitytransplantthosewewouldteachintoasimpleandreasonablestateofsociety。Solitude，absolutelyconsidered，mayinstigateustoserveourselves，butnottoserveourneighbours。Solitude，imposedundertoofewlimitations，maybeanurseryformadmenandidiots，butnotforusefulmembersofsociety。
Anotherideawhichhassuggesteditselfwithregardtotheremovalofoffendersfromthecommunitytheyhaveinjuredisthatofreducingthemtoastateofslaveryorhardlabour。Thetruerefutationofthissystemisanticipatedinwhathasbeenalreadysaid。Tothesafetyofthecommunityitisunnecessary。Asameanstothereformationoftheoffender，itisinexpressiblyill-conceived。Manisanintellectualbeing。Thereisnowaytomakehimvirtuousbutincallingforthhisintellectualpowers。
Thereisnowaytomakehimvirtuousbutbymakinghimindependent。Hemuststudythelawsofnature，andthenecessaryconsequenceofactions，notthearbitrarycapriceofhissuperior。DoyoudesirethatIshouldwork？Donotdrivemetoitwiththewhip；for，if，before，Ithoughtitbettertobeidle，thiswillbutincreasemyalienation。Persuademyunderstanding，andrenderitthesubjectofmychoice。Itcanonlybebythemostdeplorableperversionofreasonthatwecanbeinducedtobelieveanyspeciesofslavery，fromtheslaveryoftheschool-boytothatofthemostunfortunateNegroinourWestIndiaplantations，favourabletovirtue。2*
Aschemegreatlypreferabletoanyofthese，andwhichhasbeentriedundervariousforms，isthatoftransportationorbanishment。Thisschemeunderthemostjudiciousmodifications，isliabletoobjection。Itwouldhestrangeifanyschemeofcoercionorviolencewerenotso。Butithasbeenmadeappearstillmoreexceptionalthanitwillhefoundinitsintrinsicnaturebythecrudeandincoherentcircumstanceswithwhichithasusuallybeenexecuted。
Banishmentinitssimpleform，thatis，amereprohibitionofresidencehas，atleastincertainaggravatedcases，astrongappearanceofinjustice。
Thecitizenwhosepresencewewillnotendureinourowncountry，wehaveaveryquestionablerighttoimposeuponanyother。
Banishmenthassometimesbeenjoinedwithslavery。SuchwasthepracticeofGreatBritainpreviouslytothedefectionofherAmericancolonies。
Thiscannotstandinneedofaseparaterefutation。
Averyusualspeciesofbanishmentisremovaltoacountryyetunsettled。
Somethingmaybeallegedinfavourofthismodeofproceeding。Thelabourbywhichtheundisciplinedmindisbestweanedfromthevicioushabitsofacorruptsocietyisthelabour，notwhichisprescribedbythemandateofasuperior，butwhichisimposedbythenecessityofsubsistence。ThefirstsettlementofRome，byRomulusandhisvagabonds，isahappyimageofthis，whetherweconsideritasarealhistory，orastheingeniousfictionofawriterwellacquaintedwiththeprinciplesofmind。MenwhoarefreedfromtheinjuriousinstitutionsofEuropeangovernment，andobligedtobegintheworldforthemselves，areinthedirectroadtobevirtuous。
Twocircumstanceshavehithertocontributedtorenderthisprojectabortive。
First，thatthemother-countrypursuesthisspeciesofcolonywithherhatred。Thechiefanxietyis，inreality，torenderitsresidenceodiousanduncomfortable，withthevainideaofdeterringoffenders。Thechiefanxietyoughttobetosmooththeirdifficulties，andcontributetotheirhappiness。Weshouldrecollectthatthecolonistsaremen，forwhomweoughttofeelnosentimentsbutthoseofkindnessandcompassion。Ifwewerereasonable，weshouldregretthecruelexigencethatobligesustotreattheminamannerunsuitabletothenatureofmind；andhavingcompliedwiththedemandofthatexigence，weshouldnextbeanxioustoconferuponthemeverybenefitinourpower。Butweareunreasonable。Weharbourathousandsavagefeelingsofresentmentandvengeance。Wethrustthemouttotheremotestcorneroftheworld。Wesubjectthemtoperishbymultitudeswithhardshipandhunger。Perhaps，ifourtreatmentofsuchunfortunatemenweresufficientlyhumane，banishmenttotheHebrideswouldproveaseffectualasbanishmenttotheAntipodes。
Secondly，itisabsolutelynecessary，upontheprincipleshereexplained，thatthesecolonists，afterhavingbeensufficientlyprovidedintheoutset，shouldbelefttothemselves。WedoworsethannothingifwepursuethemintotheirobscureretreatwiththeinauspiciousinfluenceofourEuropeaninstitutions。Whytroubleourselveswithsendingmagistratesandofficerstogovernanddirectthem？Dowesupposethat，iflefttothemselves，theywoulduniversallydestroyeachother？Onthecontrary，newsituationsmakenewminds。Theworstcriminals，whenturnedadriftinabody，andreducedtofeelthechurlishfangofnecessity，conductthemselvesuponreasonableprinciples，andhavebeenfoundtoproceedwithasagacityandpublicspiritthatmightputtheproudestmonarchytotheblush。
Meanwhileletusnotforgettheinherentvicesofpunishment，whichpresentthemselvesfromwhateverpointthesubjectisviewed。Colonizationmaybethoughtthemosteligibleofthoseexpedientswhichhavebeenstated，butitisattendedwithconsiderabledifficulties。Thecommunityjudgesofacertainindividualthathisresidencecannotbetoleratedamongthemconsistentlywiththegeneralsafety。Indenyinghimhischoiceamongothercommunitiesdotheynotexceedtheircommission？Whattreatmentshallbeawardedhimifhereturnfromthebanishmenttowhichhewassentenced？——
Thesedifficultiesandmanyothersmightbesubjoinedtothesearecalculatedtobringbackthemindtotheabsoluteinjusticeofpunishment，andtorenderusinexpressiblyanxiousfortheperiodatwhichitshallbeabolished。
Toconclude。Theobservationsofthischapterarerelativetoatheorywhichaffirmedthatitmightbethedutyofindividuals，butneverofcommunities，toexertacertainspeciesofpoliticalcoercion；andwhichfoundedthisdutyuponaconsiderationofthebenefitsofpublicsecurity。Underthesecircumstancesthen，everyindividualisboundtojudgeforhimself，andtoyieldhiscountenancetonoothercoercionthanthatwhichisindispensablynecessary。Hewill，nodoubt，endeavourtomelioratethoseinstitutions，withwhichhecannotprevailuponhiscountrymentopart。Hewilldeclineallconcernintheexecutionofsuch，asabusethepleaofpublicsecuritytoatrociouspurposes。Lawsmayeasilybefoundinalmosteverycodewhich，onaccountoftheiniquityoftheirprovisions，aresufferedtofallintodisusebygeneralconsent。Everyloverofjusticewill，inthisway，contributetotherepealoflawsthatwantonlyusurpupontheindependenceofmankind，whetherbythemultiplicityoftheirrestrictions，ortheseverityoftheirsanctions。
NOTES：
1。MrHoward。
2。Theinstitutionofpersonalslaveryhas，withinafewyears，madeaconsiderableprogressintheislandofGreatBritain。Thefirststepwasthatofsendingcriminals，whoseguiltwasofaninferiordescription，toraiseballastfromthebedoftheThames。Thesecondstep，moreseriousinitsnature，appearstohaveresultedfromthewellintended，butmisguided，philanthropyofMrHoward。Thisconsistedintheerectingjailsofsolitaryconfinementinvariouspartsofthecountry。Theprisonersinthesejailsspendalargeproportionoftheirtimeshutupinsilentanddrearycells，likesomanymadmen。Therestoftheirtimeisemployedinwhatiscalledhardlabour，undertheinspectionofcertainignorantandinsolenttaskmasters。
Itisassertedthat，inoneofthesejailsClerkenwellNewPrison，itsunfortunatetenantsareengagedforfivehoursineachdayintrundlingawheelbarrowroundinacircle。Thecrueltyofthisimpositionisinexpressiblyheightenedbyitsimpudentuselessness。FromthisinstancewemayperceivethattheinventivenessoftyrannydidnotperishwiththeraceofDionysii。
Casesofthissortitisourduty，ascitizens，tonotice，thatthechanceoftheirexistingwithouttheknowledgeofthosetowhoseprovincetheirsuperintendencebelongsmayberemoved。
ChapterVII
OFEVIDENCE
Havingsoughttoascertainthedecisioninwhichquestionsofoffenceagainstthegeneralsafetyoughttoterminate，itonlyremainsunderthisheadofenquirytoconsidertheprinciplesaccordingtowhichthetrialshouldbeconducted。Theseprinciplesmayforthemostpartbereferredtotwopoints，theevidencethatistoberequired，andthemethodtobepursuedbyusinclassingoffences。
Thedifficultiestowhichthesubjectofevidenceisliablehavebeenstatedintheearlierdivisionsofthiswork。1*Itmaybeworthwhile，inthisplace，torecollectthedifficultieswhichattendupononeparticularclassofevidence，itbeingscarcelypossiblethattheimaginationofeveryreadershouldnotsufficehimtoapplythistext，andtoperceivehoweasilythesamekindofenumerationmightbeextendedtoanyotherclass。
Ithasbeenasked，’Whyintentionsarenotsubjectedtotheanimadversionofcriminaljustice，inthesamemannerasdirectactsofoffence？’
Theargumentsinfavouroftheirbeingthussubjectedareobvious。’Theproperobjectofpoliticalsuperintendenceisnotthepast，butthefuture。
Societycannotjustlyemploypunishmentagainstanyindividual，howeveratrociousmayhavebeenhismisdemeanours，fromanyotherthanaprospectiveconsideration，thatis，aconsiderationofthedangerwithwhichhishabitsmaybepregnanttothegeneralsafety。Pastconductcannotproperlyfallundertheanimadversionofgovernment，exceptsofarasitisanindicationofthefuture。Butpastconductappears，atfirstsight，toaffordaslighterpresumptionastowhatthedelinquentwilldohereafterthandeclaredintention。
Themanwhoprofesseshisdeterminationtocommitmurderseemstobescarcelyalessdangerousmemberofsocietythanhewho，havingalreadycommittedmurder，hasnoapparentintentiontorepeathisoffence。’Yetallgovernmentshaveagreedeithertopassoverthemenaceinsilence，ortosubjecttheoffendertoamuchlessdegreeofpunishmentthantheyemployagainsthimbywhomthecrimehasbeenperpetrated。Itmayberightperhapstoyieldthemsomeattentionwhentheythusagreeinforbearance，thoughlittleisprobablyduetotheiragreementininhumanity。
Thisdistinction，sofarasitisfoundedinreason，hasrelationprincipallytotheuncertaintyofevidence。Beforetheintentionofanymancanbeascertained，inacourtofjustice，fromtheconsiderationofthewordshehasemployed，avarietyofcircumstancesmustbetakenintotheaccount。
Thewitnessheardthewordswhichwereemployed：doesherepeatthemaccurately，orhasnothiswantofmemorycausedhimtosubstitute，intheroomofsomeofthem，wordsofhisown？Beforeitispossibletodecide，upontheconfidentexpectationImayentertain，thatthesewordswillbefollowedwithcorrespondentactions，itisnecessaryIshouldknowtheexacttonewithwhichtheyweredelivered，andgesturewithwhichtheywereaccompanied。
ItisnecessaryIshouldbeacquaintedwiththecontext，andtheoccasionthatproducedthem。Theirconstructionwilldependuponthequantityofmomentaryheatorrootedmalicewithwhichtheyweredelivered；andwordswhichappearatfirstsightoftremendousimportwillsometimesbefound，uponaccurateinvestigation，tohavehadameaningpurelyironicalinthemindofthespeaker。Theseconsiderations，togetherwiththeodiousnatureofpunishmentingeneral，andtheextrememischiefthatmayattendourrestrainingthefacultyofspeech，inadditiontotherestraintweconceiveourselvesobligedtoputonmen’sactions，willprobablybefoundtoaffordasufficientreasonwhywordsoughtseldomornevertobemadeatopicofpoliticalanimadversion。
NOTES：
1。ParticularlychapterIV。
ChapterVIII
OFLAW
Afurtherarticleofgreatimportanceinthetrialofoffencesisthatofthemethodtobepursuedbyusinclassingthem，andtheconsequentapportioningthedegreeofanimadversiontothecasesthatmayarise。Thisarticlebringsustothedirectconsiderationoflaw，whichis，withoutdoubt，oneofthemostimportanttopicsuponwhichhumanintellectcanbeemployed。Itislawthathashithertobeenregarded，incountriescallingthemselvescivilized，asthestandardbywhichtomeasurealloffencesandirregularitiesthatfallunderpublicanimadversion。Letusfairlyinvestigatethemeritsofthischoice。
Thecomparisonwhichhaspresenteditself，tothosebywhomthetopichasbeeninvestigated，hashithertobeenbetweenlawononeside，andthearbitrarywillofadespotontheother。Butifwewouldestimatetrulythemeritsoflaw，weshouldfirstconsideritasitisinitself，andthen，ifnecessary，searchforthemosteligibleprinciplethatmaybesubstitutedinitsplace。
Ithasbeenrecommendedas’affordinginformationtothedifferentmembersofthecommunity，respectingtheprincipleswhichwillbeadoptedindecidingupontheiractions’。Ithasbeenrepresentedasthehighestdegreeofiniquity’totrymenbyanexpostfactolaw，orindeedinanyothermannerthanbytheletterofalaw，formallymade，andsufficientlypromulgated’。
Howfaritwillbesafealtogethertoannihilatethisprinciple，weshallpresentlyhaveoccasiontoenquire。Itisobvious，atfirstsight，toremarkthatitisofmostimportanceinacountrywherethesystemofjurisprudenceismostcapriciousandabsurd。Ifitbedeemedcriminalinanysocietytowearclothesofaparticulartexture，orbuttonsofaparticularcomposition，itisunavoidabletoexclaimthatitishightimethejurisprudenceofthatsocietyshouldinformitsmemberswhatarethefantasticrulesbywhichtheymeantoproceed。But，ifasocietybecontentedwiththerulesofjustice，anddonotassumetoitselftherightofdistortingoraddingtothoserules，therelawisevidentlyalessnecessaryinstitution。
Therulesofjusticewouldbemoreclearlyandeffectuallytaughtbyanactualintercoursewithhumansociety，unrestrainedbythefettersofprepossession，thantheycanbebycatechismsandcodes。1*
Oneresultoftheinstitutionoflawisthattheinstitution，oncebegun，canneverbebroughttoaclose。Edictisheapeduponedict，andvolumeuponvolume。Thiswillbemostthecasewherethegovernmentismostpopular，anditsproceedingshavemostinthemofthenatureofdeliberation。Surelythisisnoslightindicationthattheprincipleiswrong，andthat，ofconsequence，thefurtherweproceedinthepathitmarksouttous，themoreweshallbebewildered。Notalkcanbelesshopefulthanthatofeffectingacoalitionbetweenarightprincipleandawrong。Hethatseriouslyandsincerelyattemptsitwillperhapsexposehimselftomorepalpableridiculethanhewho，insteadofprofessingtwooppositesystems，shouldadheretotheworst。
Thereisnomaximmoreclearthanthis，’Everycaseisaruletoitself。’
Noactionofanymanwaseverthesameasanyotheractionhadeverthesamedegreeofutilityorinjury。Itshouldseemtobethebusinessofjusticetodistinguishthequalitiesofmen，andnot，whichhashithertobeenthepractice，toconfoundthem。Butwhathasbeentheresultofanattempttodothisinrelationtolaw？Asnewcasesoccur，thelawisperpetuallyfounddeficient。Howshoulditbeotherwise？Lawgivershavenotthefacultyofunlimitedprescience，andcannotdefinethatwhichisboundless。Thealternativethatremainsiseithertowrestthelawtoincludeacasewhichwasneverinthecontemplationofitsauthors，ortomakeanewlawtoprovideforthisparticularcase。Muchhasbeendoneinthefirstofthesemodes。Thequibblesoflawyers，andtheartsbywhichtheyrefineanddistortthesenseofthelaw，areproverbial。But，thoughmuchisdone，everythingcannotbethusdone。Theabusewillsometimesbetoopalpable。Nottosaythattheveryeducationthatenablesthelawyer，whenheisemployedfortheprosecutor，tofindoutoffencesthelawgivernevermeant，enableshim，whenheisemployedforthedefendant，todiscoversubterfugesthatreducethelawtonullity。Itisthereforeperpetuallynecessarytomakenewlaws。Theselaws，inordertoescapeevasion，arefrequentlytedious，minuteandcircumlocutory。Thevolumeinwhichjusticerecordsherprescriptionsisforeverincreasing，andtheworldwouldnotcontainthebooksthatmightbewritten。
Theconsequenceoftheinfinitudeoflawisitsuncertainty。Thisstrikesattheprincipleuponwhichlawisfounded。Lawsweremadetoputanendtoambiguity，andthateachmanmightknowwhathehadtoexpect。Howwellhavetheyansweredthispurpose？Letusinstanceinthearticleofproperty。Twomengotolawforacertainestate。Theywouldnotgotolawiftheyhadnotbothofthemanopinionofthesuccess。Butwemaysupposethempartialintheirowncase。Theywouldnotcontinuetogotolawiftheywerenotbothpromisedsuccessbytheirlawyers。Lawwasmadethataplainmanmightknowwhathehadtoexpect；andyetthemostskilfulpractitionersdifferabouttheeventofmysuit。Itwillsometimeshappenthatthemostcelebratedpleaderinthekingdom，orthefirstcounselintheserviceofthecrown，shallassuremeofinfalliblesuccess，fiveminutesbeforeanotherlaw-officer，styledthekeeperoftheking’sconscience，bysomeunexpectedjuggledecidesitagainstme。WouldtheissuehavebeenequallyuncertainifIhadhadnothingtotrusttobuttheplainunpervertedsenseofajuryofmyneighbours，foundedintheideastheyentertainedofgeneraljustice？Lawyershaveabsurdlymaintainedthattheexpensivenessoflawisnecessarytopreventtheunboundedmultiplicationofsuits；butthetruesourceofthismultiplicationisuncertainty。Mendonotquarrelaboutthatwhichisevident，butthatwhichisobscure。
Hethatwouldstudythelawsofacountryaccustomedtolegalsecuritymustbeginwiththevolumesofthestatutes。Hemustaddastrictenquiryintothecommonorunwrittenlaw；andheoughttodigressintothecivil，theecclesiasticalandcanonlaw。Tounderstandtheintentionoftheauthorsofalaw，hemustbeacquaintedwiththeircharactersandviews，andwiththevariouscircumstancestowhichitoweditsrise，andbywhichitwasmodifiedwhileunderdeliberation。Tounderstandtheweightandinterpretationthatwillbeallowedtoitinacourtofjustice，hemusthavestudiedthewholecollectionofrecords，decisionsandprecedents。Lawwasoriginallydevisedthatordinarymenmightknowwhattheyhadtoexpect；andthereisnot，atthisday，alawyerexistinginGreatBritainvain-gloriousenoughtopretendthathehasmasteredthecode。Normustitbeforgottenthattimeandindustry，evenweretheyinfinite，wouldnotsuffice。Itisalabyrinthwithoutend；itisamassofcontradictionsthatcannotbedisentangled。
Studywillenablethelawyertofindinitplausible，perhapsunanswerable，argumentsforanysideofalmostanyquestion；butitwouldarguetheutmostfollytosupposethatthestudyoflawcanleadtoknowledgeandcertainty。
Afurtherconsiderationthatwilldemonstratetheabsurdityoflawinitsmostgeneralacceptationisthatitisofthenatureofprophecy。
Itstaskistodescribewhatwillbetheactionsofmankind，andtodictatedecisionsrespectingthem。Itsmerits，inthisrespect，havealreadybeendecidedundertheheadofpromises。2*Thelanguageofsuchaprocedureis’Wearesowisethatwecandrawnoadditionalknowledgefromcircumstancesastheyoccur；andwepledgeourselvesthat，ifitbeotherwise，theadditionalknowledgeweacquireshallproducenoeffectuponourconduct。’Itispropertoobservethatthissubjectoflawmaybeconsidered，insomerespects，asmoreproperlybelongingtothetopicoftheprecedingbook。Lawtends，nolessthancreeds，catechismsandtests，tofixthehumanmindinastagnantcondition，andtosubstituteaprincipleofpermanenceintheroomofthatunceasingprogresswhichistheonlysalubriouselementofmind。Alltheargumentsthereforewhichwereemployeduponthatoccasionmaybeappliedtothesubjectnowunderconsideration。
ThefableofProcrustespresentsuswithafaintshadowoftheperpetualeffortoflaw。Indefianceofthegreatprincipleofnaturalphilosophy，thattherearenotsomuchastwoatomsofmatterofthesameformthroughthewholeuniverse，itendeavourstoreducetheactionsofmen，whicharecomposedofathousandevanescentelements，toonestandard。Wehavealreadyseenthetendencyofthisendeavourinthearticleofmurder。3*Itwasinthecontemplationofthissystemofjurisprudencethatthestrangemaximwasinventedthat’strictjusticewouldoftenprovethehighestinjustice。’4*
Thereisnomorerealjusticeinendeavouringtoreducetheactionsofmenintoclassesthantherewasintheschemetowhichwehavejustalluded，ofreducingallmentothesamestature。If，onthecontrary，justicebearesultflowingfromthecontemplationofallthecircumstancesofeachindividualcase，ifonlythecriterionofjusticebegeneralutility，theinevitableconsequenceisthatthemorewehaveofjustice，themoreweshallhaveoftruth，virtueandhappiness。
Fromalltheseconsiderationswecanscarcelyhesitatetoconcludeuniversallythatlawisaninstitutionofthemostpernicioustendency。
Thesubjectwillreceivesomeadditionalelucidationifweconsidertheperniciousnessoflawinitsimmediaterelationtothosewhopractiseit。Ifthereoughttobenosuchthingaslaw，theprofessionoflawyerisnodoubtentitledtoourdisapprobation。Alawyercanscarcelyfailtobeadishonestman。Thisislessasubjectforcensurethanforregret。
Menare，inaneminentdegree，thecreaturesofthecircumstancesunderwhichtheyareplaced。Hethatishabituallygoadedbytheincentivesofvicewillnotfailtobevicious。Hethatisperpetuallyconversantinquibbles，falsecoloursandsophistrycannotequallycultivatethegenerousemotionsofthesoul，andthenicediscernmentofrectitude。Ifasingleindividualcanbefoundwhoisbutsuperficiallytaintedwiththecontagion，howmanymenontheotherhandinwhomthereappearedapromiseofthesublimestvirtueshavebythistradebeenrenderedindifferenttoconsistency，oraccessibletoabribe？Beitobservedthattheseremarksapplyprincipallytomeneminentorsuccessfulintheirprofession。Hethatentersintoanemploymentcarelessly，andbywayofamusement，ismuchlessunderitsinfluencethoughevenhewillnotescapethanhethatentersintoitwithardouranddevotion。
Letushoweversuppose，acircumstancewhichisperhapsaltogetherimpossible，thatamanshallbeaperfectlyhonestlawyer。Heisdeterminedtopleadnocausethathedoesnotbelievetobejust，andtoemploynoargumentthathedoesnotapprehendtobesolid。Hedesigns。asfarashissphereextends，tostriplawofitsambiguities，andtospeakthemanlylanguageofreason。Thismanis，nodoubt，highlyrespectable，sofarasrelatestohimself；butitmaybequestionedwhetherhebenotamoreperniciousmemberofsocietythanthedishonestlawyer。Thehopesofmankindinrelationtotheirfutureprogressdependupontheirobservingthegenuineeffectsoferroneousinstitutions。Butthismanisemployedinsofteningandmaskingtheseeffects。Hisconducthasadirecttendencytopostponethereignofsoundpolicy，andtorendermankindtranquilinthemidstofimperfectionandignorance。
Whatisherestatedhoweverinfavourofthedishonestlawyer，likethatstatedinfavourofanimbecilemonarch，5*shouldbeconsideredasadvancedinthewayofconjectureonly。Asthereissomepainwhichisrequisiteasthemeansofanoverbalanceofpleasure，sotheremay，inafewextraordinaryinstances，besomeviceunderstandingbyvice，evilintentionorrooteddepravitywhichisproductiveoftheeffectsofvirtue。Inquestionsofthiskindhowever，itbecomesustobemorethanusuallyscrupulousandguarded。Itisofthemostperniciousconsequenceforustoconfoundthedistinctionsofvirtueandvice。Itcanscarcelybeconsideredasthepartofaphilanthropisttorejoiceinthedepravityofothers。Itissaferforus，inalmosteveryimaginableinstance，toregard’everydeparturefromenormousvice，assomuchgainedtothecauseofgeneralhappiness’。6*
Theonlyprinciplewhichcanbesubstitutedintheroomoflawisthatofreasonexercisinganuncontrolledjurisdictionuponthecircumstancesofthecase。Tothisprinciplenoobjectioncanariseonthescoreofwisdom。
Itisnottobesupposedthattherearenotmennowexistingwhoseintellectualaccomplishmentsrisetotheleveloflaw。Lawwesometimescallthewisdomofourancestors。Butthisisastrangeimposition。Itwasasfrequentlythedictateoftheirpassion，oftimidity，jealousy，amonopolizingspirit，andalustofpowerthatknewnobounds。Arewenotobligedperpetuallytoreviseandremodelthismisnamedwisdomofourancestors？tocorrectitbyadetectionoftheirignorance，andacensureoftheirintolerance？
Butifmencanbefoundamonguswhosewisdomisequaltothewisdomoflaw，itwillscarcelybemaintainedthatthetruthstheyhavetocommunicatewillbetheworseforhavingnoauthoritybutthatwhichtheyderivefromthereasonsthatsupportthem。
Itmayhoweverbeallegedthat’iftherebelittledifficultyinsecuringacurrentportionofwisdom，theremayneverthelessbesomethingtobefearedfromthepassionsofmen。Lawmaybesupposedtohavebeenconstructedinthetranquilserenityofthesoul，asuitablemonitor，tochecktheinflamedmind，withwhichtherecentmemoryofillsmightinduceustoproceedtotheinflictionofpunishment。’Thisisthemostconsiderableargumentthatcanbeadducedinfavouroftheprevailingsystem，andthereforedeservesamatureexamination。
Thetrueanswertothisobjectionisthatnothingcanbeimprovedbutinconformitytoitsnature。Ifweconsultforthewelfareofman，wemustbearinmindthestructureofman。Itmustbeadmittedthatweareimperfect，ignorant，theslavesofappearance。Thesedefectscanberemovedbynoindirectmethod，butonlybytheintroductionofknowledge。Aspecimenoftheindirectmethodwehaveinthedoctrineofspiritualinfallibility。
Itwasobservedthatmenwereliabletoerror，todisputeforeverwithoutcomingtoadecision，andtomistakeintheirmostimportantinterests。
Whatwaswantingwassupposedtobeacriterionandajudgeofcontroversies。
Whatwasattemptedwastoinduetruthwithavisibleform，andthenrepairtotheoraclewehaderected。
Thecaserespectinglawisparalleltothis。Menwereawareofthedeceitfulnessofappearances，andtheysoughtatalismantoguardthemfromimposition。
SupposeIweretodetermine，atthecommencementofeveryday，uponacertaincodeofprinciplestowhichIwouldconformtheconductoftheday；and，atthecommencementofeveryyear，theconductoftheyear。SupposeIweretodeterminethatnocircumstancesshouldbeallowed，bythelighttheyafforded，tomodifymyconduct，lestIshouldbecomethedupeofappearances，andtheslaveofpassion。Thisisajustandaccurateimageofeverysystemofpermanence。Suchsystemsareformedupontheideaofstoppingtheperpetualmotionofthemachine，lestitshouldsometimesfallintodisorder。
Thisconsiderationmustsufficientlypersuadeanimpartialmindthat，whateverinconveniencesmayarisefromthepassionsofmen，theintroductionoffixedlawscannotbethegenuineremedy。Letusconsiderwhatwouldbetheoperationandprogressivestateofthesepassions，providedmenweretrustedtotheguidanceoftheirowndiscretion。Suchisthedisciplinethatareasonablestateofsocietyemployswithrespecttomaninhisindividualcapacity：7*whyshoulditnotbeequallyvalidwithrespecttomenactinginacollectivecapacity？Inexperienceandzealwouldpromptmetorestrainmyneighbourwheneverheisactingwrong，and，bypenaltiesandinconveniencesdesignedlyinterposed，tocurehimofhiserrors。Butreasonevincesthefollyofthisproceeding，andteachesmethat，ifhebenotaccustomedtodependupontheenergiesofintellect，hewillneverrisetothedignityofarationalbeing。Aslongasamanisheldinthetrammelsofobedience，andhabituatedtolooktosomeforeignguidanceforthedirectionofhisconduct，hisunderstandingandthevigourofhismindwillsleep。DoI
desiretoraisehimtotheenergyofwhichheiscapable？Imustteachhimtofeelhimself，tobowtonoauthority，toexaminetheprinciplesheentertains，andrendertohismindthereasonofhisconduct。
Thehabitswhicharethussalutarytotheindividualwillbeequallysalutaryinthetransactionsofcommunities。Menareweakatpresent，becausetheyhavealwaysbeentoldtheyareweak，andmustnotbetrustedwiththemselves。Takethemoutoftheirshackles，bidthemenquire，reasonandjudge，andyouwillsoonfindthemverydifferentbeings。Tellthemthattheyhavepassions，areoccasionallyhasty，intemperateandinjurious，buttheymustbetrustedwiththemselves。Tellthemthatthemountainsofparchmentinwhichtheyhavebeenhithertoentrenchedarefitonlytoimposeuponagesofsuperstitionandignorance；thathenceforthwewillhavenodependencebutupontheirspontaneousjustice；that，iftheirpassionsbegigantic，theymustrisewithgiganticenergytosubduethem；that，iftheirdecreesbeiniquitous，theiniquityshallbealltheirown。Theeffectofthisdispositionofthingswillsoonbevisible；mindwillrisetothelevelofitssituation；juriesandumpireswillbepenetratedwiththemagnitudeofthetrustreposedinthem。
Itmaybenouninstructivespectacletosurveytheprogressiveestablishmentofjusticeinthestateofthingswhichishererecommended。Atfirst，itmaybe，afewdecisionswillbemadeuncommonlyabsurdoratrocious。
Buttheauthorsofthesedecisionswillbeconfounded，withtheunpopularityanddisgraceinwhichtheyhaveinvolvedthemselves。Inreality，whateverweretheoriginalsourceoflaw，itsoonbecamecherishedasacloakforoppression。Itsobscuritywasofusetomisleadtheinquisitiveeyeofthesufferer。Itsantiquityservedtodivertaconsiderablepartoftheodiumfromtheperpetratoroftheinjusticetotheauthorofthelaw；and，stillmore，todisarmthatodiumbytheinfluenceofsuperstitiousawe。
Itwaswellknownthatunvarnished，barefacedoppressioncouldnotfailtobethevictimofitsownoperations。
Tothisstatementitmayindeedbeobjected’thatbodiesofmenhaveoftenbeenfoundcalloustocensure，andthatthedisgrace，beingamicablydivided，isintolerabletonone’。Inthisobservationthereisconsiderableforce，butitisinapplicabletothepresentargument。Tothisspeciesofabuseoneoftwothingisindispensablynecessary，eithernumbersofsecrecy。Tothisabusethereforeitwillbeasufficientremedythateachjurisdictionbeconsiderablylimited，andalltransactionsconductedinanopenandexplicitmanner——Toproceed。
Thejuridicaldecisionsthatweremadeimmediatelyaftertheabolitionoflawwoulddifferlittlefromthoseduringitsempire，Theywouldbethedecisionsofprejudiceandhabit。Buthabit，havinglostthecentreaboutwhichitrevolved，woulddiminishintheregularityofitsoperations。
Thosetowhomthearbitrationofanyquestionwasentrustedwouldfrequentlyrecollectthatthewholecasewascommittedtotheirdeliberation；andtheycouldnotfailoccasionallytoexaminethemselvesrespectingthereasonofthoseprincipleswhichhadhithertopasseduncontroverted。Theirunderstandingswouldgrowenlarged，inproportionastheyfelttheimportanceoftheirtrust，andtheunboundedfreedomoftheirinvestigation。Herethenwouldcommenceanauspiciousorderofthings，ofwhichnounderstandingofmanatpresentinexistencecanforetelltheresult，thedethronementofimplicitfaith，andtheinaugurationofreasonandjustice。
Someoftheconclusionsofwhichthisstateofthingswouldbetheharbingerhavebeenalreadyseen，inthejudgementthatwouldbemadeofoffencesagainstthecommunity。*Offencesarguingaboundlessvarietyinthedepravityfromwhichtheysprungwouldnolongerbeconfoundedundersomegeneralname。Jurieswouldgrowasperspicaciousindistinguishing，astheyarenowindiscriminateinconfounding，themeritofactionsandcharacters。
Theeffectsoftheabolitionoflaw，asitrespectsthearticleofproperty，wouldnotbelessauspicious。Nothingcanbemoreworthyofregretthanthemannerinwhichpropertyisatpresentadministered，sofarasrelatestocourtsofjustice。Thedoubtfulnessoftitles，thedifferentmeasuresoflegislationastheyrelatetodifferentclassesofproperty，thetediousnessofsuits，andtheremovalofcausesbyappealfromcourttocourt，areaperpetualroundofartificeandchicanetoonepartofthecommunity，andofanguishandmiserytoanother。Whocandescribethebaffledhopes，thefruitlessyearsofexpectation，whichthusconsumeawaythestrengthandthelivesofnumerousindividuals？Invainistheintentionofatestator，whilethedisputesbetweenthelegalandthetestamentaryheir，oramerequibbleuponthephraseologyofthebequest，shallsupplyfoodforendlesscontroversy。InvainshallbealltheassurancesIcanheaptogetherfortheestablishmentofmyright，sincetheobscurityofrecords，andthecomplexityoflaw，will，almostinallcases，enableaningeniousman，whoisatthesametimearichone，todisputemytenure。Theimbecilityoflawisstrikinglyillustratedbythevulgarmaximoftheimportanceofpossession。Possessioncouldnotbethusadvantageouswereitnotfortheopportunitythatlawaffordsforprocrastinationandevasion。Propertycouldnotbethusdisputablewerethepersonswhoarecalledupontodecideconcerningitlefttothedirectionoftheirownunderstanding。Thecontentionofopposingclaimsarisesmorefromthejargoninwhichtheseclaimsarerecordedthanfromthecomplexityofthesubjecttowhichtheyrelate。
Theintentionofatestatorismuchmoreeasilysettledthanthequibblestowhichtheexpressionofthatintentionmaybesubjected。Thosewhowereappointedforthedecisionofsuitswouldnotindeedbesuchgainers，underthesystemheredelineated，asatpresent；buteveryotherdescriptionofpersonsthatwereinterestedinquestionsofpropertywould，nodoubt，findtheiradvantage。
Anobservationwhichcannothaveescapedthereaderintheperusalofthischapteristhatlawismerelyrelativetotheexerciseofpoliticalforce，andmustperishwhenthenecessityforthatforceceases，iftheinfluenceoftruthdonotstillsoonerextirpateitfromthepracticeofmankind。
NOTES：
1。BookVI，Chap。VIII。
2。BookIII，Chap。III。
3。Chap。IV。
4。Summumjussummainjuria。
5。BookV，Chap。VII。
6。BookIV，Chap。XI。
7。BookV，Chap。XX。
8。Chap。IV。
CHAPTERIX
OFPARDONS
Thereisoneothertopicwhichbelongstothesubjectofthepresentbook，butwhichmaybedismissedinaveryfewwords，because，thoughithasunhappilybeen，inalmostallcases，neglectedinpractice，itisapointthatseemstoadmitofuncommonlysimpleandirresistibleevidence：
Imeanthetopicofpardons。
Theveryword，toareflectingmind，isfraughtwithabsurdity。’Whatistherulethatought，inallcases，todirectmyconduct？’Surelyjustice；
understandingbyjusticethegreatestutilityofthewholemassofbeingsthatmaybeinfluencedbymyconduct。’Whatthenisclemency？’Itcanbenothingbutthepitiableegotismofhimwhoimagineshecandosomethingbetterthanjustice。’IsitrightthatIshouldsufferconstraintforacertainoffence？’Thereasonablenessofmysufferingmustbefoundedinitsconsonancewiththegeneralwelfare。Hethereforethatpardonsmeiniquitouslyprefersthesupposedinterestofanindividual，andutterlyneglectswhatheowestothewhole。HebestowsthatwhichIoughtnottoreceive，andwhichhehasnorighttogive。’Isitright，onthecontrary，thatIshouldnotundergothesufferinginquestion？Willhe，byrescuingmefromsuffering，conferabenefitonme，andinflictnoinjuryonothers？’Hewillthenbeanotoriousdelinquent，ifbeallowsmetosuffer。Thereisindeedaconsiderabledefectinthislast，supposition。If，whilehebenefitsme，lieinflictsnoinjuryuponothers，heisinfalliblyperformingapublicservice。IfIsufferedinthearbitrarymannerwhichthesuppositionincludes，thepublicwouldsustainanunquestionableinjuryintheinjusticethatwasperpetrated。Andyetthemanwhopreventsthisodiousinjusticehasbeenaccustomedtoarrogatetohimselftheattributeofclement，andtheapparentlysublime，but，inreality，tyrannical，nameofforgiveness。For，ifhedomorethanhasbeenheredescribed，insteadofglory，heoughttotakeshametohimself，asanenemytohumankind。Ifeveryaction，andespeciallyeveryactioninwhichthehappinessofarationalbeingisconcerned，besusceptibleofacertainrule，thencapricemustbeinallcasesexcluded：
therecanbenoactionwhich，ifIneglect，Ishallhavedischargedmyduty，and，ifIperform，Ishallbeentitledtoapplause。
Theperniciouseffectofthesystemofpardonsispeculiarlyglaring。
Itwasfirstinventedasthemiserablesupplementtoasanguinarycode，theatrociousnessofwhichwassoconspicuousthatitsministerseitherdreadedtheresistanceofthepeople，ifitwereindiscriminatelyexecuted，orthemselvesshrunkwithunconquerablerepugnancefromthedevastationitcommanded。Thesystemofpardonsobviouslyassociateswiththesystemoflaw；for，thoughwemaycalleverycase，forinstance，inwhichonemanoccasionsthedeathofanother，bythenameofmurder，yettheinjusticewouldbetoogreattoapplytoallcasesthesametreatment。Definemurderasaccuratelyasweplease，thesameconsequence，thesamedisparityofcases，willobtrudeitself。Itisnecessarythereforetohaveacourtofreasontowhichthedecisionsofacourtoflawshallbebroughtforrevisal。
Buthowisthiscourt，inexpressiblymoreimportantthantheother，tobeconstituted？Hereliestheessenceofthematter；therestisform。
Ajuryisempanelledtotellyouthegeneticalnameoftheaction；ajudgepresides，toreadoutofthevolumeofthelawtheprescriptionannexedtothatname；lastofallcomesthecourtofenquiry，whichistodecidewhethertheprescriptionofthedispensatoryissuitabletothecircumstancesofthisparticularcase。Thisauthorityweareaccustomedtoinvest，inthefirstinstancewiththejudge，andinthelastresortwiththekingincouncil。Now，puttingasidetheProprietyorimproprietyofthisparticularselection，thereisonegrievousabusewhichoughttostrikethemostsuperficialobserver。Thesepersonswithwhomtheprincipaltrustisreposedconsidertheirfunctionsinthisrespectasamatterpurelyincidental，exercisethemwithsupineness，and，inmanyinstances，withthemostscantymaterialstoguidetheirjudgement。Thisgrowsinaconsiderabledegreeoutoftheverynameofpardon，bywhichweareaccustomedtounderstandaworkofsupererogatorybenevolence。
Fromthemannerinwhichpardonsaredispensedinevitablyflowstheuncertaintyofpunishment。Itistooevidentthatpunishmentisinflictedbynocertainrules，andthereforecreatesnouniformityofexpectation。
Uniformityoftreatment，andconstancyofexpectationsformthesolebasisofagenuinemorality。Inajustformofsociety，thiswouldnevergobeyondthesoberexpressionofthosesentimentsofapprobationordisapprobationwithwhichdifferentmodesofconductinevitablyimpressus。But，ifweatpresentexceedthisline，itissurelyanexecrablerefinementofinjusticethatshouldexhibittheperpetualmenaceofsuffering，unaccompaniedwithanycertainruleforetellingitsapplication。Notmorethanonethirdoftheoffenderswhomthelawcondemnstodeathinthismetropolisaremadetosufferthepunishmentthatisawarded。Isitpossiblethateachoffendershouldnotflatterhimselfthatheshallbeamongthenumberthatescapes？
Suchasystem，tospeakittruly，isalotteryofdeath，inwhicheachmandrawshisticketforreprieveorexecution，asundefinableaccidentsshalldecide。
Itmaybeaskedwhether’theabolitionoflawwouldnotproduceequaluncertainty？’Bynomeans。Theprinciplesofkingandcouncil，insuchcases，areverylittleunderstood，eitherbythemselvesorothers。Theprinciplesofajuryofhisneighbours，commissionedtopronounceuponthewholeofthecase，thecriminaleasilyguesses。Hehasonlytoappealtohisownsentimentsandexperience。Reasonisathousandtimesmoreexplicitandintelligiblethanlaw；andwhenwewereaccustomedtoconsulther，thecertaintyofthedecisionswouldbesuchasmen，practisedinourpresentcourts，aretotallyunabletoconceive。
Anotherimportantconsequencegrowsoutofthesystemofpardons。A
systemofpardonsissystemofunmitigatedslavery。Iamtaughttoexpectacertaindesirableevent，fromwhat？Fromtheclemency，theuncontrolled，unmeritedkindnessofafellowmortal。Cananylessonbemoredegrading？
Thepusillanimousservilityoftheman，whodevoteshimselfwitheverlastingobsequiousnesstoanother，becausethatother，havingbeguntobeunjust，relentsinhiscareer；theardourwithwhichheconfessestheequityofhissentenceandtheenormityofhisdesertswillconstituteatalethatfutureageswillfinditdifficulttounderstand。
Whatarethesentimentsinthisrespectthatarealoneworthyofarationalbeing？Givemethat，andthatonly，whichwithoutinjusticeyoucannotrefuse。Morethanjusticeitwouldbedisgracefulformetoask，andforyoutobestow。Istanduponthefoundationofright。Thisisatitlewhichbruteforcemayrefusetoacknowledge，butwhichalltheforceintheworldcannotannihilate。Byresistingthisplea，youmayproveyourselfunjust；
but，inyieldingtoit，yougrantmebutmydue。If，allthingsconsidered，Ibethefitsubjectofabenefit，thebenefitismerited：merit，inanyothersense，iscontradictoryandabsurd。Ifyoubestowuponmeunmeritedadvantage，youarearecreantfromthegeneralgood。Imaybebaseenoughthankyou；but，ifIwerevirtuous，Ishouldcondemnyou。
Thesesentimentsaloneareconsistentwithtrueindependenceofmind。
Hethatisaccustomedtoregardvirtueasanaffairoffavourandgracecannotbeeminentlyvirtuous。Ifheoccasionallyperformanactionofapparentkindness，hewillapplaudthegenerosityofhissentiments；and，ifheabstain，hewillacquithimselfwiththequestion，’MayInotdowhatI
willwithmyown？’Inthesamemanner，whenheistreatedbenevolentlybyanother，hewill，inthefirstplace，beunwillingtoexaminestrictlyintothereasonablenessofthistreatment，becausebenevolence，asheimagines，isnotsubjecttoanyinflexibilityofrule；and，inthesecondplace，hewillnotregardhisbenefactorwiththaterectandunembarrassedmien，thatmanlysenseofequality，whichistheonlyunequivocalbasisofvirtueandhappiness。
PJ8BOOKVIII
OFPROPERTY
CHAPTERI
PRELIMINARYOBSERVATIONS
Thesubjectofpropertyisthekey-stonethatcompletesthefabricofpoliticaljustice。Accordingasourideasrespectingitarecrudeorcorrect，theywillenlightenusastotheconsequencesofasimpleformofsocietywithoutgovernment，andremovetheprejudicesthatattachustocomplexity。
Thereisnothingthatmorepowerfullytendstodistortourjudgementandopinionsthanerroneousnotionsconcerningthegoodsoffortune。Finally，theperiodthatmustputanendtothesystemofcoercionandpunishmentisintimatelyconnectedwiththecircumstanceofproperty’sbeingplaceduponanequitablebasis。
Variousabusesofthemostincontrovertiblenaturehaveinsinuatedthemselvesintotheadministrationofproperty。Eachoftheseabusesmightusefullybemadethesubjectofaseparateinvestigation。Wemightenquireintothevexationsofthissortthatareproducedbythedreamsofnationalgreatness，andthesumptuousnessofpublicofficesandmagistrates。Thiswouldleadustoajustestimateofthedifferentkindsoftaxation，landedormercantile，havingthenecessariesortheluxuriesoflifefortheirsubjectofoperation。Wemightexamineintotheabuseswhichhaveadheredtothecommercialsystem；monopolies，charters，patents，protectingduties，prohibitionsandbounties。Wemightconsidertheclaimsofthechurch：
firstfruitsandtithes。Allthesedisquisitionswouldtendtoshowtheincalculableimportanceofthissubject。But，excludingthemallfromthepresentenquiry，itshallbethebusinessofwhatremainsofthisworktoexaminethesubjectinitsmostgeneralprinciples，andbythatmeansendeavourtodiscoverthesource，notonlyoftheabusesaboveenumerated，butofothersofinnumerablekinds，toomultifariousandsubtletoenterintosobriefacatalogue。
Thesubjecttowhichthedoctrineofpropertyrelatesisallthosethingswhichconduce，ormaybeconceivedtoconduce，tothebenefitorpleasureofman，andwhichcannootherwisebeappliedtotheuseofoneormorepersonsthanbyapermanentortemporaryexclusionoftherestofthespecies。
Suchthingsinparticulararefood，clothing，habitationandfurniture。
Uponthissubjecttwoquestionsunavoidablyarise。Whoisthepersonentitledtotheuseofanyparticulararticleofthiskind？Whoisthepersoninwhosehandsthepreservationanddistributionofanynumberofthesearticleswillbemostjustlyandbeneficiallyvested？
Theanswertothefirstofthesequestionsiseasyupontheprinciplesofthepresentwork。Justicehasbeenprovedtobearuleapplicabletoalltheconcernsofman。Itpronouncesuponeverycasethatcanarise，andleavesnothingtothedisposalofamomentarycaprice。1*Thereisnotanarticleofthekindsabovespecifiedwhichwillnotultimatelybetheinstrumentofmorebenefitandhappinessinoneindividualmodeofapplicationthaninanyotherthancanbedevised。Thisistheapplicationitoughttoreceive。
Wearehereledtotheconsiderationofthatspeciesofrightswhichwasdesignedlypostponedinanearlierdivisionofthiswork。2*Everymanhasarighttothat，theexclusivepossessionofwhichbeingawardedtohim，agreatersumofbenefitorpleasurewillresultthancouldhavearisenfromitsbeingotherwiseappropriated。Thisisthesameprincipleasthatjustdelivered，withaslightvariationofform。Ifmanhavearighttoanything，hehasarighttojustice。Theseterms，astheyhaveordinarilybeenusedinmoralenquiry，are，strictlyandproperlyspeaking，convertibleterms。
Letusseehowthisprinciplewilloperateintheinferencesitauthoritiesustomake。Humanbeingsarepartakersofacommonnature；whatconducestothebenefitorpleasureofonemanwillconducetothebenefitorpleasureofanother。3*Henceitfollows，upontheprinciplesofequalandimpartialjustice，thatthegoodthingsoftheworldareacommonstock，uponwhichonemanhasasvalidatitleasanothertodrawforwhathewants。Itappearsinthisrespect，asformerlyitappearedinthecaseofourclaimtotheforbearanceofeachother，4*thateachmanhasaspherethelimitandterminationofwhichismarkedoutbytheequalsphereofhisneighbour。
Ihavearighttothemeansofsubsistence；hehasanequalright。IhavearighttoeverypleasureIcanparticipatewithoutinjurytomyselforothers；histitleinthisrespectisofsimilarextent。
Thisviewofthesubjectwillappearthemorestrikingifwepassinreviewthegoodthingsoftheworld。Theymaybedividedintofourclasses；
subsistence；themeansofintellectualandmoralimprovement；inexpensivegratifications；andsuchgratificationsasarebynomeansessentialtohealthfulandvigorousexistence，andcannotbepurchasedbutwithconsiderablelabourandindustry。Itisthelastclassprincipallythatinterposesanobstacleinthewayofequaldistribution。Itwillbematterofafter-considerationhowfarandhowmanyarticlesofthisclasswouldbeadmissibleintothepurestmodeofsocialexistence。5*But，inthemeantime，itisunavoidabletoremarktheinferiorityofthisclasstothethreepreceding。Withoutitwemayenjoytoagreatextentactivity，contentmentandcheerfulness。
Andinwhatmanneraretheseseemingsuperfluitiesusuallyprocured？Byabridgingmultitudesofmentoadeplorabledegreeinpointsofessentialmoment，thatonemanmaybeaccommodated，withsumptuousyet，strictlyconsidered，insignificantluxuries。Supposingthealternativecouldfairlybebroughthometoaman，anditcoulddependuponhisinstantdecision，bythesacrificeofthesetogivetofivehundredofhisfellowbeingsleisure，independence，consciousdignity，andwhatevercanrefineandenlargethehumanunderstanding，itisdifficulttoconceivehimtohesitate。But，thoughthisalternativecannotbeproducedinthecaseofanindividual，itwillperhapsbefoundtobethetruealternative，whentakenatonceinreferencetothespecies。
Totheformingajustestimateofcostlygratifications，itisnecessarythatweshouldabstractthedirectpleasure，ontheonehand，fromthepleasuretheyaffordusonlyasinstrumentsforsatisfyingourloveofdistinction。Itmustbeadmittedineverysystemofmoralitynottaintedwithmonasticprejudices，butadaptedtothenatureofintelligentbeings，that，sofarasrelatestoourselves，andleavingourconnectionwiththespeciesoutoftheconsideration，weoughtnottorefuseanypleasure，exceptasittendstotheexclusionofsomegreaterpleasure。6*Butithasalreadybeenshown7*thatthedifferenceinthepleasuresofthepalate，betweenasimpleandwholesomedietontheonehand，andallthecomplexitiesofthemostsplendidtableontheother，issosmallthatfewmenwouldeventhinkitworththetediumthatattendsuponachangeofservices，ifthepleasureofthepalateweretheonlythinginquestion，andtheyhadnospectatortoadmiretheirmagnificence。’Hewhoshouldformhimself，withthegreatestcare，uponasystemofsolitarysensualism，wouldprobablycomeatlasttoadecisionnotdifferentfromthatwhichEpicurusissaidtohaveadoptedinfavouroffreshherbs，andwaterfromthespring。’8*Thesameobservationappliestothesplendouroffurniture，equipageanddress。Sofarasrelatestothegratificationoftheeye，thispleasuremaybereaped，withlesstrouble，andingreaterrefinement，fromthebeautieswhichnatureexhibitstoourobservation。Noman，ifthedirectpleasureweretheonlythinginconsideration，wouldthinkthedifferencetohimselfworthpurchasingbytheoppressionofmultitudes。
Butthesethings，thoughtrivialinthemselves，arehighlypried，fromthatloveofdistinctionwhichischaracteristicofeveryhumanmind。Thecreditableartisanortradesmanexertsacertainspeciesofindustrytosupplyhisimmediatewants。Butthesearesoonsupplied。Therestisexertedthathemaywearabettercoat，thathemayclothehiswifewithgayattire，thathemayhavenotmerelyashelter，butahandsomehabitation，notmerelybreadandfleshtoeat，butthathemaysetitoutwithsuitabledecorum。
Howmanyofthesethingswouldengagehisattentionifhelivedinadesertisland，andhadnospectatorofhiseconomy？Ifwesurveytheappendagesofourpersons，thereisscarcelyanarticlethatisnotinsomerespectanappealtothegoodwillofourneighbours，orarefugeagainsttheircontempt。Itisforthisthatthemerchantbravestheperilsoftheocean，andthemechanicalinventorbringforththetreasuresofhismeditation。
Thesoldieradvanceseventothecannon’smouth，andthestatesmanexposeshimselftotherageofanindignantpeople，becausehecannotbeartopassthroughlifewithoutdistinctionandesteem。Exclusivelyofcertainhighermotiveswhichwillhereafterbementioned，9*thisisthepurposeofallthegreatexertionsofmankind。Themanwhohasnothingtoprovideforbuthisanimalwantsscarcelyevershakesoffthelethargyofhismind；
buttheloveofhonourhurriesusontothemostincredibleachievements。
Itmustbeadmittedindeedthattheloveofdistinctionappears，fromexperienceandthepasthistoryofmankind，tohavebeentheirrulingpassion。
Buttheloveofdistinctioniscapableofdifferentdirections。Atpresent，thereisnomorecertainroadtothegeneraldeferenceofmankindthantheexhibitionofwealth。Thepoet，thewit，theorator，thesaviourofhiscountry，andtheornamentofhisspeciesmayuponcertainoccasionsbetreatedwithneglectandbitingcontempt；butthemanwhopossessesanddisbursesmoneyinprofusioncanscarcelyfailtoprocuretheattendanceoftheobsequiousmanandtheflatterer。Butletusconceivethiserroneousandperniciousestimateofthingstobereversed。Letussupposetheavariciousman，whoisdesirousofmonopolizingthemeansofhappiness，andtheluxuriousman，whoexpendswithoutlimitation，inpamperinghisappetites，thatwhich，instrictjustice，istherightofanother，tobecontemplatedwithasmuchdisapprobationastheyarenowbeheldbyamistakenworldwithdeferenceandrespect。Letusimaginethedirectandunambiguousroadtopublicesteemtobetheacquisitionoftalent，orthepracticeofvirtue，thecultivationofsomespeciesofingenuity，orthedisplayofsomegenerousandexpansivesentiment；andthatthepersonswhopossessthesetalentswereasconspicuouslytreatedwithaffectionandesteemasthewealthyarenowtreatedwithslavishattention。Thisismerely，inotherwords，tosupposegoodsense，andclearandcorrectperceptions，atsometimetogaintheascendancyintheworld。
Butitisplainthat，underthereignofsuchsentiments，theallurementsthatnowwaituponcostlygratification，wouldbe，forthemostpart，annihilated。
If，throughthespuriousandincidentalrecommendationsitderivesfromtheloveofdistinction，itisnowrendered，tomany，aprincipalsourceofagreeablesensation，underadifferentstateofopinion，itwouldnotmerelybereducedtoitsintrinsicvalueinpointofsensation，but，inadditiontothis，wouldbeconnectedwithideasofinjustice，unpopularityanddislike。Sosmallisthespacewhichcostlygratificationsarecalculatedunalterablytofillinthecatalogueofhumanhappiness。
Ithassometimesbeenalleged，asanargumentagainsttheequalrightsofmeninthepointofwhichwearetreating，’thatthemeritsofmenaredifferent，andoughttobedifferentlyrewarded’。Butitmaybequestionedwhetherthisproposition，thoughtrue，canwithanyshowofplausibilitybeappliedtothepresentsubject。Reasonshavebeenalreadysuggestedtoprovethatpositiveinstitutionsdonotaffordthebestmeansforrewardingvirtue，andthathumanexcellencewillbemoreeffectuallyforwardedbythoseencouragementswhichinevitablyarisefromthesystemoftheuniverse。10*
But，exclusivelyofthisconsideration，letusrecollect，uponthegroundsofwhathasjustbeenstated，whatsortofrewardisthusproposedtoexertion。
’Ifyoushowyourselfdeserving，youshallhavetheessenceofahundredtimesmorefoodthanyoucaneat，andahundredtimesmoreclothesthanyoucanwear。Youshallhaveapatentfortakingawayfromothersthemeansofahappyandrespectableexistence，andforconsumingtheminriotousandunmeaningextravagance。’isthistherewardthatoughttobeofferedtovirtue，orthatvirtueshouldstooptotake？
Thedoctrineoftheinjusticeofaccumulatedpropertyhasbeenthefoundationofallreligiousmorality。Itsmostenergeticteachershavebeenirresistiblyledtoasserttheprecisetruthinthisrespect。Theyhavetaughttherichthattheyholdtheirwealthonlyasatrust，thattheyarestrictlyaccountableforeveryatomoftheirexpenditure，thattheyaremerelyadministrators，andbynomeansproprietorsinchief。11*But，whilereligionthusinculcatedonmankindthepureprinciplesofjustice，themajorityofitsprosessorshavebeenbuttooapttotreatthepracticeofjustice，notasadebt，whichitoughttobeconsidered，butasanaffairofspontaneousgenerosityandbounty。
Theeffectwhichisproducedbythisaccommodatingdoctrineistoplacethesupplyofourwantsinthedisposalofafew，enablingthemtomakeashowofgenerositywithwhatisnottrulytheirown，andtopurchasethesubmissionofthepoorbythepaymentofadebt。Theirsisasystemofclemencyandcharity，insteadofasystemofjustice。Itfillstherichwithunreasonablepride，bythespuriousdenominationswithwhichitdecoratestheiracts；andthepoorwithservility，byleadingthemtoregardtheslendercomfortstheyobtain，notastheirincontrovertibledue，butasthegoodpleasureandgraceoftheiropulentneighbours。
NOTES：
1。BookII，Chap。II。
2。BookII，Chap。V。
3。BookIII，Chap。III。
4。BookII，Chap。V。
5。Chap。VII。
6。BookIV，Chap。XI。
7。BookI，Chap。V。
8。BookI，Chap。V。
9。Chap。VI。
10。BookV，Chap。XII；BookXI，ChapI。
11。Mark，Ch。X，ver。21；Acts，Ch。II，ver。44，45。SeealsoSwift’sSermononMutualSubjection。
CHAPTERII
PRINCIPLESOFPROPERTY
Havingconsideredatlargethequestionofthepersonentitledtotheuseofthemeansofbenefitorpleasure，itistimethatweproceedtothesecondquestion，ofthepersoninwhosehandsthepreservationanddistributionofanyofthesemeanswillbemostjustlyandbeneficiallyvested。Anintervalmustinevitablyoccurbetweentheproductionofanycommodityanditsconsumption。Thosethingswhicharenecessaryfortheaccommodationofmaninsocietycannotbeobtainedwithoutthelabourofman。Whenfitforhisuse，theydonotadmitofbeingleftatrandom，butrequirethatsomecareandvigilanceshouldbeexertedtopreservethem，fortheperiodofactualconsumption。Theywillnot，inthefirstinstance，fallintothepossessionofeachindividual，inthepreciseproportionnecessaryforhisconsumption。Whothenistobethefactororwarehousemanthatistowatchovertheirpreservation，andpresideattheirdistribution？
Thisisstrictlyspeakingthequestionofproperty。Wedonotcallthepersonwhoaccidentallytakeshisdinneratmytabletheproprietorofwhatheeats，thoughitishe，inthedirectandobvioussense，whoreceivesthebenefitofit。Propertyimpliessomepermanenceofexternalpossession，andincludesinittheideaofapossiblecompetitor。
Ofpropertytherearethreedegrees。
Thefirstandsimplestdegreeisthatofmypermanentrightinthosethingstheuseofwhichbeingattributedtome，agreatersumofbenefitorpleasurewillresultthancouldhavearisenfromtheirbeingotherwiseappropriated。Itisofnoconsequence，inthiscase，howIcameintopossessionofthem，theonlynecessaryconditionsbeingtheirsuperiorusefulnesstome，andthatmytitletothemissuchasisgenerallyacquiescedinbythecommunityinwhichIlive。Everymanisunjustwhoconductshimselfinsuchamannerrespectingthesethingsastoinfringe，inanydegree，uponmypowerofusingthem，atthetimewhentheusingthemwillbeofrealimportancetome。
Ithasalreadyappeared1*thatoneofthemostessentialoftherightsofmanismyrighttotheforbearanceofothers；notmerelythattheyshallrefrainfromeverythingthatmay，bydirectconsequence，affectmylife，orthepossessionofmypowers，butthattheyshallrefrainfromusurpinguponmyunderstanding，andshallleavemeacertainequalspherefortheexerciseofmyprivatejudgement。Thisisnecessarybecauseitispossibleforthemtobewrong，aswellasformetobeso，becausetheexerciseoftheunderstandingisessentialtotheimprovementofman，andbecausethepainandinterruptionIsufferareasreal，whentheyinfringe，inmyconceptiononly，uponwhatisofimportancetome，asiftheinfringementhadbeen，intheutmostdegree，palpable。Henceitfollowsthatnomanmay，inordinarycases，makeuseofmyapartment，furnitureorgarments，orofmyfood，inthewayofbarterorloan，withouthavingfirstobtainedmyconsent。
Theseconddegreeofpropertyistheempiretowhicheverymanisentitledovertheproduceofhisownindustry，eventhatpartofittheuseofwhichoughtnottobeappropriatedtohimself。Ithasbeenrepeatedlyshownthatalltherightsofmanwhichareofthisdescriptionarepassive。2*Hehasnorightofoptioninthedisposalofanythingwhichmayfallintohishands。Everyshillingofhisproperty，andevenevery，theminutest，exertionofhispowershavereceivedtheirdestinationfromthedecreesofjustice。Heisonlythesteward。Butstillheisthesteward。Thesethingsmustbetrustedtohisaward，checkedonlybythecensorialpowerthatisvested，inthegeneralsense，andfavourableorunfavourableopinion，ofthatportionofmankindamongwhomheresides。Manischangedfromthecapablesubjectofillimitableexcellence，intothevilestandmostdespicablethingthatimaginationcanconceive，whenheisrestrainedfromactinguponthedictatesofhisunderstanding。Allmencannotindividuallybeentitledtoexercisecompulsiononeachother，forthiswouldproduceuniversalanarchy。Allmencannotcollectivelybeentitledtoexerciseunboundedcompulsion，forthiswouldproduceuniversalslavery：theinterferenceofgovernment，howeverimpartiallyvested，is，nodoubt，onlytoberesortedtouponoccasionsofrareoccurrence，andindispensableurgency。
Itwillreadilybeperceivedthatthissecondspeciesofpropertyisinalessrigoroussensefundamentalthanthefirst。Itis，inonepointofview，asortofusurpation。Itvestsinmethepreservationanddispensingofthatwhichinpointofcompleteandabsoluterightbelongstoyou。
ThethirddegreeofpropertyisthatwhichoccupiesthemostvigilantattentioninthecivilizedstatesofEurope。Itisasystem，inwhatevermannerestablished，bywhichonemanentersintothefacultyofdisposingoftheproduceofanotherman’sindustry。Thereisscarcelyanyspeciesofwealth，expenditureorsplendour，existinginanycivilizedcountry，thatisnot，insomeway，producedbytheexpressmanuallabour，andcorporealindustry，oftheinhabitantsofthatcountry。Thespontaneousproductionsoftheeartharefew，andcontributelittletowealth，expenditureorsplendour。
Everymanmaycalculate，ineveryglassofwinehedrinks，andeveryornamentheannexestohisperson，howmanyindividualshavebeencondemnedtoslaveryandsweat，incessantdrudgery，unwholesomefood，continualhardships，deplorableignorance，andbrutalinsensibility，thathemaybesuppliedwiththeseluxuries。Itisagrossimpositionthatmenareaccustomedtoputuponthemselveswhentheytalkofthepropertybequeathedtothembytheirancestors。
Thepropertyisproducedbythedailylabourofmenwhoarenowinexistence。
Allthattheirancestorsbequeathedtothemwasamouldypatentwhichtheyshowasatitletoextortfromtheirneighbourswhatthelabourofthoseneighbourshasproduced。