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　　\"Thevisualizingfacultyisanaturalgift，and，likeallnaturalgifts，hasatendencytobeinherited。Inthisfacultythetendencytoinheritanceisexceptionallystrong，asIhaveabundantevidencetoprove，especiallyinrespecttocertainratherrarepeculiarities，……which，whentheyexistatall，areusuallyfoundamongtwo，three，ormorebrothersandsisters，parents，children，unclesandaunts，andcousins。

　　\"Sincefamiliesdiffersomuchinrespecttothisgift，wemaysupposethatraceswouldalsodiffer，andtherecanbenodoubtthatsuchisthecase。Ihardlyliketorefertocivilizednations，becausetheirnaturalfacultiesaretoomuchmodifiedbyeducationtoallowoftheirbeingappraisedinanoff-handfashion。Imay，however，speakoftheFrench，whoappeartopossessthevisualizingfacultyinahighdegree。Thepeculiarabilitytheyshowinprearrangingceremonialsandf&ecirc；tesofallkinds，andtheirundoubtedgeniusfortacticsandstrategy，showthattheyareabletoforeseeeffectswithunusualclearness。

　　Theiringenuityinalltechnicalcontrivancesisanadditionaltestimonyinthesamedirection，andsoistheirsingularclearnessofexpression。

　　Theirphraseis\"figurez-vous，’or’picturetoyourself，’seemstoexpresstheirdominantmodeofperception。Ourequivalentof’Imagine’isambiguous……

　　\"Ihavemanycasesofpersonsmentallyreadingoffscoreswhenplayingthepianoforte，ormanuscriptwhentheyaremakingspeeches。Onestatesmanhasassuredmethatacertainhesitationinutterancewhichhehasattimesisduetohisbeingplaguedbytheimageofhis[p。56]manuscriptspeechwithitsoriginalerasuresandcorrections。

　　Hecannotlaytheghost，andhepuzzlesintryingtodecipherit。

　　\"Somefewpersonsseementallyinprinteverywordthatisuttered；theyattendtothevisualequivalentandnottothesoundofthewords，andtheyreadthemoffusuallyasfromalongimaginarystripofpaper，suchasisunwoundfromtelegraphicinstruments。\"

　　ThereaderwillfindfurtherdetailsinMr。Galton’s’InquiriesintoHumanFaculty，’pp。83-114。[9]Ihavemyselfformanyyearscollectedfromeachandallofmypsychology-studentsdescriptionsoftheirownvisualimagination；andfoundtogetherwithsomecuriousidiosyncrasiescorroborationofallthevariationswhichMr。Galtonreports。

　　Asexamples，Isubjoinextractsfromtwocasesneartheendsofthescale。

　　Thewritersarefirstcousins，grandsonsofadistinguishedmanofscience。

　　Theonewhoisagoodvisualizersays:

　　\"Thismorning’sbreakfast-tableisbothdimandbright；itisdimifItrytothinkofitwhenmyeyesareopenuponanyobject；itisperfectlyclearandbrightifIthinkofitwithmyeyesclosed——Alltheobjectsareclearatonce，yetwhenIconfinemyattentiontoanyoneobjectitbecomesfarmoredistinct——Ihavemorepowertorecallcolorthananyotheronething:if，forexample，I

　　weretorecallaplatedecoratedwithflowersIcouldreproduceinadrawingtheexacttone，etc。Thecolorofanythingthatwasonthetableisperfectlyvivid——Thereisverylittlelimitationtotheextentofmyimages:I

　　canseeallfoursidesofaroom，Icanseeallfoursidesoftwo，three，four，evenmoreroomswithsuchdistinctnessthatifyoushouldaskmewhatwasinanyparticularplaceinanyone，oraskmetocountthechairs，etc。，Icoulddoitwithouttheleasthesitation——ThemoreIlearnbyheartthemoreclearlydoIseeimagesofmypages。EvenbeforeIcanrecitethelinesIseethemsothatIcouldgivethemveryslowlywordforword，butmymindissooccupiedinlookingatmyprintedimagethatIhavenoideaofwhatIamsaying，ofthesenseofit，etc。WhenIfirstfoundmyselfdoingthisIusedtothinkitwasmerelybecauseIknewthelinesimperfectly；

　　butIhavequiteconvincedmyselfthatIreallydoseeanimage。Thestrongestproofthatsuchisreallythefactis，Ithink，thefollowing:

　　\"Icanlookdownthementallyseenpageandseethewordsthatcommenceallthelines，andfromanyoneofthesewordsIcancontinue[p。57]theline。Ifindthismucheasiertodoifthewordsbeginillastraightlinethaniftherearebreaks。

　　Example:

　　&Eacute；tantfait……Tous……Ades……Quefit……C&eacute；resAvec……Unfleur……Comme……LaFontaine8。iv。\"

　　Thepoorvisualizersays:

　　\"Myabilitytoformmentalimagesseems，fromwhatIhavestudiedofotherpeople’simages，tobedefective，andsomewhatpeculiar。TheprocessbywhichIseemtorememberanyparticulareventisnotbyxseriesofdistinctimages，butasortofpanorama，thefaintestimpressionsofwhichareperceptiblethroughathickfog——I

　　cannotshutmyeyesandgetadistinctimageofanyone，althoughIusedtobeabletoafewyearsago，andthefacultyseemstohavegraduallyslippedaway——Inmymostvividdreams，wheretheeventsappearlikethemostrealfacts，Iamoftentroubledwithdimnessofsightwhichcausestheimagestoappearindistinct——Tocometothequestionofthebreakfast-table，thereisnothingdefiniteaboutit。Everythingisvague。IcannotsaywhatIsee。Icouldnotpossiblycountthechairs，butIhappentoknowthatthereareten。Iseenothingindetail——ThechiefthingisingeneralimpressionthatIcannottellexactlywhatIdosee。Thecoloringisaboutthesame，asfarasIcanrecallit，onlyverymuchwashedout。PerhapstheonlycolorIcanseeatalldistinctlyisthatofthetablecloth，andIcouldprobablyseethecolorofthewall-paperifIcouldrememberwhatcoloritwas。\"

　　Apersonwhosevisualimaginationisstrongfindsithardtounderstandhowthosewhoarewithoutthefacultycanthinkatall。Somepeopleundoubtedlyhavenovisualimagesatallworthyofthename，[10]andinsteadofseeingtheirbreakfast-table，theytellyouthattheyrememberitorknowwhatwasonit。

　　Thisknowingandrememberingtakes[p。58]placeundoubtedlybymeansofverbalimages，aswasexplainedalreadyinChapterIX，pp。265-6。

　　ThestudyofAphasiaseep。54hasoflateyearsshownhowunexpectedlygreatarethedifferencesbetweenindividualsinrespectofimagination。Andatthesametimethediscrepanciesbetweenlesionandsymptomindifferentcasesofthediseasehavebeenlargelyclearedup。Insomeindividualsthehabitual’thought-stuff，’ifonemaysocallit，isvisual；inothersitisauditory，articulatory，ormotor；inmost，perhaps，itisevenlymixed。Thesamelocalcerebralinjurymustneedsworkdifferentpracticalresultsinpersonswhodifferinthisway。Inoneitwillthrowamuchusedbrain-tractoutofgear；intheotheritmayaffectanunimportantregion。AparticularlyinstructivecasewaspublishedbyCharcotin1883。[11]ThepatientwasMr。X。，amerchant，borninVienna，highlyeducated，masterofGerman，Spanish，French，Greek，andLatin。UptothebeginningofthemaladywhichtookhimtoProfessorCharcot，hereadHomeratsight。Hecould，startingfromanyverseoutofthefirstbookoftheIliad，repeatthefollowingverseswithouthesitating，byheart。VirgilandHoracewerefamiliar。HealsoknewenoughofmodernGreekforbusinesspurposes。UptowithinayearfromthetimeCharcotsawhimheenjoyedanexceptionalvisualmemory，Henosoonerthoughtofpersonsorthings，butfeatures，forms，andcolorsarosewiththesameclearness，sharpness，andaccuracyasiftheobjectsstoodbeforehim。Whenhetriedtorecallafactorafigureinhisvoluminouspolyglotcorrespondence，thelettersthemselvesappearedbeforehimwiththeirentirecontent，irregularities，erasuresandall。Atschoolherecitedfromamentallyseenpagewhichbereadofflinebylineandletterbyletter。Inmakingcomputations，heranhismentaleyedownimaginarycolumnsoffigures，andperformedinthiswaythemostvariedoperationsofarithmetic。Hecouldneverthinkofapassageinaplaywithouttheentirescene，stage，actors，andaudienceappearingtohim。Hehadbeenagreattraveller。Beingagooddraughtsman，heusedtosketchviewswhichpleasedhim；andhismemoryalwaysbroughtbacktheentirelandscapeexactly。Ifliethoughtofaconversation，asaying，anengagement，theplace，thepeople，theentirescenerosebeforehismind。

　　Hisauditorymemorywasalwaysdeficient，oratleastsecondary。Hehadnotasteformusic。[p。59]

　　Ayearandahalfprevioustoexamination，afterbusiness-anxieties，lossofsleep，appetite，etc。，henoticedsuddenlyonedayailextraordinarychangeinhimself。Aftercompleteconfusion，therecameaviolentcontrastbetweenhisoldandhisnewstate。Everythingabouthimseemedsonewandforeignthat，atfirsthethoughthemustbegoingmad。Hewasnervousandirritable。Althoughhesawallthingsdistinct，hehadentirelylosthismemoryforformsandcolors。Onascertainingthis，hebecamereassuredastohissanity。Hesoondiscoveredthathecouldcarryonhisaffairsbyusinghismemoryinanaltogethernewway。Hecannowdescribeclearlythedifferencebetweenhistwoconditions。

　　EverytimehereturnstoA。，fromwhichplacebusinessoftencallshim，heseemstohimselfasifenteringastrangecity。Heviewsthemonuments，houses，andstreetswiththesamesurpriseasifhesawthemfortilefirsttime。Gradually，however，hismemoryreturns，andhefindshimselfathomeagain。Whenaskedtodescribetheprincipalpublicplaceofthetown，heanswered，\"Iknowthatitisthere，butitisimpossibletoimagineit，andIcantellyounothingaboutit。\"HehasoftendrawntheportofA。To-dayhevainlytriestotraceitsprincipaloutlines。Askedtodrawaminaret，liereflects，saysitisasquaretower，anddraws，rudely，fourlines，oneforground，onefortop，andtwoforsides。Askedtodrawanarcade，hesays，\"Irememberthatitcontainssemi-circulararches，andthattwoofthemmeetingatananglemakeavault，buthowitlooksIamabsolutelyunabletoimagine。\"Theprofileofamanwhichhedrewbyrequestwasasifdrawnbyalittlechild；andyetheconfessedthathehadbeenhelpedtodrawitbylookingatthebystanders。

　　Similarlyliedrewashapelessscribbleforatree。

　　Hecannomorerememberhiswife’sandchildren’sfacesthanhecanremembertheportofA。Evenafterbeingwiththemsometimetheyseemunusualtohim。Heforgetshisownface，andoncespoketohisimageinamirror，takingitforastranger。Hecomplainsofhislossoffeelingforcolors。\"Mywifehasblackhair，thisIknow；

　　butIcannomorerecallitscolorthanIcanherpersonandfeatures。\"

　　Thisvisualamnesiaextendstodatingobjectsfromhischildhood’syears——paternalmansion，etc。，forgotten。

　　Nootherdisturbancesbutthislossofvisualimages。Nowwhenheseekssomethinginhiscorrespondence，hemustrummageamongtheletterslikeothermen，untilhemeetsthepassage。HecanrecallonlythefirstfewversesoftheIliad，andmustgropetoreadHomer，Virgil，andHorace。Figureswhichheaddshemustnowwhispertohimself。Herealizesclearlythathemusthelphismemoryoutwithauditoryimages，whichhedoeswitheffort。Thewordsandexpressionswhichherecallsseemnowtoechoinhisear，analtogethernovelsensationsforhim。Ifhewishestolearnbyheartanything，aseriesofphrasesforexample，hemustreadthemseveraltimesaloud，soastoimpresshisear。Whenlaterherepeatsthethinginquestion，thesensationofin-[p。60]wardhearingwhichprecedesarticulationrisesupinhismind。Thisfeelingwasformerlyunknowntohim。HespeaksFrenchfluently；

　　butaffirmsthathecallnolongerthinkinFrench；butmustgethisFrenchwordsbytranslatingthemfromSpanishorGerman，thelanguagesofhischildhood。Hedreamsnomoreinvisualterms，butonlyinwords，usuallySpanishwords。Acertaindegreeofverbalblindnessaffectshim——heistroubledbytheGreekalphabet，etc。[12]

　　Ifthispatienthadpossessedtheauditorytypeofimaginationfromthestart，itisevidentthattheinjury，whateveritwas，tohiscentresforopticalimagination，wouldhaveaffectedhispracticallifemuchlessprofoundly。

　　\"Theauditorytype，\"saysM。A。Binet，[13]\"appearstoberarerthanthevisual。Personsofthistypeimaginewhattheythinkofinthelanguageofsound。Inordertorememberalessontheyimpressupontheirmind，notthelookofthepage，butthesoundoftilewords。Theyreason，aswellasremember，byear。Inperformingamentaladditiontheyrepeatverballythenamesofthefigures，andadd，asitwere，thesounds，withoutanythoughtofthegraphicsigns。Imaginationalsotakestheauditoryform。’WhenIwriteascene，’saidLegouv&eacute；toScribe，’Ihear；butyousee。IneachphrasewhichIwrite，thevoiceofthepersonagewhospeaksstrikesmyear。’Vous，qui&ecirc；tesleth&eacute；&acirc；trem&ecirc；me，youractorswalk，gesticulatebeforeyoureyes；Iamalistener，youaspectator。’——’Nothingmoretrue，’saidScribe；’doyouknowwhereIamwhenIwriteapiece？Inthemiddleoftheparterre。’Itisclearthatthepureaudile，seekingtodeveloponlyasingleoneofhisfaculties，may，likethepurevisualizer，performastoundingfeatsofmemory——Mozart，forexample，notingfrommemorytheMiserereoftheSistineChapelaftertwohearings；thedeafBeethoven，composingandinwardlyrepeatinghisenormoussymphonies。Ontheotherhand，themanofauditorytype，likethevisual，isexposedtoseriousdangers；forifhelosehisauditoryimages，heiswithoutresourceandbreaksdowncompletely。

　　\"Itispossiblethatpersonswithhallucinationsofhearing，andin-[p。61]dividualsafflictedwiththemaniathattheyarevictimsofpersecution，mayallbelongtotheauditorytype；andthatthepredominanceofacertainkindofimaginationmaypredisposetoacertainorderofhallucinations，andperhapsofdelirium。

　　\"Themotortyperemains——perhapsthemostinterestingofall，andcertainlytheoneofwhichleastisknown。

　　Personswhobelongtothistype[lesmoters，inFrench，motiles，asMr。GaltonproposestocalltheminEnglish][14]makeuse，inmemory，reasoning，andalltheirintellectualoperations，ofimagesderivedfrommovement。Inordertounderstandthisimportantpoint，itisenoughtorememberthat’allourperceptions，andinparticulartheimportantones，thoseofsightandtouch，containasintegralelementsthemovementsofoureyesandlimbs；andthat，ifmovementiseveranessentialfactorinourreallyseeinganobject，itmustbeanequallyessentialfactorwhenweseethesameobjectinimagination’Ribot。[15]Forexample，thecompleximpressionofaball，whichisthere，inourhand，istheresultantofopticalimpressionsoftouch，ofmuscularadjustmentsoftheeye，ofthemovementsofourfingers，andofthemuscularsensationswhichtheseyield。

　　Whenweimaginetheball，itsideamustincludetheimagesofthesemuscularsensations，justasitincludesthoseoftheretinalandepidermalsensations。

　　Theyformsomanymotorimages。Iftheywerenotearlierrecognizedtoexist，thatisbecauseourknowledgeofthemuscularsenseisrelativelysorecent。Inolderpsychologiesitneverwasmentioned，thenumberofsensesbeingrestrictedtofive。

　　\"Therearepersonswhorememberadrawingbetterwhentheyhavefolloweditsoutlineswiththeirfinger。LecoqdoBoisbaudranusedthismeansinhisartisticteaching，inordertoaccustomhispupilstodrawfrommemory。Hemadethemfollowtheoutlinesoffigureswithapencilheldintheair，forcingthemthustoassociatemuscularwith’visualmemory。Galtonquotesacuriouscorroborativefact。ColonelMoncrieffoftenobservedinNorthAmericayoungIndianswho，visitingoccasionallyhisquarters，interestedthemselvesgreatlyintheengravingswhichwereshownthem。OneofthemfollowedwithcarewiththepointofhisknifetheoutlineofadrawingintheIllustratedLondonNews，sayingthatthiswastoenablehimtocarveitoutthebetteronhisreturnhome。Inthiscasethemotorimageswereto[p。62]reinforcethevisualones。Theyoungsavagewasamotor。[16]……Whenone’smotorimagesaredestroyed，onelosesone’sremembranceofmovements，andsometimes，morecuriouslystill，onelosesthepowerofexecutingthem。Pathologygivesusexamplesinmotoraphasia，agraphia，etc。Takethecaseofagraphia。

　　Aneducatedman，knowinghowtowrite，suddenlylosesthispower，asaresultofcerebralinjury。Hishandandarmareinnowayparalytic，yethecannotwrite。Whencethislossofpower？Hetellsushimself:henolongerknowshow。Hehasforgottenhowtosetaboutittotracetheletters，hehaslostthememoryofthemovementstobeexecuted，hehasnolongerthemotorimageswhich，whenformerlyhewrote，directedhishand……Otherpatients，affectedwithword-blindness，resorttothesemotorimagespreciselytomakeamendsfortheirotherdeficiency……Anindividualaffectedinthiswaycannotreadletterswhichareplacedbeforehiseyes，evenalthoughhissightbegoodenoughforthepurpose。Thislossofthepowerofreadingbysightmay，atacertaintime，betheonlytroublethepatienthas。Individualsthusmutilatedsucceedinreadingbyaningeniousroundaboutwaywhichtheyoftendiscoverthemselves:itisenoughthattheyshouldtracetheletterswiththeirfingertounderstandtheirsense。

　　Whathappensinsuchacase？Howcanthehandsupplytheplaceoftheeye？

　　Themotorimagegivesthekeytotheproblem。Ifthepatientcanread，sotospeak，withhisfingers，itisbecauseintracingthelettershegiveshimselfacertainnumberofmuscularimpressionswhicharethoseofwriting。Inoneword，thepatientreadsbywriting，Charcot:thefeelingofthegraphicmovementssuggeststhesenseofwhatisbeingwrittenaswellassightwould。\"[17]

　　Theimaginationofablind-deafmutelikeLauraBridgmanmustbeconfinedentirelytotactileandmotormaterialAllblindpersonsmartbelongtothe’tactile’and’motile’

　　typesoftheFrenchauthors。WhentheyoungmanwhosecataractswereremovedbyDr。Franzwasshowndifferentgeometricfigures，hesaidhe\"hadnotbeenabletoformfromthemtheideaofasquareandadiskuntilheperceivedasensationofwhathesawinthepointsofhisfingers，asifhereallytouchedtheobjects。\"[18]

　　ProfessorStrickerofVienna，whoseemstohavethemotileformofimaginationdevelopedinunusualstrength，[p。

　　63]hasgivenaverycarefulanalysisofhisownelseinacoupleofmonographswithwhichallstudentsshouldbecomefamiliar。[19]Hisrecollectionsbothofhisownmovementsandofthoseofotherthingsareaccompaniedinvariablybydistinctmuscularfeelingsinthosepartsofhisbodywhichwouldnaturallybeusedineffectingorinfollowingthemovement。Inthinkingofasoldiermarching，forexample，itisasifhewerehelpingtheimagetomarchbymarchinghimselfinhisrear。Andifhesuppressesthissympatheticfeelinginhisownlegs，andconcentratesallhisattentionontheimaginedsoldier，thelitterbecomes，asitwere，paralysed。Ingeneralhisimaginedmovements，ofwhatsoeverobjects，seemparalysedthemomentnofeelingsofmovementeitherinhisowneyesorinhisownlimbsaccompanythem。

　　[20]Themovementsofarticulatespeechplayapredominantpartinhismentallife。

　　\"WhenaftermyexperimentalworkIproceedtoitsdescription，asaruleIreproduceinthefirstinstanceonlywords，whichIhadalreadyassociatedwiththeperceptionofthevariousdetailsoftheobservationwhilstthelatterwasgoingon。ForspeechplaysinallmyobservingsoimportantapartthatIordinarilyclothephenomenainwordsasfastasIobservethem。\"[21]

　　Mostpersons，onbeingaskedinwhatsortoftermstheyimaginewords，willsay’intermsofhearing。’

　　Itisnotuntiltheirattentionisexpresslydrawntothepointthattheyfinditdifficulttosaywhetherauditoryimagesormotorimagesconnectedwiththeorgansofarticulationpredominate。AgoodwayofbringingthedifficultytoconsciousnessisthatproposedbyStricker:Partlyopenyourmouthandthenimagineanywordwithlabialsordentalsinit，suchas’bubble，’’toddle。’Isyourimageundertheseconditionsdistinct？Tomostpeopletheimageisatfirst’thick，’asthesoundofthewordwouldbeiftheytriedtopronounceitwiththelipsparted。Manycanneverimaginethewords[p。64]clearlywiththemouthopen；otherssucceedafterafewpreliminarytrials。Theexperimentproveshowdependentourverbalimaginationisonactualfeelingsinlips，tongue，throat，larynx，etc。

　　\"Whenwerecalltheimpressionofawordorsentence，ifwedonotspeakitout，wefeelthetwitteroftheorgansjustabouttocometothatpoint。Thearticulatingparts——thelarynx，thetongue，thelipsareallsensiblyexcited；asuppressedarticulationisinfactthematerialofourrecollection，theintellectualmanifestation，theideaofspeech。[22]

　　TheopenmouthinStricker’sexperimentnotonlypreventsactualarticulationofthelabials，butourfeelingofitsopennesskeepsusfromimaginingtheirarticulation，justasasensationofglaringlightwillkeepusfromstronglyimaginingdarkness。Inpersonswhoseauditoryimaginationisweak，thearticulatoryimageseemstoconstitutethewholematerialforverbalthought。ProfessorStrickersaysthatinhisowncasenoauditoryimageentersintothewordsofwhichhethinks。

　　[23]Likemostpsychologists，however，hemakesofhispersonalpeculiaritiesarule，andsaysthatverbalthinkingisnormallyanduniversallyanexclusivelymotorrepresentation。Icertainlygetauditoryimages，bothofvowelsandofconsonants，inadditiontothearticulatoryimagesorfeelingsonwhichthisauthorlayssuchstress。AndIfindthatnumbersofmystudents，afterrepeatinghisexperiments，cometothisconclusion。Thereisatfirstadifficultyduetotheopenmouth。That，however，soonvanishes，asdoesalsothedifficultyofthinkingofonevowelwhilstcontinuouslysoundinganother。Whatprobablyremainstrue，however，isthatmostmenhavealessauditoryandamorearticulatoryverbalimaginationthantheyareapttobeawareof。[p。65]ProfessorStrickerhimselfhasacousticimages，andcanimaginethesoundsofmusicalinstruments，andthepeculiarvoiceofafriend。Astatisticalinquiryonalargescale，intothevariationsofacoustic，tactile，andmotorimagination，wouldprobablybearlessfruitthanGalton’sinquiryintovisualimages。Afewmonographsbycompetentobservers，likeStricker，abouttheirownpeculiarities，wouldgivemuchmorevaluableinformationaboutthediversitieswhichprevail。[24]

　　Touch-imagesareverystronginsomepeople。Themostvividtouch-imagescomewhenweourselvesbarelyescapelocalinjury，orwhenweseeanotherinjured。Theplace[p。66]

　　maythenactuallytinglewiththeimaginarysensation——perhapsnotaltogetherimaginary，sinegoose-flesh，palingorreddening，andotherevidencesofactualmucularcontractioninthespotmayresult。

　　\"Aneducatedman，\"saysawriterwhomustalwaysbequotedwhenitisquestionofthepowersofimagination，[25]

　　\"toldmeoncethatonenteringhishouseonedayhereceivedashockfromcrushingthefingerofoneofhislittlechildreninthedoor。Atthemomentofhisfrighthefeltaviolentpaininthecorrespondingfingerofhisownbody，andthispainabodewithhimthreedays。\"

　　Thesameauthormakesthefollowingdiscrimination，whichprobablymostmencouldverify:

　　\"OntheskinIeasilysucceedinbringingoutsuggestedsensationswhereverIwill。ButbecauseitisnecessarytoprotractthementaleffortIcanonlyawakensuchsensationsasareintheirnatureprolonged，aswarmth，cold，pressure。Fleetingsensations，asthoseofaprick，acut，ablow，etc。，Iamunabletocallup，becauseIcannotimaginethemexabruptowiththerequisiteintensity。ThesensationsoftheformerorderIcanexciteuponanypartoftheskin；

　　andtheymaybecomesolivelythat，whetherIwillornot，Ihavetopassmyhandovertheplacejustasifitwerearealimpressionontheskin。\"

　　[26]

　　Meyer’saccountofhisownvisualimagesisveryinteresting；andwithitwemaycloseoursurveyofdifferencesbetweenthenormalpowersofimaginingindifferentindividuals。

　　\"Withmuchpractice，\"hesays，\"Ihavesucceededinmakingitpossibleformetocallupsubjectivevisualsensationsatwill。Itriedallmyexperimentsbydayoratnightwithclosedeyes。

　　Atfirstitwasverydifficult。Inthefirstexperimentswhichsucceededthewholepicturewasluminous，theshadowsbeinggiveninasomewhatlessstrongbluishlight。InlaterexperimentsIsawtheobjectsdark，withbrightoutlines，orratherIsawoutlinedrawingsofthem，brightonadarkground。Icancomparethesedrawingslesstochalkdrawingsonablackboardthantodrawingsmadewithphosphorusonadarkwallatnight，thoughthephosphoruswouldshowluminousvaporswhichwereabsentfrommylines。

　　IfIwished，forexample，toseeaface，withoutintendingthatofaparticularperson，Isawtheoutlineofaprofileagainstthedarkbackground。WhenItriedtorepeatanex-[p。67]perimentoftheelderDarwinIsawonlytheedgesofthedieasbrightlinesonadarkground。Sometimes，however，Isawthediereallywhiteanditsedgesblack；itwasthenonapalerground。Icouldsoonatwillchangebetweenawhitediewithblackbordersonalightfield，andablackdiewithwhitebordersonadarkfield；andIcandothisatanymomentnow。Afterlongpractice……theseexperimentssucceededbetterstill。IcannowcallbeforemyeyesalmostanyobjectwhichIplease，asasubjectiveappearance，andthisinitsownnaturalcolorandillumination。Iseethemalmostalwaysonamoreorlesslightordark，mostlydimlychangeableground。EvenknownfacesIcanseequitesharp，withthetruecolorofhairandcheeks。ItisoddthatIseethesefacesmostlyinprofile，whereasthosedescribed[inthepreviousextract]

　　[27]wereallfull-face。Herearesomeofthefinalresultsoftheseexperiments:

　　\"1Sometimeafterthepictureshavearisentheyvanishorchangeintoothers，withoutmybeingabletopreventit。

　　\"2Whenthecolordoesnotintegrallybelongtotheobject，Icannotalwayscontrolit。Aface，e。g。，neverseemstomeblue，butalwaysinitsnaturalcolor；aredcloth，ontheotherhand，Icansometimeschangetoablueone。

　　\"3Ihavesometimessucceededinseeingpurecolorswithoutobjects；theythenfilltheentirefieldofview。

　　\"4Ioftenfailtoseeobjectswhicharenotknowntome，merefictionsofmyfancy，andinsteadofthemtherewillappearfamiliarobjectsofasimilarsort；forinstance，Ioncetriedtoseeabrasssword-hiltwithabrassguard，insteadofwhichthemorefamiliarpictureofarapier-guardappeared。

　　\"5Mostofthesesubjectiveappearances，especiallywhentheywerebright，leftafter-imagesbehindthemwhentheeyeswerequicklyopenedduringtheirpresence，Forexample，Ithoughtofasilverstirrup，andafterIhadlookedatitawhileIopenedmyeyesandforalongwhileafterwardssawitsafterimage。

　　\"TheseexperimentssucceededbestwhenIlayquietlyonmybackandclosedmyeyes。Icouldbearnonoiseaboutme，asthiskeptthevisionfromattainingtherequisiteintensity。TheexperimentssucceedwithmenowsoeasilythatIamsurprisedtheydidnotdosoatfirst，Ifeelasthoughtheyoughttosucceedwitheveryone。Theimportantpointinthemistogettheimagesufficientlyintensebytheexclusivedirectionoftheattentionuponit，andbytheremovalofalldisturbingimpressions。\"[28]

　　Thenegativeafter-imageswhichsucceededuponMeyer’simaginationwhenheopenedhiseyesareahighlyinteresting，thoughrare，phenomenon。SofarasIknowthereis[p。68]

　　onlyoneotherpublishedreportofasimilarexperience。[29]Itwouldseemthatinsuchacasetheneuralprocesscorrespondingtotheimaginationmustbetheentiretractconcernedintheactualsensation，evendownasfarastheretina。Thisleadstoanewquestiontowhichwemaynowturn——ofwhatisTHENEURALPROCESSWHICHUNDERLIES

　　IMAGINATION

　　Thecommonly-receivedideaisthatitisonlyamilderdegreeofthesameprocesswhichtookplacewhenthethingnowimaginedwassensiblyperceived。ProfessorBainwrites:

　　\"Sinceasensationinthefirstinstancediffusesnerve-currentsthroughtheinteriorofthebrainoutwardstotheorgansofexpressionandmovement，——thepersistenceofthatsensation，aftertheoutwardexcitingcauseiswithdrawn，canbebutacontinuanceofthesamediffusivecurrents，perhapslessintense，butnototherwisedifferent。Theshockremainingintheearandbrain，afterthesoundofthunder，mustpassthroughthesamecircles，andoperateinthesamewayasduringtheactualsound。Wecanhavenoreasonforbelievingthat，inthisself-sustainingcondition，theimpressionchangesitsseat，orpassesintosomenewcirclesthathavethespecialpropertyofretainingit。Everypartactuatedaftertheshockmusthavebeenactuatedbytheshock，onlymorepowerfully。Withthissingledifferenceofintensity，themodeofexistenceofasensationexistingafterthefactisessentiallythesameasitsmodeofexistenceduringthefact……Nowifthisbetheelsewithimpressionspersistingwhenthecausehasceased，whatviewarewetoadoptconcerningimpressionsreproducedbymentalcausesalone，orwithouttheaidoftheoriginal，asinordinaryrecollection？

　　Whatisthemannerofoccupationofthebrainwitharesuscitatedfeelingofresistance，asmellorasound？Thereisonlyoneanswerthatseemsadmissable。Therenewedfeelingoccupiestheverysameparts，andinthesamemanner，astheoriginalfeeling，andnootherparts，norinanyotherassignablemanner。Iimaginethatifourpresentknowledgeofthebrainhadbeenpresenttotheearliestspeculators，thisistheonly[p。69]hypothesisthatwouldhaveoccurredtothem。Forwhereshouldapastfeelingbeembodied，ifnotinthesameorgansasthefeelingwhenpresent？Itisonlyinthiswaythatitsidentitycanbepreserved；afeelingdifferentlyembodiedwouldbeadifferentfeeling。\"[30]

　　ItisnotplainfromProfessorBain’stextwhetherbythe’sameparts’hemeansonlythesamepartsinsidethebrain，orthesameperipheralpartsalso，asthoseoccupiedbytheoriginalfeeling。Theexampleswhichhehimselfproceedstogivearealmostallcasesofimaginationofmovement，inwhichtheperipheralorgansareindeedaffected，foractualmovementsofaweaksortarefoundtoaccompanytheidea。Thisiswhatweshouldexpect。Allcurrentstendtorunforwardinthebrainanddischargeintothemuscularsystem；andtheideaofamovementtendstodothiswithpeculiarfacility。Butthequestionremains:Docurrentsrunbackward，sothatiftheopticalcentresforexampleareexcitedby’association’andavisualobjectisimagined，acurrentrunsdowntotheretinaalso，andexcitesthatsympatheticallywiththehighertracts？Inotherwords，canperipheralsense-organsbeexcitedfromabove，oronlyfromwithout？Aretheyexcitedinimagination？ProfessorBain’sinstancesarealmostsilentastothispoint。Allhesaysisthis:

　　\"Wemightthinkofablowonthehanduntiltheskinwereactuallyirritatedandinflamed。Theattentionverymuchdirectedtoanypartofthebody，asthegreattoe，forinstance，isapttoproduceadistinctfeelinginthepart，whichweaccountforonlybysupposingarevivednerve-currenttoflowthere，makingasortoffalsesensation，aninfluencefromwithinmimickingtheinfluencesfromwithoutinsensationproper——SeethewritingsofMr。Braid，ofManchester，onHypnotism，etc。\"

　　IfImayjudgefrommyownexperience，allfeelingsofthissortareconsecutiveuponmotorcurrentsinvadingtheskinandproducingcontractionofthemusclesthere，themuscleswhosecontractiongives’goose-flesh’whenittakesplaceonanextensivescale。

　　Inevergetafeelingintheskin，howeverstronglyIimagineit，untilsomeactualchangeintheconditionoftheskinitselfhasoccurred。

　　Thetruthseemstobethatthecaseswhereperipheral[p。70]sense-organsaredirectlyexcitedinconsequenceofimaginationareexceptionalraritiesiftheyexistatall。Incommoncasesofimaginationitcouldseemmorenaturaltosupposethattheseatoftheprocessispurelycerebral，andthatthesense-organisleftout。Reasonsforsuchaconclusionwouldbebrieflythese:

　　1Inimaginationthestarting-pointoftheprocessmustbeinthebrain。Nowweknowthatcurrentsusuallyflowonewayinthenervoussystem；andfortheperipheralsense-organstobeexcitedinthesecases，thecurrentwouldhavetoflowbackward。

　　2Thereisbetweenimaginedobjectsandfeltobjectsadifferenceofconsciousqualitywhichmaybecalledalmostabsolute。Itishardlypossibletoconfoundtheliveliestimageoffancywiththeweakestrealsensation。Thefeltobjecthasaplasticrealityandoutwardnesswhichtheimaginedobjectwhollylacks。Moreover，asFechnersays，inimaginationtheattentionfeelsasifdrawnbackwardstothebrain；

　　insensationevenofafter-imagesitisdirectedforwardtowardsthesense-organ。[31]Thedifferencebetweenthetwoprocessesfeelslikeoneofkind，andnotlikeamere’more’or’less’ofthesame。[32]Ifasensationofsoundwereonlyastrongimagination，andanimaginationaweaksensation，thereoughttobeaborder-lineofexperiencewherewenevercouldtellwhetherwewerehearingaweaksoundorimaginingastrongone。Incomparingapresentsensationfeltwithapastoneimagined，itwillberememberedthatweoftenjudgetheimaginedonetohavebeenthestrongerseeabove，p。500，note。Thisisinexplicableiftheimaginationbesimplyaweakerexcitementofthesensationalprocess。

　　Tothesereasonsthefollowingobjectionsmaybemade:Tol:Thecurrentdemonstrablydoesflowbackward[p。71]downtheopticnerveinMeyer’sandF&eacute；r&eacute；’snegativeafterimage。Thereforeitcanflowbackward；thereforeitmayflowbackwardinsome，howeverslight，degree，inallimagination。[33]

　　To2:Thedifferenceallegedisnotabsolute，andsensationandimaginationarehardtodiscriminatewherethesensationissoweakastobejustperceptible。Atnighthearingaveryfaintstrikingofthehourbyafar-offclock，ourimaginationreproducesbothrhythmandsound，anditisoftendifficulttotellwhichwasthelastrealstroke。Soofababycryinginadistantpartofthehouse，weareuncertainwhetherwestillhearit，oronlyimaginethesound。Certainviolin-playerstakeadvantageofthisindiminuendoterminations。Afterthepianissimohasbeenreachedtheycontinuetobowasifstillplaying，butarecarefulnottotouchthestrings。Thelistenerhearsinimaginationa[p。72]degreeofsoundfainterstillthantheprecedingpianissimo。

　　Thisphenomenonisnotconfinedtohearing:

　　\"Ifweslowlyapproachourfingertoasurfaceofwater，weoftendeceiveourselvesaboutthemomentinwhichthewettingoccurs。Theapprehensivepatientbelieveshimselftofeeltheknifeofthesurgeonwhilstitisstillatsomedistance。\"[34]

　　Visualperceptionsuppliesnumberlessinstancesinwhichthesamesensationofvisionisperceivedasoneobjectoranotheraccordingtotheinterpretationofthemind。Manyoftheseinstanceswillcomebeforeusinthecourseofthenexttwochapters；andinChapterXIX

　　similarillusionswillbedescribedintheothersenses。Takentogether，allthesefactswouldforceustoadmitthatthesubjectivedifferencebetweenimaginedandfeltobjectsislessabsolutethanhasbeenclaimed，andthatthecorticalprocesseswhichunderlieimaginationandsensationarenotquiteasdiscreteasoneatfirstistemptedtosuppose。Thatperipheralsensoryprocessesareordinarilyinvolvedinimaginationseemsimprobable；thattheymaysometimesbearousedfromthecortexdownwardscannot，however，bedogmaticallydenied。

　　Theimagination-processCANthenpassoverintothesensation-process。Inotherwords，genuinesensationscanbecentrallyoriginated。WhenwecometostudyhallucinationsinthechapteronOuterPerception，weshallseethatthisisbynomeansathingofrareoccurrence。Atpresent，however，wemustadmitthatnormallythetwoprocessesdoNOTPassOverintoeachother；andwemustinquirewhy。Oneoftwothingsmustbethereason。Either1。Sensation-processesoccupyadifferentlocalityfromimagination-processes；or2。Occupyingthesamelocality，theyhaveanintensitywhichundernormalcircumstancescurrentsfromothercorticalregionsareincapableofarousing，andtoproducewhichcurrentsfromtheperipheryarerequired。

　　ItseemsalmostcertainafterwhatwassaidinChapterII。pp。49-51thattheimagination-processdryersfromthesensation-processbyitsintensityratherthanbyitslocality。Howeveritmaybewithloweranimals，theassumptionthat[p。73]ideationalandsensorialcentresarelocallydistinctappearstobesupportedbynofactsdrawnfromtheobservationofhumanbeings。Afteroccipitaldestruction，thehemianopsiawhichresultsinmanissensorialblindness，notmerelossofopticalideas。Weretherecentresforcrudeopticalsensationbelowthecortex，thepatientsinthesecaseswouldstillfeellightanddarkness。

　　Sincetheydonotpreserveeventhisimpressiononthelosthalfofthefield，wemustsupposethattherearenocentresforvisionofanysortwhateverbelowthecortex，andthatthecorporaquadrigeminaandotherloweropticalgangliaareorgansforreflexmovementofeye-musclesandnotforconscioussight。Moreovertherearenofactswhichobligeustothinkthat，withintheoccipitalcortex，onepartisconnectedwithsensationandanotherwithmereideationorimagination。Thepathologicalcasesassumedtoprovethisareallbetterexplainedbydisturbancesofconductionbetweentheopticalandothercentresseep。50。Inbadcasesofhemianopsiathepatient’simagesdepartfromhimtogetherwithhissensibilitytolight。

　　Theydepartsocompletelythathedoesnotevenknowwhatisthematterwithhim。Toperceivethatoneisblindtotherighthalfofthefieldofviewonemusthaveanideaofthatpartofthefield’spossibleexistence。

　　Butthedefectinthesepatientshastoberevealedtothembythedoctor，theythemselvesonlyknowingthatthereis’somethingwrong’withtheireyes。Whatyouhavenoideaofyoucannotmiss；andtheirnotdefinitelymissingthisgreatregionoutoftheirsightseemsduetothefactthattheirveryideaandmemoryofitislostalongwiththesensation。Amanblindofhiseyesmerely，seesdarkness。Amanblindofhisvisualbrain-centrescannomoreseedarknessoutofthepartsofhisretinawhichareconnectedwiththebrain-lesionthanliecanseeitoutoftheskinofhisback。Hecannotseeatallinthatpartofthefield；andhecannotthinkofthelightwhichheoughttobefeelingthere，fortheverynotionoftheexistenceofthatparticular’there’iscutoutofhismind。

　　[35][p。74]

　　Nowifweadmitthatsensationandimaginationareduetotheactivityofthesamecentresinthecortex，wecanseeaverygoodteleologicalreasonwhytheyshouldcorrespondtodiscretekindsofprocessinthesecentresandwhytheprocesswhichgivesthesensethattheobjectisreallythereoughtnormallytobearousableonlybycurrentsenteringfromtheperipheryandnotbycurrentsfromtheneighboringcorticalparts。Wecansee，inshort，whythesensationalprocessOUGHTTObediscontinuouswithallnormalideationalprocesses，howeverintense。For，asDr。M&uuml；nsterbergjustlyobserves:

　　\"Weretherenotthispeculiararrangementweshouldnotdistinguishrealityandfantasy，ourconductwouldnotbeaccommodatedtothefactsaboutus，butwouldbeinappropriateandsenseless，andwecouldnotkeepourselvesalive……Thatourthoughtsandmemoriesshouldbecopiesofsensationswiththeirintensitygreatlyreducedisthusaconsequencededuciblelogicallyfromthenaturaladaptationofthecerebralmechanismtoitsenvironment。\"[36]

　　Mechanicallythediscontinuitybetweentheideationalandthesensationalkindsofprocessmustmeanthatwhenthegreatestideationalintensityhasbeenreached，anorderofresistancepresentsitselfwhichonlyaneworderofforcecanbreakthrough。Thecurrentfromtheperipheryistheneworderofforcerequired；andwhathappensaftertheresistanceisovercomeisthesensationalprocess。Wemaysupposethatthelatterconsistsinsomenewandmoreviolentsortofdisintegrationoftheneuralmatter，whichnowexplodesatadeeperlevelthanatothertimes。

　　Nowhowshallweconceiveofthe’resistance’

　　whichpreventsthissortofdisintegrationfromtakingplace，thissortofintensityintheprocessfrombeingattained，somuchofthetime？Itmustbeeitheranintrinsicresistance，someforceofcohesionintheneuralmoleculesthemselves；oranextrinsicinfluence，duetoothercorticalcells。Whenwecometostudytheprocessofhallucinationweshallseethatbothfactorsmustbetakenintoaccount。Thereisadegreeofinwardmolecularcohesioninourbrain-cellswhileitprobablytakesasuddeninrushof[p。75]destructiveenergytospringapart。Incomingperipheralcurrentspossessthisenergyfromtheoutset。Currentsfromneighboringcorticalregionsmightattaintoitiftheycouldaccumulatewithinthecentrewhichwearesupposedtobeconsidering。Butsinceduringwakinghourseverycentrecommunicateswithothersbyassociation-paths，nosuchaccumulationcantakeplace。Thecorticalcurrentswhichruninrunrightoutagain，awakeningthenextideas；theleveloftensioninthecellsdoesnotrisetothehigherexplosion-point；andthelattermustbegainedbyasuddencurrentfromtheperipheryornotatall。

　　[1]Prof。Jastrowhasascertainedbystatisticalinquiryamongtheblindthatiftheirblindnesshaveoccurredbeforeaperiodembracedbetweenthefifthandseventhyearsthevisualcentresseemtodecay，andvisualdreamsandimagesaregraduallyoutgrown。Ifsightislostaftertheseventhyear，visualimaginationseemstosurvivethroughlife。SeeProf。J。’sinterestingarticleontheDreamsoftheBlind，intheNewPrincetonReviewforJanuary1888。

　　[2]ImpressionmeanssensationforHume。

　　[3]TreatiseonHumanNature，parti。&sect；vii。

　　[4]Huxley’sHume，pp。

　　92-94。

　　[5]OnIntelligenceN。

　　Y。，vol。ii。p。139。

　　[6]Principles，Introd。

　　&sect；13。Comparealsothepassagequotedabove，p。469

　　[7]ThedifferencesnotedbyFechnerbetweenafter-imagesandimagesofimaginationproperareasfollows:

　　After-images。Imagination-images。

　　Feelcoercive；Feelsubjecttoourspontaneity；

　　Seemunsubstantial，vaporous；Have，asitwere，morebody；

　　Aresharpinoutline；Areblurred；

　　Arebright；Aredarkerthaneventhedarkestblackoftheafter-images；

　　Arealmostcolorless；Havelivelycoloration；

　　Arecontinuouslyenduring；Incessantlydisappear，andhavetoberenewedbyaneffortofwill。Atlasteventhisfailstorevivethem。

　　Cannotbevoluntarilychanged。Canbeexchangedatwillforothers。

　　Areexactcopiesoforiginals。Cannotviolatethenecessarylawsofappearanceoftheiroriginals——e。g。amancannotbeimaginedfrom，infrontandbehindatonce。Theimaginationmustwalkroundhim，sotospeak；

　　Aremoreeasilygotwithshutthanwithopeneyes；Aremoreeasilyhadwithopenthanwithshuteyes；

　　Seemtomovewhenthebendoreyesmove；Neednotfollowmovementsofheadoreyes。

　　Thefieldwithinwhichtheyappearwithclosedeyesisdark，contracted，flat，closetotheeyes，infront，andtheimageshavenoperspective；Thefieldisextensiveinthreedimensions，andobjectscanbeimaginedinitaboveorbehindalmostmeasilyasinfront。

　　Theattentionseemsdirectedforwardstowardsthesense-organ，inobservingafter-images。Inimagining，theattentionfeelsasifdrawnbackwardstowardsthebrain。Finally，Fechnerspeaksoftheimpossibilityofattendingtobothafter-imagesandimagination-imagesatonce，evenwhentheyareofthesameobjectandmightbeexpectedtocombine。AllthesedifferencesaretrueofFechner；butmanyofthemwouldbeuntrueofotherpersons。Iquotethemasatypeofobservationwhichanyreaderwithsufficientpatiencetorepeat。Tothemmaybeadded，asauniversalproposition，thatafter-imagesseemlargerifweprojectthemonadistantscreen，andsmallerifprojectthemonanearone，whilstnosuchchangetakesplaceinmentalpictures[8][Iammyselfagooddraughtsman，andhaveaverylivelyinterestinpictures，statues，architectureanddecoration，andakeensensibilitytoartisticeffects。ButIamanextremelypoorvisualizer，andfindmyselfoftenunabletoreproduceinmymind’seyepictureswhichIhavemostcarefullyexamined——W。J。]

　　[9]SeealsoMcCoshandOsborne，PrincetonReview，Jan。1884。TherearesomegoodexamplesofhighdevelopmentoftheFacultyintheLondonSpectator，Dec。28，1878，pp。

　　1631，1634，Jan。4，11，25，andMarch18，1879。

　　[10]Takethefollowingreportfromoneofmystudents:\"Iamunabletoforminmymind’seyeanyvisuallikenessofthetablewhatever。Aftermanytrials，Icellonlygetahazysurface，withnothingonitoraboutit。Icanseenovarietyincolor，andnopositivelimitationsinextent，whileIcannotseewhatI

　　seewellenoughtodetermineitspositioninrespecttorayeye，ortoendowitwithanyqualityofsize。Iaminthesamepositionastotheworddog。Icannotseeitinmymind’s，eyeatall；andsocannottellwhetherIshouldhavetorunmyeyealongit，ifIdidseeit。\"

　　[11]Progr&egrave；sM&eacute；dical，21juillet。IabridgefromtheGermanreportofthecaseinWilbrand:DieSeelenblindheit1887。

　　[12]InalettertoCharcotthisinterestingpatientaddsthathischaracteralsoischanged:

　　\"Iwasformerlyreceptive，easilymadeenthusiastic，andpossessedarichfancy。NowIamquietandcold，andfancynevercarriesmythoughtsaway……Iammuchlesssusceptiblethanformerlytoangerorsorrow。Ilatelylostmydearly-belovedmother；butfeltfarlessgriefatthebereavementthanifIhadbeenabletoseeinmymind’seyeherphysiognomyandthephasesofhersuffering，andespeciallylessthanifIhadbeenabletowitnessinimaginationtheoutwardeffectsofheruntimelylossuponthemembersofthefamily。\"

　　[13]PsychologieduRaisonnement1886，p。25。

　　[14]Classicseditorsnote:James’insertion。

　　[15][Iammyselfaverypoorvisualizer，andfindthatIcanseldomcalltomindevenasingleletterofthealphabetinpurelyretinalterms。Imusttracetheletterbyrunningmymentaleyeoveritscontourinorderthattheimageofitshallhaveanydistinctnessatall。Onquestioningalargenumberofotherpeople，mostlystudents，Ifindthatperhapshalfofthemsaytheyhavenosuchdifficultyinseeinglettersmentally。Manyaffrimthattheycanseeanentirewordatonce，especiallyashortonelike’dog，’withnosuchfeelingofcreatingtheletterssuccessivelybytracingthemwiththeeye——W。J。]

　　[16]ItishardlyneedfultosaythatInmodernprimaryeducation，inwhichtheblackboardissomuchused，thechildrenaretaughttheirletters，etc。，byallpossiblechannelsatonce，sight，hearing，andmovement。

　　[17]Seeaninterestingcaseofasimilarsort，reportedbyFarges，inl’Ec&eacute；phale，7meAnn&eacute；e，p。545。

　　[18]PhilosophicalTransactions，1841，p。65。

　　[19]Studien&uuml；berdieSprachvorstellungen1880，andStudien&uuml；berdieBewegungsvorstellungen1882。

　　[20]Prof。Strickeradmitsthatbypracticehehassucceededinmakinghiseye-movements’actvicariously’forhisleg-movementsinimaginingmenwalking。

　　[21]Bewegungsvorstellugen，p。6。

　　[22]Bain:SensesandIntellect，p。339。

　　[23]Studien&uuml；berSprachvorstellungen，28，31etc。Cf。pp。49-50，etc。AgainstStricker，seeStumpf，Tonpsychol。，155-162，andRevuePhilosophique，xx。617。SeealsoPaulhan，Rev。Philosophique，xvi。405。StrickerrepliestoPaulhaninvol。xviii。p。685。P。retortsinvol。xix。p。118。Strickerreportsthatoutof100personsquestionedhefoundonlyonewhohadnofeelinginhislipswhensilentlythinkingthelettersM，B，P；andoutof60onlytwowhowereconsciousofnointernalarticulationwhilstreadingpp。59-60。

　　[24]Ithinkitmustbeadmittedthatsomepeoplehavenovividsubstantiveimagesinanydepartmentoftheirsensibility。Oneofmystudents，anIntelligentyouth，deniedsopertinaciouslythattherewasanythinginhismindatallwhenhethought，thatIwasmuchperplexedbyhiscase。ImyselfcertainlyhavenosuchvividplayofnascentmovementsormotorimagesasProfessorStrickerdescribes。WhenIseektorepresentarowofsoldiersmarching，allIcatchisaviewofstationarylegsfirstinonephaseofmovementandtheninanother，andtheseviewsareextremelyimperfectandmomentary。OccasionallyespeciallywhenItrytostimulatemyimagination，asbyrepeatingVictorHugo’slinesabouttheregiment，Leurpasestsicorrect，sanstardernicourir，Qu’oncroitvoirdesciseauxsefermerets’ouvrir，\"

　　Iseemtogetaninstantaneousglimpseofanactualmovement，butitistothelastdegreedimanduncertain。

　　Alltheseimagesseematfirstasifpurelyretinal。Ithink，however，thatrapideye-movementsaccompanythem，thoughtheselattergiverisetosuchslightfeelingsthattheyarealmostimpossibleofdetection。Absolutelynoleg-movementsofmyownarethere；infact，tocallsuchuparrestsmyimaginationofthesoldiers。Myopticalimagesareingeneralverydim，dark，fugitive，andcontracted。Itwouldbeutterlyimpossibletodrawfromthem，andyetIperfectlywelldistinguishonefromtheother。

　　Myauditoryimagesareexcessivelyinadequatereproductionsoftheiroriginals。

　　Ihavenoimagesoftasteorsmell。Touch-imaginationisfairlydistinct，butcomesverylittleintoplaywithmostobjectsthoughtof。

　　Neitherisallmythoughtverbalized；forIhaveshadowyschemesofrelation，asapttoterminateinanodoftheheadoranexpulsionofthebreathasinadefiniteword。Onthewhole，vagueimagesorsensationsofmovementinsideofmyheadtowardsthevariouspartsofspaceinwhichthetermsIamthinkingofeitherlieoraremomentarilysymbolizedtolietogetherwithmovementsofthebreaththroughmypharynxandnostrils，formabynomeansinconsiderablepartofmythought-stuff。Idoubtwhethermydifficultyingivingacleareraccountiswhollyamatterofinferiorpowerofintrospectiveattention，thoughthatdoubtlessplaysitspart。

　　Attention，ceterisparibus，mustalwaysbeinferiorinproportiontothefeeblenessoftheinternalimageswhichareofferedittoholdonto。

　　[25]Geo。Herm。Meyer，Untersuchungen&uuml；b。d。Physiol。d，Nervenfaser1848p。238。ForothercasesseeTuke’sInfluenceofMinduponBody，chaps。iiandvii。

　　[26]Meyer，op。cit。p。238。

　　[27]Classicseditor’snote:James’insertion。

　　[28]Meyer，op。cit。pp。238-41。

　　[29]ThatofDr。Ch。

　　F&eacute；r&eacute；intheRevuePhilosophique，xx。364。JohannesM&uuml；ller’saccountofhypnagogichallucinationsfloatingbeforetheeyesforafewmomentsafterthesehadbeenopened，seemstobelongmoretothecategoryofspontaneoushallucinationsseehisPhysiology，London，1842，p。1894。

　　ItisimpossibletotellwhetherthewordsinWundt’sVorlesungen，i。387，refertoapersonalexperienceofhisownornot；probablynot。Ilvasansdirethataninferiorvisualizerlikemyselfcangetnosuchafter-images。

　　NorhaveIasyetsucceededingettingreportofanyfrommystudents。

　　[30]SensesandIntellect，p。338。

　　[31]Seeabove，Vol。

　　ii。p。50，note。

　　[32]V。KandinskyKritischeu。klinischeBetrachtungenimGebietederSinnestauschungenBerlin，1885，p。135fi。insiststhatineventheliveliestpseudo-hallucinationsseebelow，ChapterXX，whichmayberegardedastheintensestpossibleresultsoftheimaginativeprocess，thereisnooutwardobjectivityperceivedinthethingrepresented，andthataganterAbgrundseparatesthese’ideas’fromtruehallucinationacidobjectiveperception。

　　[33]Itseemstoalsoflowbackwardsincertainhypnotichallucinations。Suggesttoa’Subject’

　　inthehypnotictrancethatasheetofpaperhasaredcrossuponit，thenpretendtoremovetheimaginarycross，whilstyoutelltheSubjecttolookfixedlyatadotuponthepaper，andhewillpresentlytellyouthatheseesa’bluish-green’cross。Thegenuinenessoftheresulthasbeendoubted，butthereseemsnogoodreasonforrejectingM。Binet’saccountLeMagn&eacute；tismeAnimal，1887，p。188。M。Binet，followingM。Parinaud，andonthefaithofacertainexperiment，atonetimebelieved，theopticalbrain-centresandnottheretinatobetheseatofordinarynegativeafter-images。Theexperimentisthis:Lookfixedly，withoneeyeopen，atacoloredspotonawhitebackground。Thenclosethateyeandlookfixedlywiththeothereyeataplainsurface。Anegativeafter-imageofthecoloredspotwillpresentlyappear。PsychologieduRaisonnment，1886，p。45。ButMr。

　　DelabarrehasprovedAmericanJournalofPsychology，ii。326thatthisafter-imageisdue，nottoahighercerebralprocess，buttothefactthattheretinalprocessintheclosedeyeaffectsconsciousnessatcertainmoments，andthatitsobjectisthenprojectedintothefieldseenbytheeyewhichisopen。M。BinetinformsmethatheisconvertedbytheproofsgivenbyMr。Delabarre。

　　Thefactremains，however，thatthenegativeafter-imagesofHerr-Meyer，M。F&eacute；r&eacute；，andthehypnoticsubjects，formariaexceptiontoallthatweknowofnerve-currents，iftheyareduetoarefluentcentrifugalcurrenttotheretina。Itmaybethattheywillhereafterbeexplainedinsomeotherway。Meanwhilewecanonlywritethemdownasaparadox。Sig。Sergi’stheorythatthereisalwaysarefluentwaveinperceptionhardlymeritsseriousconsiderationPsychologiePhysiologique，pp。99，189。Sergi’stheoryhasrecentlybeenreaffirmedwithalmostincrediblecruditybyLombrosoandOttolenghiintheRevuePhilosophique，xxix。70Jan。1890。

　　[34]Lotze，Med。Psych。

　　p。509。

　　[35]SeeanimportantarticlebyBinetintheRevuePhilosophique，xxvi。4811888；alsoDufour，inRevueM&eacute；d，delaSuisseRomande，1889，No。8，citedintheNeurologischesCentralblatt，1890，p。48。

　　[36]DieWillenshandlung1888，pp。129-40。

　　ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James1890Chapter21ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames1890

　　CHAPTERXXI。THEPERCEPTIONOFREALITY。[1]BELIEF。

　　EVERYONEknowsthedifferencebetweenimaginingathingandbelievinginitsexistence，betweensupposingapropositionandacquiescinginitstruth。Inthecaseofacquiescenceorbelief，theobjectisnotonlyapprehendedbythemind，butisheldtohavereality。Beliefisthusthementalstateorfunctionofcognizingreality。Asusedinthefollowingpages，’Belief’

　　willmeaneverydegreeofassurance，includingthehighestpossiblecertaintyandconviction。

　　Thereare，asweknow，twowaysofstudyingeverypsychicstate。First，thewayofanalysis:Whatdoesitconsistin？Whatisitsinnernature？

　　Ofwhatsortofmind-stuffisitcomposed？Second，thewayofhistory:

　　Whatareitsconditionsofproduction，anditsconnectionwithotherfacts？

　　Intothefirstwaywecannotgoveryfar。Initsinnernature，belieforthesenseofreality，isasortoffeelingmorealliedtotheemotionsthananythingelse。Mr。Bagehotdistinctlycallsitthe’emotion’ofconviction。Ijustnowspokeofitasacquiescence。Itresemblesmorethananythingwhatinthepsychologyofvolitionweknowasconsent。Consentisrecognizedbyalltobeamanifestationofouractivenature。Itwouldnaturallybedescribedbysuchtermsas’willingness’orthe’turningofourdisposition。’Whatcharacterizesbothconsentandbeliefisthecessationoftheoreticagitation，thoughtheadventofanideawhichisinwardlystable，andfillsthemindsolidlytotheexclusionofcontradictoryideas。

　　Whenthisisthecase，motoreffectsareapttofollow。Hencethestatesof[p。284]consentandbelief，characterizedbyreposeonthepurelyintellectualside，arebothintimatelyconnectedwithsubsequentpracticalactivity。

　　Thisinwardstabilityofthemind’scontentisascharacteristicofdisbeliefasofbelief。Butweshallpresentlyseethatweneverdisbelieveanythingexceptforthereasonthatwebelievesomethingelsewhichcontradictstherestthing。[2]Disbeliefisthusanincidentalcomplicationtobelief，andneednotbeconsideredbyitself。

　　Thetrueoppositeofbelief，psychologicallyconsidered，aredoubtandinquiry，notdisbelief。Inboththesestatesthecontentofourmindisinunrest，andtheemotionengenderedtherebyis，liketheemotionofbeliefitself，perfectlydistinct，butperfectlyindescribableinwords。Bothsortsofemotionmaybepathologicallyexalted。Oneofthecharmsofdrunkennessunquestionablyliesinthedeepeningofthesenseofrealityandtruthwhichisgainedtherein。Inwhateverlightthingsmaythenappeartous，theyseemmoreutterlywhattheyare，more’utterlyutter’thanwhenwearesober。Thisgoestoafullyunutterableextremeinthenitrousoxideintoxication，inwhichamansverysoulwillsweatwithconviction，andhebeallthewhileunabletotellwhatheisconvincedofatall。[3]ThepathologicalstateopposedtothissolidityanddeepeninghasbeencalledthequestioningmaniaGr&uuml；belsuchtbytheGermans。

　　Itissometimesfoundasasubstantiveaffection，paroxysmalorchronic，andconsistsintheinabilitytorestinanyconception，andtheneedofhavingitconfirmedandexplained’WhydoIstandherewhereIstand？’

　　’Whyisaglassaglass，achairachair’’Howisitthatmenareonlyofthesizetheyare？Whynotasbigashouses，’etc。，etc。[4][p。285]

　　Thereis，itistrue，anotherpathologicalstatewhichisasfarremovedfromdoubtasfrombelief，andwhichsomemayprefertoconsiderthepropercontraryofthelatterstateofmind。Irefertothefeelingthateverythingishollow，unreal，dead。Ishallspeakofthisstateagainuponalaterpage。ThepointIwishtonoticehereissimplythatbeliefanddisbeliefarebuttwoaspectsofonepsychicstate。

　　JohnMill，reviewingvariousopinionsaboutbelief，comestotheconclusionthatnoaccountofitcanbegiven:

　　What，\"hesays\"isthedifferencetoourmindsbetweenthinkingofarealityandrepresentingtoourselvesanimaginarypicture？IconfessIcanseenoescapefromtheopinionthatthedistinctionisultimateandprimordial。Thereisnomoredifficultyinholdingittobesothaninholdingthedifferencebetweenasensationandanideatobeprimordial。

　　Itseemsalmostanotheraspectofthesamedifference……Icannothelpthinking，therefore，thatthereisintheremembranceofarealfact，asdistinguishedfromthatofathought，anelementwhichdoesnotconsist……inadifferencebetweenthemereideaswhicharepresenttothemindinthetwocases。Thiselement，howsoeverwedefineit，constitutesbelief，andisthedifferencebetweenMemoryandImagination。Fromwhateverdirectionweapproach，thisdifferenceseemstocloseourpath。Whenmearriveatit，weseemtohavereached，asitwere，thecentralpointofourintellectualnature，presupposedandbuiltuponineveryattemptwemaketoexplainthemorereconditephenomenaofourmentalbeing。\"[5][p。286]

　　IfthewordsofMillbetakentoapplytothemeresubjectiveanalysisofbelief——tothequestion，Whatdoesitfeellikewhenwehaveit？——

　　theymustbeheld，onthewhole，tobecorrect。Belief，thesenseofreality，feelslikeitself——thatisaboutasmuchaswecansay。

　　Prof。Brentano，inanadmirablechapterofhisPsychologie，expressesthisbysayingthatconceptionandbeliefwhichhenamesjudgmentaretwodifferentfundamentalpsychicphenomena。WhatImyselfhavecalledVol。I，p。276the’object’ofthoughtmaybecomparativelysimple，like\"Ha！whatapain，\"or\"It-thunders\"；oritmaybecomplex，like\"Columbus-discovered-America-in-1492，’’

　　or\"There-exists-an-all-wise-Creator-of-the-world\"Ineithercase，however，themerethoughtoftheobjectmayexistassomethingquitedistinctfromthebeliefinitsreality。Thebelief，asBrentanosays，presupposesthemerethought:

　　\"Everyobjectcomesintoconsciousnessinatwofoldway，assimplythoughtof[vorgestellt][6]andasadmitted[anerkaant][7]ordenied。TherelationisanalogoustothatwhichisassumedbymostphilosophersbyKantnolessthanbyAristotletoobtainbetweenmerethoughtanddesire。Nothingiseverdesiredwithoutbeingthoughtof；butthedesiringisneverthelessasecondquitenewandpeculiarformofrelationtotheobject，asecondquitenewwayofreceivingitintoconsciousness。Nomoreisanythingjudged[i。e。，believedordisbelieved][8]whichisnotthoughtoftoo。Butwemustinsistthat，sosoonastheobjectofathoughtbecomestheobjectofanassentingorrejectingjudgment，ourconsciousnessstepsintoanentirelynewrelationtowardsit。Itisthentwicepresentinconsciousness，asthoughtof，andasheldforrealordenied；justaswhendesireawakensforit，itisboththoughtandsimultaneouslydesired。\"P。266。

　　Thecommonplacedoctrineof’judgment’isthatitconsistsinthecombinationof’ideas’bya’copula’intoa’proposition，’whichmaybeofvarioussorts，asaformative，negative，hypothetical，etc。Butwhodoesnotseethatinadisbelievedordoubtedorinterrogativeorconditionalproposition，theideasarecombinedinthesameidenticalwayinwhichtheyareinapropositionwhichissolidlybelieved？Thewayinwhichtheideasarecombinedwithinnerconstitutionthethoughtsobjectorcontent。Thatobjectissometimesanarticulatedwholewithrelationsbetweenitsparts，amongstwhichrelations，thatofpredicate[p。287]tosubjectmaybeone。

　　Butwhenwehavegotourobjectwithitsinnerconstitutionthusdefinedinaproposition，thenthequestioncomesupregardingtheobjectasawhole:’Isitarealobject？isthispropositionatruepropositionornot？’AndintheanswerYestothisquestionliesthatnewpsychicactwhichBrentanocalls’judgment，’butwhichIprefertocall’belief。’

　　Ineveryproposition，then，sofarasitisbelieved，questioned，ordisbelieved，fourelementsaretobedistinguished，thesubject，thepredicate，andtheirrelationofwhateversortitbe——theseformtheobjectofbelief——andfinallythepsychicattitudeinwhichourmindstandstowardsthepropositiontakenasawhole-andthisisthebeliefitself。

　　[9]

　　Admitting，then，thatthisattitudeisastateofconsciousnesssuigeneris，aboutwhichnothingmorecanbesaidinthewayofinternalanalysis，letusproceedtothesecondwayofstudyingthesubjectofbelief:Underwhatcircumstancesdowethinkthingsreal？Weshallsoonseehowmuchmatterthisgivesustodiscuss。THEVARIOUSORDERSOFREALITY。

　　Supposeanew-bornmind，entirelyblankandwaitingforexperiencetobegin。Supposethatitbeginsintheformsofvisualimpressionwhetherfaintorvividisimmaterialofalightedcandleagainstadarkbackground，andnothingelse，sothatwhilstthisimagelastsitconstitutestheentireuniverseknowntothemindinquestion。Suppose，moreovertosimplifythehypothesis，thatthecandleisonlyimaginary，andthatno’original’

　　ofitisrecognizedbyuspsychologistsoutside。Willthishallucinatorycandlebebelievedin，willithavearealexistenceforthemind？

　　Whatpossiblesenseforthatmindwouldasuspicionhavethatthecandlewasnotreal？Whatwoulddoubtordisbeliefofitimply？Whenwe，theonlookingpsychologists，saythecandleisunreal，wemeansomethingquitedefinite，viz。，thatthereisaworldknowntouswhichis[p。288]

　　real，andtowhichweperceivethatthecandledoesnotbelong；itbelongsexclusivelytothatindividualmind，hasnostatusanywhereelse，etc。

　　Itexists，tobesure，inafashion，foritformsthecontentofthatmind’shallucination；butthehallucinationitself，thoughunquestionablyitisasortofexistingfact，hasnoknowledgeofotherfacts；andsincethoseotherfactsaretherealitiesparexcellenceforus，andtheonlythingswebelievein，thecandleissimplyoutsideofourrealityandbeliefaltogether。

　　Bythehypothesis，however，themindwhichseesthecandlecanspinnosuchconsiderationsastheseaboutit，forofotherfacts，actualorpossible，ithasnoinklingwhatever。Thatcandleisitsall，itsabsolute。

　　Itsentirefacultyofattentionisabsorbedbyit。Itis，itisthat；itisthere；nootherpossiblecandle，orqualityofthiscandle，nootherpossibleplace，orpossibleobjectintheplace，noalternative，inshort，suggestsitselfasevenconceivable；sohowcanthemindhelpbelievingthecandlereal？Thesuppositionthatitmightpossiblynotdosois，underthesupposedconditions，unintelligible。[10]

　　ThisiswhatSpinonzalongagoannounced:

　　\"Letusconceiveaboy，\"hesaid，\"imaginingtohimselfahorse，andtakingnoteofnothingelse。Asthisimaginationinvolvestheexistenceofthehorse，andtheboyhasnoperceptionwhichannulsitsresistance，hewillnecessarilycontemplatethehorseaspresent，norwillhebeabletodoubtofitsexistence，howeverlittlecertainofithemaybe。Idenythatamaninsofarasheimagines[percipit][11]affirmsnothing。

　　Forwhatisittoimagineawingedhorsebuttoaffirmthat，thehorse[thathorse，namely][12]haswings？Forifthemindhadnothingbeforeitbutthewingedhorseitwouldcontemplatethesameaspresent，wouldhavenocausetodoubtofitsexistence，noranypowerofdissentingfromitsexistence，unlesstheimaginationofthewingedhorsewerejoinedtoanideawhichcontradicted[tollit][13]itsexistence。\"Ethics，11，49，Scholium。

　　Thesensethatanythingwethinkofisunrealcanonlycome，then，whenthatthingiscontradictedbysomeother[p。289]thingofwhichwethink。Anyobjectwhichremainsuncontradictedisipsofactobelievedandpositedasabsolutereality。

　　Now，howcomesitthatonethingthoughtofcanbecontradictedbyanother？

　　Itcannotunlessitbeginsthequarrelbysayingsomethinginadmissibleaboutthatother。Takethemindwiththecandle，ortheboywiththehorse。

　　Ifeitherofthemsay，’Thatcandleorthathorse，evenwhenIdon’tseeit，existsintheouterworld，’hepushesinto’theouterworld，’

　　anobjectwhichmaybeincompatiblewitheverythingwhichheotherwiseknowsofthatworld。Ifso，hemusttakehischoiceofwhichtoholdby，thepresentperceptionsortheotherknowledgeoftheworld。Ifheholdstotheotherknowledge，thepresentperceptionsarecontradicted，sofarastheirrelationtothatworldgoes。Candleandhorse，whatevertheymaybe，arenotexistentsinoutwardspace。Theyareexistents，ofcourse；theyarementalobjects；mentalobjectshaveexistenceasmentalobjects。Buttheyaresituatedintheirownspaces，thespaceinwhichtheyseverallyappear，andneitherofthosespacesisthespaceinwhichtherealitiescalled’theouterworld’exist。

　　Takeagainthehorsewithwings。IfImerelydreamofahorsewithwings，myhorseinterfereswithnothingelseandhasnottobecontradicted。Thathorse，itswings，anditsplace，areallequallyreal。Thathorseexistsnoother-wisethanaswinged，andismoreoverreallythere，forthatplaceexistsnootherwisethanastheplaceofthathorse，andclaimsasyetnoconnectionwiththeotherplacesoftheworld。ButifwiththishorseImakeaninroadintotheworldotherwiseknown，andsay，forexample，’ThatismyoldmareMaggie，havinggrownapairofwingswhereshestandsinherstall，’thewholecaseisaltered；fornowthehorseandplaceareidentifiedwithahorseandplaceotherwiseknown，andwhatisknownofthelatterobjectsisincompatiblewithwhatisperceivedwiththeformer。

　　’Maggieinherstallwithwings！Never！’Thewingsareunreal，then，visionary。

　　IhavedreamedalieaboutMaggieinherstall。