CertainlyachildnewlyborninBoston，whogetsasensationfromthecandle-flamewhichlightsthebedroom，orfromhisdiaper-pin，doesnotfeeleitheroftheseobjectsto[p。35]besituatedinlongitude72°；W。andlatitude41°；N。Hedoesnotfeelthemtobeinthethirdstoryofthehouse。Hedoesnotevenfeeltheminanydistinctmannertobetotherightortheleftofanyoftheothersensationswhichhemaybegettingfromotherobjectsintheroomatthesametime。Hedoesnot，inshort，knowanythingabouttheirspace-relationstoanythingelseintheworld。Theflamefillsitsownplace，thepainfillsitsownplace；butasyettheseplacesareneitheridentifiedwith，nordiscriminatedfrom，anyotherplaces。Thatcomeslater。Fortheplacesthusfirstsensiblyknownareelementsofthechild’sspace-worldwhichremainwithhimallhislife；andbymemoryandlaterexperiencehelearnsavastnumberofthingsaboutthoseplaceswhichatfirsthedidnotknow。
Buttotheendoftimecertainplacesoftheworldremaindefinedforhimastheplaceswherethosesensationswere；andhisonlypossibleanswertothequestionwhereanythingiswillbetosay’there，’andtonamesomesensationorotherlikethosefirstones，whichshallidentifythespot。Spacemeansbuttheaggregateofallourpossiblesensations。
Thereisnoduplicatespaceknownaliunde，orcreatedbyan’epoch-makingachievement’intowhichoursensations，originallyspaceless，aredropped。
Theybringspaceandallitsplacestoourintellect，anddonotderiveitthence。
Byhisbody，then，thechildlatermeanssimplythatplacewherethepainfromthepin，andalotofothersensationslikeit，wereorarefelt。Itisnomoretruetosaythathelocatesthatpaininhisbody，thantosaythathelocateshisbodyinthatpain。Botharetrue:thatpainispartofwhathemeansbythewordbody。Justsobytheouterworldthechildmeansnothingmorethanthatplacewherethecandle-flameandalotofothersensationslikeitarefelt。Henomorelocatesthecandleintheouterworldthanhelocatestheouterworldinthecandle。Onceagain，hedoesboth；forthecandleispartofwhathemeansby’outerworld。’
Thisitseemstomewillbeadmitted，andwillItrustbemadestillmoreplausibleinthechapteronthePerceptionofSpace。Butthelaterdevelopmentsofthisperceptionaresocomplicatedthatthesesimpleprinciplesget[p。36]easilyoverlooked。Oneofthecomplicationscomesfromthefactthatthingsmove，andthattheoriginalobjectwhichwefeelthemtobesplitsintotwoparts，oneofwhichremainsastheirwhereaboutsandtheothergoesofastheirqualityornature。Wethencontrastwheretheywerewithwheretheyare。
Ifwedonotmove，thesensationofwheretheywereremainsunchanged；butweourselvespresentlymove，sothatthatalsochanges；
andIwheretheywere’becomesnolongertheactualsensationwhichitwasoriginally，butasensationwhichwemerelyconceiveaspossible。Graduallythesystemofthesepossiblesensations，takesmoreandmoretheplaceoftheactualsensations。’Up’and’down’become’subjective’notions；
eastandwestgrowmore’correct’than’right’and’left’etc。；andthingsgetatlastmore’truly’locatedbytheirrelationtocertainidealfixedco-ordinatesthanbytheirrelationeithertoourbodiesortothoseobjectsbywhichtheirplacewasoriginallydefined。Nowthisrevisionofouroriginallocalizationsisacomplexaffair；andcontainssomefactswhichmayverynaturallycometobedescribedastranslocationswherebysensationsgetshovedfartherofthantheyoriginallyappeared。
Fewthingsindeedaremorestrikingthanthechangeabledistancewhichtheobjectsofmanyofoursensationsmaybemadetoassume。Afly’shummingmaybetakenforadistantsteam-whistle；
ortheflyitself，seenoutoffocus，mayforamomentgiveustheillusionofadistantbird。Thesamethingsseemmuchnearerormuchfarther，accordingaswelookatthemthroughoneendoranother，ofanopera-glass。Ourwholeopticaleducationindeedislargelytakenupwithassigningtheirproperdistancestotheobjectsofourretinalsensations。Aninfantwillgraspatthemoon；later，itissaid，heprojectsthatsensationtoadistancewhichheknowstobebeyondhisreach。Inthemuchquotedcaseofthe’younggentlemanwhowasbornblind，’andwhowas’couched’forthecataractbyMr。Chesselden，itisreportedofthepatientthat\"whenhefirstsaw，hewassofarfrommakinganyjudgmentaboutdistances，thathethoughtallobjectswhatevertouchedhiseyesasheexpresseditaswhat’hefeltdidhisskin。\"Andotherpatientsbornblind，butrelievedbysurgicalop-[p。37]eration，havebeendescribedasbringingtheirhandclosetotheireyestofeelfortheobjectswhichtheyatfirstsaw，andonlygraduallystretchingouttheirhandwhentheyfoundthatnocontactoccurred。Manyhaveconcludedfromthesefactsthatourearliestvisualobjectsmustseeminimmediatecontactwithoureyes。
Buttactileobjectsalsomaybeaffectedwithalikeambiguityofsituation。
Ifoneofthehairsofourheadbepulled，weareprettyaccuratelysensibleofthedirectionofthepullingbythemovementsimpartedtothehead。[45]Butthefeelingofthepullislocalized，notinthatpartofthehair’slengthwhichthefingershold，butinthescalpitself。Thisseemsconnectedwiththefactthatourhairhardlyservesatallasatactileorgan。Increatureswithvibrisse，however，andinthosequadrupedswhosewhiskersaretactileorgans，itcanhardlybedoubtedthatthefeelingisprojectedoutoftherootintotheshaftofthehairitself。Weourselveshaveanapproachtothiswhenthebeardasawhole，orthehairasawhole，istouched。Weperceivethecontactatsomedistancefromtheskin。
Whenfixedandhardappendagesofthebody，liketheteethandnails，aretouched，wefeelthecontactwhereitobjectivelyis，andnotdeeperin，wherethenerve-terminationslie。If，however，thetoothisloose，wefeeltwocontacts，spatiallyseparated，oneatitsroot，oneatitstop。
Fromthiscasetothatofahardbodynotorganicallyconnectedwiththesurface，butonlyaccidentallyincontactwithit，thetransitionisimmediate。Withthepointofacanewecantracelettersintheairoronawalljustaswiththefinger-tip；andinsodoingfeelthesizeandshapeofthepathdescribedbythecane’stipjustasimmediatelyas，withoutacane，weshouldfeelthepathdescribedbythetipofourfinger。Similarlythedraughtsman’simmediateperceptionseemstobeofthepointofhispencil，thesur-[p。38]geon’softheendofhisknife，theduellist’softhetipofhisrapierasitplungesthroughhisenemy’sskin。Whenonthemiddleofavibratingladder，wefeelnotonlyourfeetontheround，buttheladder’sfeetagainstthegroundfarbelow。Ifweshakealockedirongatewefeelthemiddle，onwhichourhandsrest，move，butweequallyfeelthestabilityoftheendswherethehingesandthelockare，andweseemtofeelallthreeatonce。
[46]Andyettheplacewherethecontactisreceivedisinallthesecasestheskin，whosesensationsaccordinglyaresometimesinterpretedasobjectsonthesurface，andatothertimesasobjectsalongdistanceoff。
WeshalllearninthechapteronSpacethatourfeelingsofourownmovementareprincipallyduetothesensibilityofourrotatingjoints。Sometimesbyfixingtheattention，sayonourelbow-joint，wecanfeelthemovementinthejointitself；butwealwaysaresimultaneouslyconsciousofthepathwhichduringthemovementourfinger-tipsdescribethroughtheair，andyetthesesamefinger-tipsthemselvesareinnowayphysicallymodifiedbythemotion。Ablowonourulnarnervebehindtheelbowisfeltboththereandinthefingers。Refrigerationoftheelbowproducespaininthefingers。Electriccurrentspassedthroughnerve-trunks，whetherofcutaneousorofmorespecialsensibilitysuchastheopticnerve，giverisetosensationswhicharevaguelylocalizedbeyondthenerve-tractstraversed。Personswhoselegsorarmshavebeenamputatedare，asiswellknown，apttopreserveanillusoryfeelingofthelosthandorfootbeingthere。Evenwhentheydonothavethisfeelingconstantly，itmaybeoccasionallybroughtback。Thissometimesistheresultofexcitingelectricallythenerve-trunksburiedinthestump。
\"Irecentlyfaradized，\"saysDr。Mitchell，\"acaseofdisarticulatedshoulderwithoutwarningmypatientofthepossibleresult。Fortwoyearshehadaltogetherceasedtofeelthelimb。Asthecurrentaffectedthebrachialplexusofnerveshesuddenlycriedaloud，’Ohthehand，——thehand！’andattemptedtoseizethemissingmember。
Thephantom[p。39]Ihadconjuredupswiftlydisappeared，butnospiritcouldhavemoreamazedtheman，sorealdiditseem。\"[47]
Nowtheapparentpositionofthelostextremityvaries。Oftenthefootseemsontheground，orfollowsthepositionoftheartificialfoot，whereoneisused。Sometimeswherethearmislosttheelbowwillseembent，andthehandinafixedpositiononthebreast。
Sometimes，again，thepositionisnon-natural，andthehandwillseemtobudstraightoutoftheshoulder，orthefoottobeonthesamelevelwiththekneeoftheremainingleg。Sometimes，again，thepositionisvague；
andsometimesitisambiguous，asinanotherpatientofDr。WeirMitchell’swho\"losthislegattheageofeleven，andremembersthatthefootbydegreesapproached，andatlastreachedtheknee。Whenhebegantowearanartificiallegitreassumedintimeitsoldposition，andheisneveratpresentawareofthelegasshortened，unlessforsometimehetalksandthinksofthestump，andofthemissingleg，when……thedirectionofattentiontothepartcausesafeelingofdiscomfort，andthesubjectivesensationofactiveandunpleasantmovementofthetoes。Withthesefeelingsreturnsatoncethedelusionofthefootasbeingplacedattheknee。\"
Allthesefacts，andotherslikethem，caneasilybedescribedasifoursensationsmightbeinducedbycircumstancestomigratefromtheiroriginallocalitynearthebrainornearthesurfaceofthebody，andtoappearfartheroff；andundercurrentcircumstances
toreturnagainafterhavingmigrated。Butalittleanalysisofwhathappensshowsusthatthisdescriptionisinaccurate。
Theobjectivitywithwhicheachofoursensationsoriginallycomestom，theroomyandspatialcharacterwhichisaprimitivepartofitscontent，isnotinthefirstinstancerelativetoanyothersensation。Thefirsttimeweopenoureyeswegetanopticalobjectwhichisaplace，butwhichisnotyetplacedinrelationtoanyotherobject，noridentifiedwithanyplaceotherwiseknown。Itisaplacewithwhichsofarweareonlyacquainted。Whenlaterweknowthatthissameplaceisin’front’ofus，thatonlymeansthatwehavelearnedsomethingaboutit，namely，thatitiscongruentwiththat[p。40]otherplace，called’front，’whichisgivenusbycertainsensationsofthearmandhandoroftheheadandbody。Butatthefirstmomentofouropticalexperience，eventhoughwealreadyhadanacquaintancewithourhead，hand，andbody，wecouldnotpossiblyknowanythingabouttheirrelationstothisnewseenobject。Itcouldnotbeimmediatelylocatedinrespectofthem。Howitsplaceagreeswiththeplaceswhichtheirfeelingsyieldisamatterofwhichonlylaterexperiencecaninformus；andinthenextchapterweshallseewithsomedetailhowlaterexperiencedoesthisbymeansofdiscrimination，association，selection，andotherconstantlyworkingfunctionsofthemind。When，therefore，thebabygraspsatthemoon，thatdoesnotmeanthatwhatheseesfailstogivehimthesensationwhichlieafterwardsknowsasdistance；itmeansonlythathehasnotlearnedatwhattactileormanualdistancethingswhichappearatthatvisualdistancesare。[48]Andwhenapersonjustoperatedforcataractgropesclosetohisfaceforfar-offobjects，thatonlymeansthesamething。Alltheordinaryopticalsignsofdifferingdistancesareabsentfromthepoorcreature’ssensationanyhow。
Hisvisionismonocularonlyoneeyebeingoperatedatatime；thelensisgone，andeverythingisoutoffocus；hefeelsphotophobia，lachrymation，andotherpainfulresidentsensationsoftheeyeballitself，whoseplacehehaslongsincelearnedtoknowintactileterms；whatwonder，then，thatthefirsttactilereactionwhichthenewsensationsprovokeshouldbeoneassociatedwiththetactilesituationoftheorganitself？Andasforhisassertionsaboutthematter，whatwonder，again，if，asProf。PaulJanetsays，theyarestillexpressedinthetactilelanguagewhichistheonlyoneheknows。\"Tobetouchedmeansforhimtoreceiveanimpressionwithoutfirstmakingamovement。\"Hiseyegetssuchanimpressionnow；
sohecanonlysaythattheobjectsaretouchingit。’
\"Allhislanguage，borrowedfromtouch，butappliedtotheobjectsofhissight，makeusthinkthatheperceivesdifferentlyfromourselves，[p。41]whereas，atbottom，itisonlyhisdifferentwayoftalkingaboutthesameexperience。[49]
Theothercasesoftranslocationofoursensationsareequallyeasilyinterpretedwithoutsupposingany’projection’
fromacentreatwhichtheyareoriginallyperceived。Unfortunatelythedetailsareintricate；andwhatIsaynowcanonlybemadefullyclearwhenwecometothenextchapter。Weshallthenseethatweareconstantlyselectingcertainofoursensationsasrealitiesanddegradingotherstothestatusofsignsofthese。Whenwegetoneofthesignswethinkoftherealitysignified；andthestrangethingisthatthentherealitywhichneednotbeitselfasensationatallatthetime，butonlyanideaissointerestingthatitacquiresanhallucinatorystrength，whichmayeveneclipsethatoftherelativelyuninterestingsignandentirelydivertourattentionfromthelatter。Thusthesensationstowhichourjointsgiverisewhentheyrotatearesignsofwhat，throughalargenumberofothersensations，tactileandoptical，wehavecometoknowasthemovementofthewholelimb。Thismovementofthewholelimbiswhatwethinkofwhenthejoint’snervesareexcitedinthatway；anditsplaceissomuchmoreimportantthanthejoint’splacethatoursenseofthelatteristakenup，sotospeak，intoourperceptionoftheformer，andthesensationofthemovementseemstodiffuseitselfintoourveryfingersandtoes。Butbyabstractingourattentionfromthesuggestionoftheentireextremitywecanperfectlywellperceivethesamesensationasifitwereconcentratedinonespot。Wecanidentifyitwithadifferentlylocatedtactileandvisualimageof’thejoint’itself。
Justsowhenwefeelthetipofourcaneagainsttheground。Thepeculiarsortofmovementofthehandimpossibleinonedirection，butfreeineveryotherwhichweexperiencewhenthetiptouches’theground，’isasigntousofthevisualandtactileobjectwhichwealready[p。42]knowunderthatname。Wethinkof’theground’
asbeingthereandgivingusthesensationofthiskindofmovement。Thesensation，wesay，comesfromtheground。Theground’splaceseemstobeitsplace；althoughatthesametime，andforverysimilarpracticalreasons，wethinkofanotheropticalandtactileobject，’thehand’namely，andconsiderthatitsplacealsomustbetheplaceofoursensation。
Inotherwords，wetakeanobjectorsensiblecontentA，andconfoundingitwithanotherobjectotherwiseknown，B，orwithtwoobjectsotherwiseknown，BandC，weidentifyitsplacewiththeirplaces。Butinallthisthereisno’projecting’suchastheextradition-philosopherstalkofofAoutofanoriginalplace；noprimitivelocationwhichitfirstoccupied，awayfromtheseothersensations，hastobecontradicted；
nonatural’centre，’fromwhichitisexpelled，exists。ThatwouldimplythatAaboriginallycametousindefinitelocalrelationswithothersensations，fortobeoutofBandCistobeinlocalrelationwiththemasmuchastobeinthemisso。ButitwasnomoreoutofBandCthanitwasinthemwhenitfirstcametous。Itsimplyhadnothingtodowiththem。Tosaythatwefeelasensation’sseattobe’inthebrain’or’againsttheeye’
or’undertheskin’istosayasmuchaboutitandtodealwithitinasnon-primitiveawayastosaythatitisamileoff。Theseareallsecondaryperceptions，waysofdefiningthesensation’sseatperaliud。Theyinvolvenumberlessassociations，identifications，andimaginations，andadmitagreatdealofvacillationanduncertaintyintheresult。[50]
Iconclude，then，thatthereisnotruthinthe’eccentricprojection’theory。Itisduetotheconfusedassumptionthatthebodilyprocesseswhichcauseasensationmustalsobeitsseat。
[51]Butsensationshavenoseatinthissense。They[p。43]becomeseatsforeachother，asfastasexperienceassociatesthemtogether；butthatviolatesnoprimitiveseatpossessedbyanyoneofthem。Andthoughoursensationscannotthensoanalyzeandtalkofthemselves，yetattheirveryfirstappearancequiteasmuchasatanylaterdatearetheycognizantofallthosequalitieswhichweendbyextractingandconceivingunderthenamesofobjectivity，exteriority，andextent。Itissurelysubjectivityandinferioritywhicharethenotionslatestacquiredbythehumanmind。[52]
[1]Somepersonswillsaythatweneverhaveareallysimpleobjectorcontent。Mydefinitionofsensationdoesnotrequirethesimplicitytobeabsolutely，butonlyrelatively，extreme。Itisworthwhileinpassing，however，towarnthereaderagainstacoupleofinferencesthatareoftenmade。Oneisthatbecausewegraduallylearntoanalyzesomanyqualitiesweoughttoconcludethattherearenoreallyindecomposablefeelingsinthemind。Theotheristhatbecausetheprocessesthatproduceoursensationsaremultiple，thesensationsregardedassubjectivefactsmustalsobecompound。Totakeanexample，toachildthetasteoflemonadecomesatfirstasasimplequality。Helaterlearnsboththatmanystimuliandmanynervesareinvolvedintheexhibitionofthistastetohiswind，andhealsolearnstoperceiveseparatelythesourness，thecoolness，thesweet，thelemonaroma，etc。，andtheseveraldegreesofstrengthofeachandallofthesethings，——
theexperiencefallingintoalargenumberofaspects，eachofwhichisabstracted，classed，named，etc。，andallofwhichappeartobetheelementarysensationsintowhichtheoriginal’lemonadeflavor’isdecomposed。Itisarguedfromthisthatthelatterneverwasthesimplethingwhichitseemed。IhavealreadycriticisedthissortofreasoninginChapterVIseepp。17ff。。Themindofthechildenjoyingthesimplelemonadeflavorandthatofthesamechildgrownupandanalysingitareintwoentirelydifferentconditions。Subjectivelyconsidered，thetwostatesofmindaretwoaltogetherdistinctsortsoffact。Thelatermentalstatesays’thisisthesameflavororfluidwhichthatearlierstateperceivedassimple，butthatdoesnotmakethetwostatesthemselvesidentical。Itisnothingbutacaseoflearningmoreandmoreaboutthesametopicsofdiscourseorthings——Manyofthesetopics，however，mustbeconfessedtoresistallanalysis，thevariouscolorsforexample。Hewhoseesblueandyellow’in’acertaingreenmeansmerelythatwhengreenisconfrontedwiththeseothercolorsheseesrelationsofsimilarity。Hewhoseesabstract’color’initmeansmerelythatheseesasimilaritybetweenitandalltheotherobjectsknownascolors。Similarityitselfcannotultimatelybeaccountedforbyanidenticalabstractelementburiedinallthesimilars，ashasbeenalreadyshown，p。492ff。Hewhoseesabstractpaleness，intensity，purity，inthegreenmeansothersimilaritiesstill。Thesearealloutwarddeterminationsofthatspecialgreen，knowledgesaboutit，zü；alligeAnischten，asHerbartwouldsay，notelementsofitscomposition。
ComparethearticlebyMeinongintheVierteliahrschriftfü；rwiss。
Phil。，xii。324。
[2]Seeabove，p。221
[3]ThosewhowishafullertreatmentthanMartin’sHumanBodyaffordsmayberecommendedtoBernstein’s’FiveSensesofMan，’intheInternationalScientificSeries，ortoLadd’sorWundt’sPhysiologicalPsychology。ThecompletestcompendiumisL。Hermann’sHandbuchderPhysiologie，Vol。III。
[4]\"Thesensationswhichwepostulate，asthesignsoroccasionsofourperceptions\"A。Seth:ScottishPhilosophy，p。89。\"Theirexistenceissupposedonlybecause，withoutthem，itwouldbeimpossibletoaccountforthecomplexphenomenawhicharedirectlypresentinconsciousness\"J。Dewey:Psychology，p。34。EvenasgreatanenemyofSensationasT。H。Greenhastoallowitasortofhypotheticalexistenceunderprotest。\"Perceptionpresupposesfeeling\"
Contemp。Review，vol。xxxi。p。747。Cf。alsosailpassagesasthoseinhisProlegomenatoEthics，§；§；48，49——Physiologically，thesensoryandthereproductiveorassociativeprocessesmaywaxandwaneindependentlyofeachother。Wherethepartdirectlyduetostimulationofthesense-organpreponderates，thethoughthasasensationalcharacter，anddiffersfromotherthoughtsinthesensationaldirection。Thosethoughtswhichliefarthestinthatdirectionwecallsensations，forpracticalconvenience，justaswecallconceptionsthosewhichlienearertheoppositeextreme。Butwenomorehaveconceptionspurethanwehavepuresensations。Ourmostrarefiedintellectualstatesinvolvesomebodilysensibility，justasourdullestfeelingshavesomeintellectualscope。
Common-senseandcommonpsychologyexpressthisbysayingthatthementalstateiscomposedofdistinctfractionalparts，oneofwhichIssensation，theotherconception。We，however，whobelieveeverymentalstatetobeanintegralthingp。276cannottalkthus，butmustspeakofthedegreeofsensationalorintellectualcharacter，orfunction，ofthementalstate。ProfessorHeringputs，asusual，hisfingerbetteruponthetruththananyoneelse。Writingofvisualperception，hesays:\"Itisinadmissibleinthepresentstateofourknowledgetoassertthatfirstandlastthesameretinalpicturearousesexactlythesamepuresensation，butthatthissensation，inconsequenceofpracticeandexperience，isdifferentlyinterpretedthelasttime，andelaboratedintoadifferentperceptionthefirst。Fortheonlyrealdataare，ontheonehand，thephysicalpictureontheretina，——andthatisbothtimesthesame；and，ontheotherhand，theresultantstateofconsciousnessausgelö；steEmpfindungscomplex——andthatisbothtimesdistinct。Ofanythirdthing，namely，apuresensationthrustbetweentheretinalandthementalpictures，weknownothing。Wecanthen，ifwewishtoavoidallhypothesis，onlysaythatthenervousapparatusreactsuponthesamestimulusdifferentlythelasttimefromthefirst，andthatinconsequencetheconscioussisdifferenttoo。\"Hermann’sHdbch。，iii。i。567-8。
[5]YetevenwriterslikeProf。Bainwilldeny，inthemostgratuitousway，thatsensationsknowanything。\"Itisevidentthatthemostrestrictedformofsensationdoesnotcontainanelementedge。Themerestateofmindcalledthesensationofscarletisedge，althoughanecessarypreparationforit。\"’Isnotknowaboutscarlet’isallthatProfessorBaincanrightfullysay。
[6]BysimpleideasofsensationLockemerelymeanssensations。
[7]Essayc。H。U。，bk。
ii。ch。xxiii。§；29；ch。xxv。§；9。
[8]Classicseditor’snote:James’insertion。
[9]Op。cit。Bk。
Iich。ii§；2。
[10]\"Sofarisitfrombeingtruethatwenecessarilyhaveasmanyfeelingsinconsciousnessatonetimeasthereareislestothesensethenplayedupon，thatitisafundamentallawofpuresensationthateachmomentarilystateoftheorganismyieldsbutonefeeling，howevernumerousmaybeItspartsanditsexposures……TothisoriginalUnityofconsciousnessitmakesnodifferencethatthetributariestothesinglefeelingarebeyondtheorganisminsteadofwithinit，inanoutsideobjectwithseveralsensibleproperties，insteadofinthelivingbodywithitsseveralsensitivefunctions……Theunitythereforeisriotmadeby’association’ofseveralcomponents；butthepluralityisformedbydissociationofunsuspectedvarietieswithintheunity；thesubstantivethingbeingnoproductofsynthesis，buttheresiduumofdifferentiation。\"J。Martineau:AStudyofReligion1888，p。192-4。ComparealsoF。H。Bradley，Logic，booki。chap。ii。
[11]Suchpassagesasthefollowingaboundinanti-sensationalistliterature:
\"Senseisakindofdull，confused，andstupidperceptionobtrudeduponthesoulfromwithout，wherebyitperceivesthealterationsandmotionswithinitsownbody，andtakescognizanceofindividualbodiesexistingroundaboutit，butdoesnotclearlycomprehendwhattheyarenorpenetrateintothenatureofthem，itbeingintendedbynature，asPlotinusspeaks，notsoproperlyforknowledgeasfortheuseofthebody。Forthesoulsufferingunderthatwhichitperceivesbywayofpassioncannotmasterorconquerit，thatistosay，knoworunderstandit。ForsoAnaxigorasinAristotleveryfairlyexpressesthenatureofknowledgeandintellectionunderthenotionofConquering。Whereforeitisnecessary，sincethemindunderstandsallthings，thatitshouldbefreefrommixtureandpassion，forthisend，asAnaxagoriasspeaks，thatitmaybeabletoknowandmasterandconqueritsobjects，thatistosay，toconquerandunderstandthem。InlikemannerPieus，inhisbookofSenseandMemory，makestosufferandtobe，conquered:
one，alsotoknowandtoconquer；forwhichreasonheconcludesthatthatwhichsuffersdothnotknow……Sensethatsuffersfromexternalobjectsliesasitwereprostrateunderthem，andisovercomebythem……Sensethereforeisacertainkindofdrowsyandsomnolentperceptionofthatpassivepartofthesoulwhichisasitwereasleepandactsconcretelywithit……Itisanenergyarisingfromthebodyandacertainkindofdrowsyorsleepinglifeofthesoulblendedtogetherwithit。Theperceptionsofwhichcompound，orofthesoulasitwerehalfasleepandhalfawake，areconfused，indistinct，turbid，andencumberedcogitationsverydifferentfromtheenergiesofthenoeticalpart，……whicharefree，clear，serene，satisfactory，andawakenedcogitations。Thatistosay，knowledges\"Etc。，etc。，etc。R。Cudworth:TreatiseconcerningEternalandImmutableMorality，bkiii。chap。ii。SimilarlyMalbranche:\"THÉ；ODORE——Oh，oh，Ariste！Godknowspain，pleasureandtherest。Buthedoesnotfeelthesethings。Heknowspain，sinceheknowswhatthatmodificationofthesoulisinwhichpainconsists。HeknowsitbecausehealonecausesitinusasIshallpresentlyprove，andheknowswhathedoes。Inaword，heknowsitbecausehisknowledgehasnobounds。Buthedoesnotfeelit，forifsohewouldbeunhappy。Toknowpain，then，isnottofeelit。ARISTE——
Thatistrue。Buttofeelitistoknowit，isitnot？THÉ；ODORE——
Noindeed，sinceGoddoesnotfeelitintheleast，andyetheknowsitperfectly。Butinordernottoquibbleaboutterms，ifyouwillhaveitthattofeelpainistoknowit，agreeathatitisnottoknowitclearly，thatitisnottoknowitbylightanbyevidence——inaword，thatitisnottoknowitsnature；inotherwordsspeakexactly，itisnottoknowitatall。Tofeelpain，forexample，istofeelourselvesunhappywithoutwellknowingeitherwhatweareoristhismodalityofourbeingwhichmakesusunhappy……Imposesilenceonyoursenses，yourimagination，andyourpassions，andyouwillhearthepurevoiceofinnertruth，theclearandevidentrepliesofourcommonmaster。Neverconfoundtheevidencewhichresultsfromthecomparisonofideaswiththelivelinessofthesensationswhichtouchandthrillyou。Thelivelieroursensationsandfeelingssentiments
are，themoredarknessdotheyshed。Themoreterribleoragreeableareourphantoms，andtheybodyandrealitytheyappeartohave，themoredangerousaretheyantoleadusastray。\"EntretienssurlaMé；taphysique，3meEntretienadinit。Malebranche’sTheodoreprudentlydoesnottrytoexplainGod’s’infinitefelicity’iscompatiblewithhisnotfeelingjoy。
[12]Green:Prolegomena，§；§；20，28。
[13]Introd。toHume，§；§；146，188。Itishardtotelljustwhatthisapostolichumanbeingbutstrenuouslyfeeblewritermeansbyrelation。Sometimesitseemstostandforsystemofrelatedfact。Theubiquityofthe’psychologist’sfallacy’seep。196inhispages，hisincessantleaningontheconfusionbetweenthethingknown，thethoughtthatknowsit，andthefartherthingsknownaboutthatthingandaboutthatthoughtbylaterandadditionalthoughts，makeitimpossibletoclearuphismeaning。Compare，however，utterancesinthetextsuchothersasthese:\"ThewakingofSelf-consciousnessfromthesleepofsenseisanabsolutenewbeginning，andnothingcancomewithinthe’crystalsphere’ofintelligenceexceptasitisdeterminedbyintelligence。
Whatsenseistosenseisnothingforthought。Whatsenseistothought，itisasdeterminedbythought。Therecan，therefore，beno’reality’insensationtowhichtheworldofthoughtcanbereferred。\"EdwardCaird’sPhilosophyofKant，1sted。pp。393-4。\"When，\"saysGreenagain，\"feelingapainorpleasureofheattobeconnectedwiththeactionofapproachingthefire，amInotreceivingarelationofwhichoneconstituent，atanyrate，isasimplesensation？ThetrueanswerisNo。\"\"Perception，initssimplestform——perceptionasthefirstsightortouchofanobjectinwhichisseenortouchedisrecognized——neitherisnorcontainssensation。Contemp。Rev。，xxxi。pp。746，750。\"Meresensationisintruthaphrasethatrepresentsnoreality。\"\"Merefeeling，then，asamatterunformedbythought，hasnoplaceintheworldoffacts，inthecosmosofpossibleexperience。\"ProglegomenatoEthics，§；§；
46，50。——Ihaveexpressedmyselfalittlemorefullyonthissubjectinmind，x。27ff。
[14]Stumpf:Tonpsychologie，i。Pp。7，8。Hobbes’sphrase，sentiresemperidemetnonsentireadidemrecidunt，isgenerallytreatedastheoriginalstatementoftherelativitydoctrine。J。S。MillExamn。ofHamilton，p。6andBainSensesandIntellect。
p。321；EmotionsandWill，pp。550，570-2；Logic，i。p。2；BodyandMind，p。81aresubscriberstothisdoctrinealsoJ。S。Mill’sanalysis，J。
S。Mill’sedition，ii。11，12。
[15]Wecansteadilyhearanoteforhalfanhour。Thedifferencebetweenthesensesaremarked。
Smellandtasteseemsoontogetfatigued。
[16]Inthepopularminditismixedupwiththatentirelydifferentdoctrineofthe’RelativityofKnowledge’preachedbyHamiltonandSpencer。Thisdoctrinesaysthatourknowledgeisrelativetous，andisnotoftheobjectasthelatterisinitself。Ithasnothingtodowiththequestionwhichwehavebeendiscussing，ofwhetherourobjectsofknowledgecontainabsolutetermsorconsistaltogetherofrelations。
[17]Whatfollowsinbrackets，asfarasp。27，isfromthepenofmyfriendandpupilMr。E。
B。Delabarre。
[18]Classicseditor’snote:James’insertion。
[19]Thesephenomenahavecloseanaloguesinthephenomenaofcontrastpresentedbythetemperature-senseseeW。PreyerinArchivf。d。gesPhys。，Bd。xxv。p。79ff。。Successivecontrasthereisshowninthefactthatawarmsensationappearswarmerifacoldonehasjustpreviouslybeenexperienced；andacoldonecolder，iftheprecedingonewaswarm。Ifafingerwhichhasbeenplungedinhotwater，andanotherwhichhasbeenincoldwater，bebothimmersedinlukewarmwater，thesamewaterappearscoldtotheformerfingerandwarmtothelatter。Insimultaneouscontrast，asensationofwarmthonanypartoftheskintendstoinducethesensationofcoldinitsimmediateneighborhood；
andviceversá；。Thismaybeseenifwepresswiththepalmontwometalsurfacesofaboutinchandahalfsquareandthree-fourthsinchapart；
theskinbetweenthemappearsdistinctlywarmer。Soalsoasmallobjectofexactlythetemperatureofthepalmappearswarmifacoldobject，andcoldifawarmobject，touchtheskinnearit。
[20]Helmholtz，Physiolog。
Optik，p。392。
[21]Loc。cit。
p。407。
[22]Loc。cit。
p。408。
[23]Loc。cit。
p。406。
[24]E。Hering，inHermann’sHandbuchd。Physiologie，iii。1，p。565。
[25]Hering:’ZurLehrevomLichtsinne。’——Oftheseexperimentsthefollowingfoundonp。24
ff。maybecitedasatypicalone:\"Fromdarkgraypapercuttwostrips3-4cm。longand½；cm。wide，andlaythemonabackgroundofwhichonehalfiswhiteandtheotherhalfdeepblack，insuchawaythatonestripliesoneachsideoftheborder-lineandparalleltoit，andatleast1cm。distantfromit。Fixate½；to1minuteapointontheborder-linebetweenthestrips。Onestripappearsmuchbrighterthantheother。Closeandcovertheeyes，andthenegativeafter-imageappears……Thedifferenceinbrightnessofthestripsintheafter-imageisingeneralmuchgreaterthanitappearedindirectvision……Thisdifferenceinbrightnessofthestripsbynomeansalwaysincreasesanddecreaseswiththedifferenceinbrightnessofthetwohalvesoftilebackground……phaseoccursinwhichthedifferenceinbrightnessofthetwohalvesthebackgroundentirelydisappears，andyetbothafter-imagesofthestripsarestillveryclear，oneofthembrighterandonedarkerthanthebackground，whichisequallybrightonbothhalves。Herecannolongerbeanyquestionofcontrast-effect，becausetheconditiosinequanonofcontrast，namely，thedifferingbrightnessoftheground，isnolongerpresent。Thisprovesthatthedifferentbrightnessoftheafter-imagesofthestripsmusthaveitsgroundinadifferentstateofexcitationofthecorrespondingportionsoftheretina，andfromthisfollowsfurtherthatboththeseportionsoftheretinaweredifferentlystimulatedduringtheoriginobservation；
forthedifferentafter-effectdemandshereadifferenteffect……Intheoriginalarrangement，theobjectivelysimilarstripsappearedofdifferentbrightness，becausebothcorrespondingportionsretinaweretrulydifferentlyexcited。\"
[26]Helmholtz，Physiolog。
Optik，p。407。
[27]InArchivf。d。
ges。Physiol。，Bd。XLI。S。1ff。
[28]Helmholtz，loc。
cit。p。412。
[29]SeeHering:Archiv。
f。d。ges。Physiol。，Bd。XLI。S。358ff。
[30]Hering:Archivf。d。ges。Physiol。，Bd。XL。B。172ff。；Delabarre:AmericanJournalofPsychology，ii。636。
[31]Hering:Archivf。d。ges。Physiol。，Bd。XLI。S。91ff。
[32]DieGesichtsempfindungenu。ihreAnalyse，p。128。
[33]Classicseditor’snote:James’insertion。
[34]Mr。Delabarre’scontributionendshere。
[35]Physiol。Psych。，i。351，458-60。ThefullinanityofthelawofrelativityisbesttobeseeninWundt’streatment，wherethegreat’allgemeinerGesetzderBeziehung，’invokedtoaccountforWeber’slawaswellasforthephenomenaofcontrastandmanyothermatters，canonlybedefinedasatendencytofeelallthingsinrelationtoeachother！Blessitslittlesoul！Butwhydoesitchangethethingsso，whenitthusfeelstheminrelation？
[36]Ladd:Physiol。
Psych。，p。348。
[37]Mind，x。567。
[38]Zwangsmä；ssigeLichtempfindungdurchSchallLeipzig，1881。
[39]Ptlü；ger’sArchiv，XLII。154。
[40]Classicseditor’snote:James’insertion。
[41]PhysiologicalPsychology，385，387。SeealsosuchpassagesasthatinBain:TheSensesandtheIntellect，pp。364-6。
[42]Especiallymustweavoidallattempts，whetheravowedorconcealed，toaccountforthespatialqualitiesofthepresentationsofsensebymerelydescribingthequalitiesofthesimplesensationsandthemodesoftheircombination。
Itispositionandextensioninspacewhichconstitutestheverypeculiarityoftheobjectsasnolongermeresensationsoraffectionsofthemind。Assensations，theyareneitheroutofourselvesnorpossessedofthequalitiesindicatedbythewordspread-out。\"Ladd，op。cit。p。
391。
[43]A。Riehl:DerPhilosophischerKriticismus，Bd。ii。Theilii。p。64。
[44]OnIntelligence，partii。bk。ii。chap。ii。§；§；vii，viii。Comparesuchstatementsasthese:\"TheconsequenceisthatwhenasensationhasforItsusualconditionthepresenceofanobjectmoreorlessdistantfromourbodies，andexperiencehasoncemadeusacquaintedwiththisdistance，weshallsituateoursensationatthisdistance——This，infact，isthecasewithsensationsofhearingandsight。Theperipheralextremityoftheacousticnerveisinthedeep-seatedchamberofthecar。Thatoftheopticnerveisinthemostinnerrecessoftheeye。Butstill，inourpresentstate，weneversituateoursensationsofsoundorcolorintheseplaces，butwithoutus，andoftenataconsiderabledistancefromus……Alloursensationsofcolorarethusprojectedoutofourbody，andclothemoreorlessdistantobjects，furniture，walls，houses，trees，thesky，andtherest。Thisiswhy，whenweafterwardsreflectonthem，weceasetoattributethemtoourselves；theyarealienatedanddetachedfromus，sofarastoappeardifferentfromus。Projectedfromthenervoussurfaceinwhichwelocalizethemajorityoftheothers，thetiewhichconnectedthemtotheothersandtoourselvesisundone……Thus，alloursensationsarewronglysituated，andtheredcolorisnomoreextendedonthearm-chairthanthesensationoftinglingissituatedatmyfingers’ends。Theyareallsituatedinthesensorycentresoftheencephalon；allappearsituatedelsewhere，andacommonlawallotstoeachofthemitsapparentsituation。\"Vol。ii。pp。47-53。——SimilarlySchopenhauer:
\"Iwillnowshowthesamebythesenseofsight。Theimmediatedatumisherelimitedtothesensationoftheretinawhich，itistrue，admitsofconsiderablediversity，butatbottomrevertstotheimpressionoflightanddarkwiththeirshades，andthatofcolors。Thissensationisthroughandthroughsubjective，thatis，insideoftheorganismandundertheskin。\"
Schopenhauer:SatzvomGrunde，p。58。ThisphilosopherthenenumeratesseriatimwhattheIntellectdoestomaketheoriginallysubjectivesensationobjective:1itturnsitbottomsideup；2itreducesitsdoublenesstosingleness；3itchangesitsflatnesstosolidity；and4itprojectsittoadistancefromtheeye。Again:\"Sensationsarewhatwecalltheimpressionsonoursenses，insofarastheycometoourconsciousnessasstatesofourownbody，especiallyofournervousapparatus；wecallthemperceptionswhenweformoutofthemtherepresentationofouterobjects。\"Helmholtz:Tonempfindungen，1870，p。101。——Oncemore:
\"Sensationisalwaysaccomplishedinthepsychiccentres，butitmanifestsitselfattheexcitedpartoftheperiphery。Inotherwords，oneisconsciousofthephenomenoninthenervouscentres……butoneperceivesitintheperiphericorgans。Thisphenomenondependsontheexperienceofthesensationsthemselves，inwhichthereisareflectionofthesubjectivephenomenonandatendencyonthepartofperceptiontoreturnasitweretotheexternalcausewhichhasrousedtilementalstatebecausethelatterisconnectedwiththeformer。\"Sergi:PsychologiePhysiologiqueParis，1888，p。189。——TheclearestandbestpassageIknowisinLiebmann:
DerObjectiveAnblick1869，pp。67-72，butitisunfortunatelytoolongtoquote。
[45]ThisisprovedbyWeber’sdeviceofcausingtheheadtobefirmlypressedagainstasupportbyanotherperson，whereuponthedirectionoftractionceasestobeperceived。
[46]Lotze:Med。Psych。，428-433；Lipps:GrundtatsachendesSeelenlebens，582。
[47]InjuriestoNervesPhiladelphia，1872，p。350ff。
[48]Inrealityitprobablymeansonlyarestlessmovementofdesire，whichhemightmakeevenafterhehadbecomeawareofhisimpotencetotouchtheobject。
[49]RevuePhilosophique，vii。p。1ff。，anadmirablecriticalarticle，inthecourseofwhichM。
Janetgivesabibliographyofthecasesinquestion。SeealsoDunan:ibid。
xxv。165-7。TheyarealsodiscussedandsimilarlyInterpretedbyT。K。
Abbot:SightandTouch1864，chapterx。
[50]Theintermediaryandshortenedlocationsofthelostbandandfootintheamputationcasesalsoshowthis。Itiseasytoseewhythephantomfootmightcontinuetofollowthepositionoftheartificialone。ButIconfessthatIcannotexplainitshalfway-positions。
[51]Itisfromthisconfusedassumptionthatthetime-honoredriddlecomes，ofhow，withanupside-downpictureontheretina，wecanseethingsright-sideup。Ourconsciousnessisnaivelysupposedtoinhabitthepictureandtofeelthepicture’spositionasrelatedtootherobjectsofspace。Butthetruthisthatthepictureisnon-existenteitherasahabitatorasanythingelse，forimmediateconsciousness。Ournotionofitisanenormouslylateconception。Theouterobjectisgivenimmediatelywithallthosequalitieswhichlaterarenamedanddeterminedinrelationtoothersensations。The’bottom’ofthisobjectiswhereweseewhatbytouchweafterwardsknowasourfeet，the’top’istheplaceinwhichweseewhatweknowasotherpeople’sheads，etc。，etc。BerkeleylongagomadethismatterperfectlyclearseehisEssaytowardsanewTheoryofVision，93-98，113-118。
[52]Forfulljustificationthereadermustseethenextchapter。Hemayobject，againstthesummaryaccountgivennow，thatinababe’simmediatefieldofvisionthevariousthingswhichappeararelocatedrelativelytoeachotherfromtheoutset。Iadmitthatifdiscriminated，theywouldappearsolocated。
Buttheyarepartsofthecontentofonesensation，notsensationsseparatelyexperienced，suchasthetextisconcernedwith。Thefullydeveloped’world，’
inwhichalloursensationsultimatelyfindlocation，isnothingbutanimaginaryobjectframedafterthepatternofthefieldofvision，bytheadditionandcontinuationofonesensationuponanotherinanorderlyandsystematicway。IncorroborationofmytextImustrefertopp。57-60ofRiehl’sbookquotedaboveonpage32，andtoUphues:WahrnehmungundEmpfiudung1888，especiallytheEinleitungandpp。51-61。ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James1890Chapter18ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames1890CHAPTERXVIII。IMAGINATION。
Sensations，onceexperienced，modifythenervousorganism，sothatcopiesofthemariseagaininthemindaftertheoriginaloutwardstimulusisgone。Nomentalcopy，however，canariseinthemind，ofanykindofsensationwhichhasneverbeendirectlyexcitedfromwithout。
Theblindmaydreamofsights，thedeafofsounds，foryearsaftertheyhavelosttheirvisionorhearing；[1]
butthemanborndeafcanneverbemadetoimaginewhatsoundislike，norcanthemanbornblindeverhaveamentalvision。InLocke’swords，alreadyquoted，\"themindcanframeuntoitselfnoonenewsimpleidea。\"Theoriginalsofthemallmusthavebeengivenfromwithout。Fantasy，orImagination，arethenamesgiventothefacultyofreproducingcopiesoforiginalsoncefelt。Theimaginationiscalled’reproductive’whenthecopiesareliteral；productive’whenelementsfromdifferentoriginalsarerecombinedsoastomakenewwholes。
After-imagesbelongtosensationratherthantoimagination；sothatthemostimmediatephenomenaofimaginationwouldseemtobethosetardierimagesduetowhattheGermanscallSinnesgedä；chtnisswhichwerespokenofinVol。1，p。647，——coercivehauntingsofthemindbyechoesofunusualexperiencesforhoursafterthelatterhavetakenplace。Thephenomenaordinarilyascribedtoimagination，however，arethosementalpicturesofpossiblesensible[p。45]experiences，towhichtheordinaryprocessesofassociativethoughtgiverise。
Whenrepresentedwithsurroundingsconcreteenoughtoconstituteadate，thesepictures，whentheyrevive，formrecollection。WehavealreadystudiedthemachineryofrecollectioninChapterXVI。Whenthementalpicturesareofdatafreelycombined，andreproducingnopastcombinationexactly，wehaveactsofimaginationproperlysocalled。OURIMAGESAREUSUALLYVAGUE。
Fortheordinary’analytic’psychology，eachsensibly，discernibleelementoftheobjectimaginedisrepresentedbyitsownseparateidea，andthetotalobject，isimaginedbya’cluster’
or’gang’ofideas。Wehaveseenabundantreasontorejectthisviewseep。276ff。。Animaginedobject，howevercomplex，isatanyonemomentthoughtinoneidea，whichisawareofallitsqualitiestogether。IfI
slipintotheordinarywayoftalking，andspeakofvariousideas’combining，’
thereaderwillunderstandthatthisisonlyforpopularityandconvenience，andhewillnotconstrueitintoaconcessiontotheatomistictheoryinpsychology。
Humewastheherooftheatomistictheory。
Notonlywereideascopiesoforiginalimpressionsmadeonthesense-organs，buttheywere，accordingtohim，completelyadequatecopies，andwereallsoseparatefromeachotherastopossessnomannerofconnection。Humeprovesideasmtheimaginationtobecompletelyadequatecopies，notyappealtoobservation，butbyapriorireasoning，asfollows:
\"Themindcannotformanynotionofquantityorquality，withoutformingaprecisenotionofthedegreesofeach，\"for\"’tisconfessedthatnoobjectcanappeartothesenses，orinotherwords，thatnoimpression[2]canbecomepresenttothemind，withoutbeingdeterminedinitsdegreesbothofquantityandquality。Theconfusioninwhichimpressionsaresometimesinvolvedproceedsonlyfromtheirfaintnessandunsteadiness，notfromanycapacityinthemindtoreceiveanyimpression，whichinitsrealexistencehasnoparticulardegreenorproportion。Thatisacontradictioninterms；andevenimpliestheflattest[p。46]ofallcontradictions，viz。，that’tispossibleforthesamethingbothtobeandnottobe。Nowsinceallideasarederivedfromimpressions，andarenothingbutcopiesandrepresentationsofthem，whateveristrueoftheonemustbeacknowledgedconcerningtheother。Impressionsandideasdifferonlyintheirstrengthandvivacity。
Theforegoingconclusionisnotfoundedonanyparticulardegreeofvivacity。
Itcannotthereforebeaffectedbyanyvariationinthatparticular。Anideaisaweakerimpression；andasastrongimpressionmustnecessarilyhaveadeterminatequantityandquality，thecasemustbethesamewithitscopyorrepresentative。\"[3]
Theslightestintrospectiveglancewillshowtoanyonethefalsityofthisopinion。Humesurelyhadimagesofhisownworkswithoutseeingdistinctlyeverywordandletteruponthepageswhichfloatedbeforehismind’seye。Hisdictumisthereforeanexquisiteexampleofthewayinwhichamanwillbeblindedbyaprioritheoriestothemostflagrantfacts。Itisaratherremarkablething，too，thatthepsychologistsofHume’sownempiricistschoolhave，asarule，beenmoreguiltyofthisblindnessthantheiropponents。Thefundamentalfactsofconsciousnesshavebeen，onthewhole，moreaccuratelyreportedbythespiritualisticwriters。NoneofHume’spupils，sofarasIknow，untilTaineandHuxley，evertookthepainstocontradicttheopinionoftheirmaster。Prof。HuxleyinhisbrilliantlittleworkonHumesetthematterstraightinthefollowingwords:
\"Whencompleximpressionsorcomplexideasarereproducedasmemories，itisprobablethatthecopiesnevergiveallthedetailsoftheoriginalswithperfectaccuracy，anditiscertainthattheyrarelydoso。Noonepossessesamemorysogood，thatifhehasonlyonceobservedanaturalobject，asecondinspectiondoesnotshowhimsomethingthathehasforgotten。Almostall，ifnotall，ourmemoriesarethereforesketches，ratherthanportraits，oftheoriginals——thesalientfeaturesareobvious，whilethesubordinatecharactersareobscureorunrepresented。
\"Now，whenseveralcompleximpressionswhicharemoreorlessdifferentfromoneanother——letussaythatoutoftenimpressionsineach，sixarethesameinall，andfouraredifferentfromalltherest——aresuccessivelypresentedtothemind，itiseasytoseewhatmustbethenatureoftheresult。Therepetitionofthesixsimilarimpressionswillstrengthenthesixcorrespondingelementsofthecomplexidea，[p。47]whichwillthereforeacquiregreatervividness；whilethefourdifferingimpressionsofeachwillnotonlyacquirenogreaterstrengththantheyhadatfirst，but，inaccordancewiththelawofassociation，theywillalltendtoappearatonce，andwillthusneutralizeoneanother。
\"Thismentaloperationmayberenderedcomprehensiblebyconsideringwhattakesplaceintheformationofcompoundphotographswhentheimagesofthefacesofsixsitters，forexample，areeachreceivedonthesamephotographicplate，forasixthofthetimerequisitetotakeoneportrait。Thefinalresultisthatallthosepointsinwhichthesixfacesagreearebroughtoutstrongly，whileallthoseinwhichtheydifferareleftvague；andthuswhatmaybetermedagenericportraitofthesix，incontradistinctiontoaspecificportraitofanyone，isproduced。
\"Thusourideasofsinglecompleximpressionsareincompleteinoneway，andthoseofnumerous，moreorlesssimilar，compleximpressionsareincompleteinanotherway；thatistosay，theyaregeneric，notspecific。Andhenceitfollowsthatourideasoftheimpressionsinquestionarenot，inthestrictsenseoftheword，copiesofthoseimpressions；while，atthesametime，theymayexistinthemindindependentlyoflanguage。
\"Thegenericideaswhichareformedfromseveralsimilar，butnotidentical，complexexperiencesarewhatarecalledabstractorgeneralideas；andBerkeleyendeavoredtoprovethatallgeneralideasarenothingbutparticularideasannexedtoacertainterm，whichgivesthemamoreextensivesignification，andmakesthemrecall，uponoccasion，otherindividualswhicharesimilartothem。Humesaysthatheregardsthisas’oneofthegreatestandthemostvaluablediscoveriesthathasbeenmadeoflateyearsintherepublicofletters，’andendeavorstoconfirmitinsuchamannerthatitshallbe’putbeyondalldoubtandcontroversy。’
\"Imayventuretoexpressadoubtwhetherhehassucceededinhisobject；butthesubjectisanabstruseone；andImustcontentmyselfwiththeremark，thatthoughBerkeley’sviewappearstobelargelyapplicabletosuchgeneralideasasareformedafterlanguagehasbeenacquired，andtoallthemoreabstractsortofconceptions，yetthatgeneralideasofsensibleobjectsmayneverthelessbeproducedinthewayindicated，andmayexistindependentlyoflanguage。Indreams，oneseeshouses，trees，andotherobjects，whichareperfectlyrecognizableassuch，butwhichremindoneoftheactualobjectsasseenIoutofthecorneroftheeye，orofthepicturesthrownbyabadly-focussedmagiclantern。Amanaddressesuswhoislikeafigureseenintwilight，orwetravelthroughcountrieswhereeveryfeatureofthesceneryisvague；theoutlinesofthehillsareill-marked，andtherivershavenodefinedbanks。
Theyare，inshort，genericideasofmanypastimpressionsofmen，hills，andrivers。Ananatomistwhooccupieshimselfintentlywiththeexaminationofseveralspecimensofsomenewkindofanimal，incourseoftimeacquiressovividaconceptionofitsformandstruc-[p。48]turethattheideamaytakevisibleshapeandbecomeasortofwakingdream。Butthefigurewhichthuspresentsitselfisgeneric，notspecific。Itisnocopyofanyonespecimen，but，moreorless，ameanoftheseries；andthereseemsnoreasontodoubtthatthemindsofchildrenbeforetheylearntospeak，andofdeaf-mutes，arepeopledwithsimilarlygeneratedgenericideasofsensibleobjects。\"[4]AreVagueImages’AbstractIdeas’？
TheonlypointwhichIamtemptedtocriticiseinthisaccountisProf。Huxley’sidentificationofthesegenericimageswith’abstractorgeneralideas’inthesenseofuniversalconceptions。
Tainegivesthetruerview。Hewrites:
\"SomeyearsagoIsawinEngland，inKewGardens，forthefirsttime，araucarias，andIwalkedalongthebedslookingatthesestrangeplants，withtheirrigidbarkandcompact，short，scalyleaves，ofasombregreen，whoseabrupt，rough，bristlingformcutinuponthefinesoftly-lightedturfofthefreshgrass-plat。IfInowinquirewhatthis，experiencehasleftinme，Ifind，first，thesensiblerepresentationofanaraucaria；infact，Ihavebeenabletodescribealmostexactlytheformandcoloroftheplant。Butthereisadifferencebetweenthisrepresentationandtheformersensations，ofwhichitisthepresentecho。Theinternalsemblance，fromwhichIhavejustmademydescription，isvague，andmypastsensationswereprecise。For，assuredly，eachofthearaucariasI
sawthenexcitedinmeadistinctvisualsensation；therearenotwoabsolutelysimilarplantsinnature；Iobservedperhapstwentyorthirtyaraucarias；
withoutadoubteachoneofthemdifferedfromtheothersinsize，ingirth，bythemoreorlessobtuseanglesofitsbranches，bythemoreorlessabruptjuttingoutofitsscales，bythestyleofitstexture；consequently，mytwentyorthirtyvisualsensationsweredifferent。Butnooneofthesesensationshascompletelysurvivedinitsecho；thetwentyorthirtyrevivalshavebluntedoneanother；thusupsetandagglutinatedbytheirresemblancetheyareconfoundedtogether，andmypresentrepresentationistheirresidueonly。Thisistheproduct，orratherthefragment，whichisdepositedinus，whenevehavegonethroughaseriesofsimilarfactsorindividuals，Ofournumerousexperiencesthereremainonthefollowingdayfourorfivemoreorlessdistinctrecollections，which，obliteratedthemselves，leavesbehindinusasimplecolorless，vaguerepresentation，intowhichenterascomponentsvariousrevivingsensations，inanutterlyfeeble，incomplete，andabortivestate——Butthisrepresentationisnotthegeneralandabstractidea。Itisbutitsaccompaniment，and，ifImaysayso，theorefromwhichitisextracted。Fortherepresentation，thoughbadly，sketched，isasketch，thesensiblesketchofadistinctindividual。
Butmyabstractideacorrespondstothewholeclass；itdiffers，thenfromtherepresentationofinindividual——
Moreover，myabstractidea[p。49]isperfectlyclearanddeterminate；
nowthatIpossessit，Ineverfalltorecognizeanaraucariaamongthevariousplantswhichmaybeshownme；itdiffersthenfromthecoilusedandfloatingrepresentationIhaveofsomeparticulararaucaria。\"[5]
Inotherwords，ablurredpictureisjustasmuchasinglementalfactasasharppictureis；andtheuseofeitherpicturebythemindtosymbolizeawholeclassofindividualsisanewmentalfunction，requiringsomeothermodificationofconsciousnessthanthemereperceptionthatthepictureisdistinctornot。Imaybewailtheindistinctnessofmymentalimageofmyabsentfriend。Thatdoesnotpreventmythoughtfrommeaninghimalone，however。AndImaymeanallmankind，withperhapsaverysharpimageofonemaninmymind’seye。ThemeaningisafunctionofthemoreItransitive’partsofconsciousness，the’fringe’ofrelationswhichwefeelsurroundingtheimage，bethelattersharpordim。Thiswasexplainedinapreviousplaceseep。473ff。，especiallythenotetopage477，andIwouldnottouchuponthematteratallherebutforitshistoricalinterest。
Ourideasorimagesofpastsensibleexperiencesmaythenbeeitherdistinctandadequateordim，blurred，andincomplete。
ItislikelythatthedifferentdegreesinwhichdifferentmenareabletomakethemsharpandcompletehashadsomethingtodowithkeepingupsuchphilosophicdisputesasthatofBerkeleywithLockeoverabstractideas。Lockehadspokenofourpossessing’thegeneralideaofatriangle’
which\"mustbeneitherobliquenorrectangle，neitherequilateral，equicrural，norscalenon，butallandnoneoftheseatonce。\"Berkeleysays:
\"Ifanymanhasthefacultyofframinginhismindsuchanideaofatriangleasisheredescribed，itisinvaintopretendtodisputehimoutofit，norwouldIgoaboutit。AllIdesireisthatthereaderwouldfullyandcertainlyinformhimselfwhetherhehassuchanideaorno。\"[6]
Untilveryrecentyearsitwassupposedbyallphilosophersthattherewasatypicalhumanmindwhichallindividualmindswerelike，andthatpropositionsofuniversalvaliditycouldbelaiddownaboutsuchfacultiesas’the[p。50]Imagination。’Lately，however，amassofrevelationshavepouredin，whichmakeusseehowfalseaviewthisis。Thereareimaginations，not’TheImagination，’andtheymustbestudiedindetail。INDIVIDUALSDIFFERINIMAGINATION。
ThefirstbreakerofgroundinthisdirectionwasFechner，in1860。Fecherwasgiftedwithunusualtalentforsubjectiveobservation，andinchapterxivofhis’Psychophysik’hegavetheresultsofamostcarefulcomparisonofhisownopticalafter-images，withhisopticalmemory-pictures，togetherwithaccountsbyseveralotherindividualsoftheiropticalmemory-pictures。[7]Theresultswastoshowagreat[p。
51]personaldiversity。\"Itwouldbeinteresting，\"hewrites，toworkupthesubjectstatistically；andIregretthatotheroccupationshavekeptmefromfulfillingmyearlierintentiontoproceedinthisway。\"
Fechner’sintentionwasindependentlyexecutedbyMr。Galton，thepublicationofwhoseresultsin1880maybesaidtohavemadeaneraindescriptivePsychology。
\"Itisnotnecessary，\"saysGalton，\"totroublethereaderwithmyearlytentativesteps。Aftertheinquiryhadbeenfairlystartedittooktheformofsubmittingacertainnumberofprintedquestionstoalargenumberofpersons。Thereishardlyanymoredifficulttaskthanthatofframingquestionswhicharenotlikelytobemisunderstood，whichadmitofeasyreply，andwhichcoverthegroundofinquiry。Ididmybestintheserespects，withoutforgettingthemostimportantpartofall-namely，totemptmycorrespondentstowritefreelyinfullerexplanationoftheirreplies，andoncognatetopicsaswell。Theseseparatelettershaveprovedmoreinstructiveandinterestingbyfarthantherepliestothesetquestions。
\"Thefirstgroupoftheratherlongseriesofqueriesrelatedtotheillumination，definition，andcoloringofthementalimage，andwereframedthus:
\"BeforeaddressingyourselftoanyoftheQuestionsontheoppositepage，thinkofsomedefiniteobject——supposeitisyourbreakfast-tableasyousatdowntoitthismorning——andconsidercarefullythepicturethatrisesbeforeyourmind’seye。
\"’1。Illumination——Istheimagedimorfairlyclear？Isitsbrightnesscomparabletothatoftheactualscene？
\"’2。Definition——Arealltheobjectsprettywelldefinedatthesametimid，oristheplaceofsharpestdefinitionatanyonemomentmorecontractedthanitisinarealscene？
\"’3。Coloring-Arethecolorsofthechina，ofthetoast，bread-crust，mustard，meat，parsley，orwhatevermayhavebeenonthetable，quitedistinctandnatural？’
\"Theearliestresultsofmyinquiryamazedme。Ihadbegunbyquestioningfriendsinthescientificworld，astheywerethemostlikelyclassofmentogiveaccurateanswersconcerningthisfacultyofvisual-[p。52]izing，towhichnovelistsandpoetscontinuallyallude，whichhasleftanabidingmarkonthevocabulariesofeverylanguage，andwhichsuppliesthematerialoutofwhichdreamsandthewell-knownhallucinationsofsickpeoplearebuilt。
\"Tomyastonishment，Ifoundthat，thegreatmajorityofthemenofsciencetowhomIfirstappliedprotestedthatmentalimagerywayunknowntothem，andtheylookedonmeasfancifulandfantasticinsupposingthatthewords’mentalimagery’reallyexpressedwhatIbelievedeverybodysupposedthemtomean。Theyhadnomorenotionofitstruenaturethanacolor-blindman，whohasnotdiscernedhisdefect，hasofthenatureofcolor。Theyhadamentaldeficiencyofwhichtheywereunaware，andnaturallyenoughsupposedthatthosewhoaffirmedtheypossesseditwereromancing。Toillustratetheirmentalattitudeitwillbesufficienttoquoteafewlinesfromtheletterofoneofmycorrespondents，whowrites:
\"Thesequestionspresupposeassenttosomesortofapropositionregardingthe\"mind’seye，\"andthe\"images\"whichitsees……Thispointstosomeinitialfallacy……ItisonlybyafigureofspeechthatIcandescribemyrecollectionofasceneasa\"mentalimage\"whichIcan\"see\"withmy\"mind’seye。\"……Idonotseeit……anymorethanamanseesthethousandlinesofSophocleswhichunderduepressureheisreadytorepeat。Thememorypossessesit，’etc。
\"MuchthesameresultfollowedinquiriesmadeformebyafriendamongmembersoftheFrenchInstitute。
\"Ontheotherhand，whenIspoketopersonswhomImetingeneralsociety，Ifoundanentirelydifferentdispositiontoprevail。Manymenandayetlargenumberofwomen，andmanyboysandgirls，declaredthattheyhabituallysawmentalimagery，andthatitwayperfectlydistincttothemandfullofcolor。ThemoreIpressedandcrossed-questionedthem，professingmyselftobeincredulous，themoreobviouswasthetruthoftheirfirstassertions。Theydescribedtheirimageryinminutedetail，andtheyspokeinatoneofsurpriseatmyapparenthesitationinacceptingwhattheysaid。IfeltthatImyselfshouldhavespokenexactlyastheydidifIhadbeendescribingascenethatlaybeforemyeyes，inbroaddaylight，toablindmanwhopersistedindoubtingtherealityofvision。Reassuredbythishappierexperience，Irecommencedtoinquireamong\"scientificmen，andsoonfoundscatteredinstancesofwhatIsought，thoughinbynomeansthesameabundanceaselsewhere。Ithencirculatedmyquestionsmoregenerallyamongmyfriendsandthroughtheirhands，andobtainedreplies……frompersonsofbothsexes，andofvariousages，andintheendfromoccasionalcorrespondentsinnearlyeverycivilizedcountry。
\"IhavealsoreceivedbatchesofanswersfromvariouseducationalestablishmentsbothinEnglandandAmerica，whichweremadeafterthemastershadfullyexplainedthemeaningofthequestions，andinterestedtheboysinthem。Thesehavethemeritofreturnsderivedfromageneralcensus，whichmyotherdatalack，becauseIcannotfor[p。
53]amomentsupposethatthewritersofthelatterareahaphazardproportionofthosetowhomtheyweresent。IndeedIknowofsomewho，disavowingallpossessionofthepower，andofmanyotherswho，possessingitintoofaintadegreetoenablethemtoexpresswhattheirexperiencesreallywere，inamannersatisfactorytothemselves，sentnoreturnsatall。Considerablestatisticalsimilaritywas，however，observedbetweenthesetsofreturnsfurnishedbytheschoolboysandthosesentbymyseparatecorrespondents，andImayaddthattheyaccordinthisrespectwiththeoralinformationIhaveelsewhereobtained。Theconformityofrepliesfromsomanydifferentsourceswhichwasclearfromthefirst，thefactoftheirapparenttrustworthinessbeingonthewholemuchincreasedbycross-examinationthoughIcouldgiveoneortwoamusinginstancesofbreak-down，andtheevidenteffortmadetogiveaccurateanswers，haveconvincedmethatitisamucheasiermatterthanIhadanticipatedtoobtaintrustworthyrepliestopsychologicalquestions。Manypersons，especiallywomenandintelligentchildren，takepleasureinintrospection，andstrivetheirverybesttoexplaintheirmentalprocesses。Ithinkthatadelightinself-dissectionmustbeastrongingredientinthepleasurethatmanyaresaidtotakeinconfessingthemselvestopriests。
\"Here，then，aretworathernotableresults:
theoneistheprovedfacilityofobtainingstatisticalinsightintotheprocessesofotherpersons’minds，whateveraprioriobjectionmayhavebeenmadeastoitspossibility；andtheotheristhatscientificmen，asaclass，havefeeblepowersofvisualrepresentation。Thereisnodoubtwhateveronthelatterpoint，howeveritmaybeaccountedfor。Myownconclusionisthatanover-readyperceptionofsharpmentalpicturesisantagonistictotheacquirementofhabitsofhighly-generalizedandabstractthought，especiallywhenthestepsofreasoningarecarriedonbywordsassymbols，andthatifthefacultyofseeingthepictureswaseverpossessedbymenwhothinkhard，itisveryapttobelostbydisuse。Thehighestmindsareprobablythoseinwhichitisnotlost，butsubordinated，andisreadyforuseonsuitableoccasions。Iam，however，boundtosaythatthemissingfacultyseemstobereplacedsoserviceablybyothermodesofconception，chiefly，Ibelieve，connectedwiththeincipientmotorsense，notoftheeyeballsonlybutofthemusclesgenerally，thatmenwhodeclarethemselvesentirelydeficientinthepowerofseeingmentalpicturescanneverthelessgivelifelikedescriptionsofwhattheyhaveseen，andcanotherwiseexpressthemselvesasiftheyweregiftedwithavividvisualimagination。
TheycanalsobecomepaintersofrankofRoyalAcademicians。[8]……[p。54]
\"Itisamistaketosupposethatsharpsightisaccompaniedbyclearvisualmemory。Ihavenotafewinstancesinwhichtheindependenceofthetwofacultiesisemphaticallycommentedon；andIhaveatleastoneclearcasewheregreatinterestinoutlinesandaccurateappreciationofstraightness，squareness，andthelike，isunaccompaniedbythepowerofvisualizing。Neitherdoesthefacultygowithdreaming。Ihavecaseswhereitispowerful，andatthesametimewheredreamsarerareandfaintoraltogetherabsent。Onefriendtellsmethathisdreamshavenotthehundredthpartofthevigorofhiswakingfancies。
\"Thevisualizingandtheidentifyingpowersarebynomeansnecessarilycombined。Adistinguishedwriteronmetaphysicaltopicsassuresmethatheisexceptionallyquickatrecognizingafacethathehasseenbefore，butthathecannotcallupamentalimageofanyfacewithclearness。
\"Somepersonshavethepowerofcombininginasingleperceptionmorethancanbeseenatanyonemomentbythetwoeyes……
\"Ifindthatafewpersonscan，bywhattheyoftendescribeasakindoftouch-sight，visualizeatthesamemomentallroundtheimageofasolidbody。Manycandosonearly，butnotaltogetherroundthatofaterrestrialglobe。Aneminentmineralogistassuresmethatheisabletoimaginesimultaneouslyallthesidesofacrystalwithwhichheisfamiliar。Imaybeallowedtoquoteacuriousfacultyofmyowninrespecttothis。Itisexercisedonlyoccasionallyandindreams，orratherinnightmares，butunderthosecircumstancesIamperfectlyconsciousofembracinganentiresphereinasingleperception。Itappearstoliewithinmymentaleyeball，andtobeviewedcentripetally。
\"Thispowerofcomprehensionispracticallyattainedinmanycasesbyindirectmethods。Itisacommonfeattotakeinthewholesurroundingsofanimaginedroomwithsucharapidmentalsweepastoleavesomedoubtwhetherithasnotbeenviewedsimultaneously。
Somepersonshavethehabitofviewingobjectsasthoughtheywerepartlytransparent；thus，iftheysodisposeaglobeintheirimaginationastoseebothitsnorthandsouthpolesatthesametime，theywillnotbeabletoseeitsequatorialparts。Theycanalsoperceivealltheroomsofanimaginaryhousebyasinglementalglance，thewallsandfloorsbeingasifmadeofglass。Afourthclassofpersonshavethehabitofrecallingscenes，notfromthepointofviewwhencetheywereobserved，butfromadistance，andtheyvisualizetheirownselvesasactorsonthementalstage。Byoneorotheroftheseways，thepowerofseeingthewholeofanobject，andnotmerelyoneaspectofit，ispossessedbymanypersons。
\"Theplacewheretheimageappearstoliediffersmuch。Mostpersonsseeitinanindefinablesortofway，othersseeitinfrontoftheeye，othersatadistancecorrespondingtoreality。
Thereexistsapowerwhichisrarenaturally，butcan，Ibelieve，beacquiredwithoutmuchdifficulty，ofprojectingamentalpictureuponapieceofpaper，andof[p。55]holdingitfastthere，sothatitcanbeoutlinedwithapencil。TothisIshallrecur。
\"Imagesusuallydonotbecomestrongerbydwellingonthem；thefirstideaiscommonlythemostvigorous，butthisisnotalwaysthecase。Sometimesthementalviewofalocalityisinseparablyconnectedwiththesenseofitspositionasregardsthepointsofthecompass，realorimaginary。Ihavereceivedfullandcuriousdescriptionsfromverydifferentsourcesofthisstronggeographicaltendency，andinoneortwocasesIhavereasontothinkitalliedtoaconsiderablefacultyofgeographicalcomprehension。
\"Thepowerofvisualizingishigherinthefemalesexthaninthemale，andissomewhat，butnotmuch，higherinpublic-schoolboysthaninmen。Aftermaturityisreached，thefurtheradvanceofagedoesnotseemtodimthefaculty，butratherthereverse，judgingfromnumerousstatementstothateffect；butadvancingyearsaresometimesaccompaniedbyagrowinghabitofhardabstractthinking，andinthesecasesnotuncommonamongthosewhomIhavequestioned——thefacultyundoubtedlybecomesimpaired。Thereisreasontobelievethatitisveryhighinsomeyoungchildren，whoseemtospendyearsofdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenthesubjectiveandobjectiveworld。Languageandbook-learningcertainlytendtodullit。