H。M。Stanley，ThroughtheDarkContinent，ii。388:\"OnthethirddayofourstayatMowafeelingquitecomfortableamongstthepeople，onaccountoftheirfriendlybearing，Ibegantowriteinmynote-bookthetermsforarticles，inordertoimprovemyalreadycopiousvocabularyofnativewords。
IhadproceededonlyafewminuteswhenIobservedastrangecommotionamongstthepeoplewhohadbeenflockingaboutme，andpresentlytheyransway。Inashorttimeweheardwar-criesringingloudlyandshrillyoverthetable-land。Twohoursafterwardsalonglineofwarriorswereseendescendingthetable-landandadvancingtowardsourcamp。Theremayhavebeenbetweenfiveandsixhundredofthem。We，ontheotherhand，hadmadebutfewpreparationsexceptsuchaswouldjustifyusreplyingtothemintheeventoftheactualcommencementofhostilities。ButIhadmademanyfirmfriendsamongthemandIhardlybelievedthatIshouldbeabletoavertanopenrupture。Whentheyhadassembledataboutahundredyardsinfrontofourcamp，SafeniandIwalkeduptowardsthemandsatdownmidway。Somehalf-dozenoftheYowapeoplecamenear，andtheshauribegan。，’
\"’Whatisthematter，myfriends？’Iasked。’Whydoyoucomewithgunsinyourhands，insuchnumbers，asthoughyouwerecomingtofight？Fight？
fightus，yourfriends！Tut！Ithisissomegreatmistake，surely。’
Mundelé；’repliedoneofthem……’ourpeoplesawyouyesterdaymakemarksonsometara-tara[paper][Classicseditorsnote:James’
Insertion]。Thisisverybad。Ourcountrywillwaste，ourgoatswilldie，ourbananaswillrot，andourwomenwilldryup。Whathavewedonetoyouthatyoushouldwishtokillus？Wehavesoldyoufoodandwehavebroughtyouwineeachday。Yourpeopleareallowedtowanderwheretheypleasewithouttrouble。WhyistheMundelé；sowicked！Wehavegatheredtogethertofightyouifyoudonotburnthattara-taranowbeforeoureyes。Ifyouburnitwegoaway，andshallbeyourfriendsasheretofore。’
’’Itoldthemtorestthere，andleftSafeniintheirhandsasapledgethatIshouldreturn。Mytentwasnotfiftyyardsfromthespot，butwhilegoingtowardsitmybrainwasbusyindevisingsomeplantofoilthissuperstitiousmadness。Mynote-bookcontainedavastnumberofvaluablenotes……I
couldnotsacrificeittothechildishcapriceofsavages。9sIwasrummagingmybook-box，IcameacrossavolumeofShakespeare[Chandosedition][Classicseditorsnote:James’insertion]muchwornandwellthumbed，andwhichwasofthesamesizeasmyfield-book；itscoverwassimilaralso，anditmightbepassedforthefield-book，providedthatnooneremembereditsappearancetoowell。Itookittothem。’Isthisthetara-tara，friends，thatyouwishburned？’
Yes，yes，thatisit。’
Well，takeit，andburnit。orkeepit。’
\"M-m。No，no，no。Wewillnottouchit。Itisfetish。Youmustburnit。’
\"’I！Well，letitbeso。IwilldoanythingtopleasemygoodfriendsofMowa。’
\"Wewalkedtothenearestfire。Ibreathedaregretfulfarewelltomygenialcompanion，which。duringmymanywearyhoursofnight，hadassistedtorelievemymindwhenoppressedbyalmostintolerablewoes，andthengravelyconsignedtheinnocentShakespearetotheflames，heapingthebrushfueloveritwithceremoniouscare。
’’Ah-h，’breathedthepoordeludednativessighingtheirrelief……’Thereisnotroublenow。’……Endsomethingapproachingtoacheerwasshoutedamongthem，whichterminatedtheepisodeoftheburningofShakespeare。
[34]’Rationality，Activity，andFaith’PrincetonReview，July1883，pp64-9。
[35]J。Royce，TheReligiousAspectofPhilosophyBoston，1885。pp。317-57。
[36]ChapterXXVII
[37]Prof。Royceputsthiswellindiscussingidealismandtherealityofan’externalworld。\"Ifthehistoryofpopularspeculationonthesetopicscouldbewritten，howmuchofcowardiceandshufflingwouldbefoundinthebehaviorofthenaturalmindbeforethequestion，’Howdostthouknowofanexternalreality。Insteadofsimplyandplainlyanswering:
’ImeanbytheexternalworldinthefirstplacesomethingthatIacceptknowofanexternalrealityordemand，thatIposit，postulateactivelyconstructonthebasisofsense-data，’thenaturalmangivesusallkindsofvaguecompromiseanswers……Whereshalltheseendlessturningsandtwistingshaveanend？……Alltheselessermotivesareappealedto，andtheoneultimatemotiveisneglected。Theultimatemotivewiththemanofevery-daylifeisthewilltohaveanexternalworld。Whateverconsciousnesscontains，reasonwillpersistinspontaneouslyaddingthethought:’Butthereshallbesomethingbeyondthis。’……Thepopularassuranceofanexternalworldisthefixeddeterminationtomakeone，nowandhenceforth。\"ReligiousAspectofphilosophy，p。304——theitalicsaremyown。Thisimmixtureofthewillappearsmostflagrantlyinthefactthatalthoughexternalmatterisdoubtedcommonlyenough，mindsexternaltoourownareneverdoubted。Weneedthemtoomuch，aretooessentiallysocialtodispensewiththem。Semblancesofmattermaysufficetoreactupon，butnotsemblancesofcommuningsouls。apsychicsolipsismistoohideousamockeryofourwants，and，sofarasIknow，hasneverbeenseriouslyentertained——ChaptersixandxofProf。Royce’sworkareonthewholethedearestaccountofthepsychologyofbeliefwithwhichIamacquainted。
[38]’’TheleadingfactinBelief，accordingtomyviewofit，isourPrimitiveCredulity。Webeginbybelievingeverything；
whateveris，istrue……Theanimalborninthemorningofasummerdayproceedsuponthefactofdaylight；assumestheperpetuityofthatfact。
Whateveritisdisposedtodo。itdoeswithoutmisgivings。Ifinthemorningitbeganaroundofoperationscontinuingforhours，underthefullbenefitofday-light，itwouldunhesitatinglybeginthesamerollandintheevening。
Itsstateofmindispracticallyoneofunboundedconfidence；but，asyet，itdoesnotunderstandwhatconfidencemeans。
\"Thepristineassuranceissoonmetbychecks；adisagreeableexperienceleadingtonewinsight。Tobethwartedandopposedisoneofourearliestandmostfrequentpains。Itdevelopsthesenseofadistinctionbetweenfreeandobstructedimpulses；theunconsciousnessofanopenwayisexchangedforconsciousness；wearenowsaidproperlytobelieveinwhathasneverbeencontradicted，aswedisbelieveinwhathasbeencontradicted。Webelievethat，afterthedawnofday，thereisbeforeusacontinuanceoflight；
wedonotbelievethatthislightistocontinueforever。
\"Thus，thevitalcircumstanceinbeliefisnevertobecontradicted——nevertoloseprestige。Thenumberofrepetitionscountsforlittleintheprocess:weareasmuchconvincedaftertenasafterfifty；
wearemoreconvincedbytenunbrokenthanbyfiftyforandoneagainst。\"
Bain:TheEmotionsandtheWill，pp。511，512。
[39]Literature。DHume:TreatiseonHumanNature，partIII。§；§；vi-xA。Bain:EmotionsandWill，chapteronBeliefalsopp。20ff。J。Sully:SensationandIntuition，essayivJ。Mill:
AnalysisofHumanMindCh。Renouvier:PsychologieRationnelle，vol。ii。
pt。ii；andEsquissed’uneClassificationsysté；matiquedesDoctrinesMind，chapterxiPhilosophiques，partvi。J。EI。Newman:TheGrammarofassent。J。Venn:SomeCharacteristicsofBelief。V。Brochard:Del’Erreur，partiichap。vi，ix；andRevuePhilosophique，xxvii。1。E·；Habier:
Psychologie，chapxxi，Appendix。Ollé；Laprune:LaCertitudeMorale1881。Cf。F。Stout:OnGenesisofCognitionofPhysicalReality，in’Mind，’
Jan。JPikler:ThePsychologyoftheBeliefinObjectiveExistenceLondon，1890——Millsaysthatwebelievepresentsensations；andmakesourbeliefinallotherthingsamatterofassociationwiththese。Sofarsogood；butashemakesnomentionofemotionalorvolitionalreaction，Bainrightlychargeshimwithtreatingbeliefasapurelyintellectualstate。
ForBainbeliefisratheranincidentofouractivelife。Whenathingissuch，tomakeusactonit，thenwebelieveit，accordingtoBain。\"Buthowaboutpastthings，orremotethings，uponwhichnoreactionofoursispossible？Andhowaboutbeliefinthingswhichcheckaction\"
saysSully；whoconsidersthatwebelievesthingonlywhen\"theideaofithasaninherenttendencytoapproximateincharacterandintensitytoasensation。\"Itisobviousthateachoftheseauthorsemphasizesatrueaspectofthequestion。Myownaccounthassoughttobemorecomplete，sensation，association，andactivereactionallbeingacknowledgedtobeconcerned。Themostcompendiouspossibleformulaperhapswouldbethatoutbeliefandattentionarethesamefact。Forthemoment，whatweattendtoisreality；Attentionisamotorreaction；andwearesomadethatsensationsforceattentionfromus。OnBeliefandConductseeanarticlebyLeslieStephen，FortnightlyReview，July1888。
AsetoffactshavebeenrecentlybroughttomyattentionwhichIhardlyknowhowtotreat，soIsayawordabouttheminthisfootnote。Refertoatypeofexperiencewhichhasfrequentlyfoundaplaceamongthe’Yes’
answerstothe’CensusofHallucinations，’andwhichisgenerallydescribedbythosewhoreportitasan’impressionofthepresence’ofsomeonenearthem，althoughnosenselioneitherofsight，hearing，ortouchisinvolvedFromthewayinwhichthisexperienceisspokenofbythosewhohavehadit，itwouldappeartobeanextremelydefiniteandpositivestateofmind，coupledwithabeliefintherealityofitsobjectquiteasstrongasanydirectsensationevergives。Andyetnosensationseemstobeconnectedwithitatall。Sometimesthepersonwhosenearnessisthusimpressedisaknownperson，deadorliving，sometimesanunknownone。Hisattitudeandsituationareoftenverydefinitelyimpressed，andso，sometimesthoughnotbywayofhearing，arewordswhichhewishestosay。
Thephenomenonwouldseemtobeduetoapureconceptionbecomingsaturatedwiththesortofstingingurgencywhichordinarilyonlysensationsbring。ButIcannotyetpersuademyselfthattheurgencyinQuestionconsistsinconcomitantemotionalandmotorimpulses。The’impression’maycomequitesuddenlyanddepartquickly；itmaycarrynoemotionalsuggestions，andwakenomotorconsequencesbeyondthoseinvolvedinattendingtoit。
Altogether，thematterissomewhatparadoxical，andnoconclusioncanbecometountilmoredefinitedataareobtained。
PerhapsthemostcuriouscaseofthesortwhichIhavereceivedisthefollowing。Thesubjectoftheobservation，Mr。P。，isanexceptionallyintelligentwitness，thoughthewordsofthenarrativearehiswife’s。
\"Mr。P。hasallhislifebeentheoccasionalsubjectofrathersingulardelusionsorimpressionsofvariouskinds。IfIhadbeliefintheexistenceoflatentorembryofaculties，otherthanthefivesenses，Ishouldexplainthemonthatground。Beingtotallyblind，hisotherperceptionsareabnormallykeenanddeveloped，andgiventheexistenceofarudimentarysixthsense，itwouldbeonlynaturalthatthisalsoshouldbemoreacuteinhimthaninothers。Oneofthemostinterestingofhisexperiencesinthislinewasthefrequentapparitionofacorpsesomeyearsago，whichmaybeworththeattentionofyourCommitteeonthatsubject。AtthelimeMr。P。hadamusic-roominBostononBeaconStreet，whereheusedtodosevereandprotractedpracticewithlittleinterruption。Now，alloneseasonitwasaveryfamiliaroccurrencewithhimwhileinthemidstofworktofeelacolddraftofairsuddenlyuponhisface，withapricklingsensationattherootsofhishair，whenhewouldturnfromthepiano，andafigurewhichheknewtobedeadwouldcomeslidingunderthecrackofthedoorfromwithout，flatteningitselftosqueezethroughandroundingoutagaintothehumanform。Itwasofamiddle-agedman，anddrewitselfalongthecarpetonhandsandknees，butwithheadthrownbacktillitreachedthesofa，uponwhichitstretcheditself。Itremainedsomemoments，butvanishedsifMr。P。spokeormadeadecidedmovement。Themostsingularpointintheoccurrencewasitsfrequentrepetition。Bemightexpectitonanydaybetweentwoandfouro’clock，anditcamealwaysheraldedbythesamesuddencoldshiver，andwasinvariablythesamefigurewhichwentthroughthesamemovements。Heafterwardstracedthewholeexperiencetostrongtea。
Hewasinthehabitoftakingcoldtea，whichalwaysstimulateshim，forlunch，andongivingupthispracticewheneversawthisoranyotherapparitionagain。However，evenallowing，asisdoubtlesstrue，thattheeventwasadelusionofnervesfirstfatiguedbyoverworkandthenexcitedbythisstimulant，thereisonepointwhichisstillwhollyinexplicableandhighlyinterestingtome。Mr。P。hasnomemorywhateverofsight，norconceptionofit。Itisimpossibleforhimtoformanyideaofwhatwemeanbylightorcolor，consequentlyhehasnocognizanceofanyobjectwhichdoesnotreachhissenseofhearingoroftouch，thoughthesearesoacuteastogiveacontraryimpressionsome-timestootherpeople。Whenhebecomesawareofthepresenceofapersonoranobject，bymeanswhichseemmysterioustooutsiders，hecanalwaystraceitnaturallyandlegitimatelytoslightechoes，perceptibleonlytohiskeenears，ortodifferencesinatmosphericpressure，perceptibleonlytohisacutenervesoftouch；butwiththeapparitiondescribed，fortheonlytime-inhisexperience，hewasawareofpresence，size，andappearance，withouttheuseofeitherofthesemediums。Thefigureneverproducedtheleastsoundnorcamewithinanumberoffeetofhisperson，yetheknewthatitwasaman，thatitmoved，andinwhatdirection，eventhatitworeafullbeard，which，likethethickcurlyheir，waspartiallygray；alsothatitwar，dressedinthestyleofsuitknownas’pepperandsalt。’Thesepointswereallperfectlydistinctandinvariableeachtime。
Ifaskedhowheperceivedthem，hewillanswerhecannottell，hesimplyknewit。andsostronglyandsodistinctlythatitisimpossibletoshaketheopinionastotheexactdetailsoftheman’sappearance。Itwouldseemthatinthisdelusionofthesenseshereallysaw，ashehasneverdoneintheactualexperiencesoflife，exceptinthefirsttwoyearsofchildhood。\"
Oncross-examiningMr。P。，Icouldnotmakeoutthattherewasanythinglikevisualimaginationinvolved，althoughhewasquiteunabletodescribeinjustwhattermsthefalseperceptionwascarriedon。Itseemedtobemorelikeanintenselydefiniteconceptionthananythingelse，aconceptiontowhichthefeelingofpresentrealitywasattached，butinnosuchshapeaseasilytofailundertheheadslaiddowninmytext。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James1890Chapter24ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames1890CHAPTERXXIV。[1]INSTINCT
INSTINCTisusuallydefinedasthefacultyofactinginsuchawayastoproducecertainends，withoutforesightoftheends，andwithoutpreviouseducationintheperformance。Thatinstincts，asthusdefined，existonanenormousscaleintheanimalkingdomneedsnoproof。Theyarethefunctionalcorrelativesofstructure。Withthepresenceofacertainorgangoes，onemaysay，almostalwaysanativeaptitudeforitsuse。
\"Hasthebirdaglandforthesecretionofoil？Sheknowsinstinctivelyhowtopresstheoilfromthegland，andapplyittothefeather。Hastherattlesnakethegroovedtoothandglandofpoison？Heknowswithoutinstructionhowtomakebothstructureandfunctionmosteffectiveagainsthisenemies。
Hasthesilk-wormthefunctionofsecretingthefluidsilk？Atthepropertimeshewindsthecocoonsuchasshehasneverseen，asthousandsbeforehavedone；andthuswithoutinstruction，pattern，orexperience，formsasafeabodeforherselfintheperiodoftransformation。Hasthehawktalons？Sheknowsbyinstincthowtowieldthemeffectivelyagainstthehelplessquarry。\"[2]
Averycommonwayoftalkingabouttheseadmirablydefinitetendenciestoactisbynamingabstractlythepurposetheysubserve，suchasself-preservation，ordefense，orcareforeggsandyoung——andsayingtheanimalhasaninstinctivefearofdeathorloveoflife，orthatshehasaninstinctofself-preservation，oraninstinctofmaternityandthelike。Butthisrepresentstheanimalasobeyingabstractionswhichnotonceinamillioncasesisitpossibleitcanhaveframed。Thestrictphysiologicalwayofinterpret-[p。384]ingthefactsleadstofarclearerresults。Theactionswecallinstinctiveallconformtothegeneralreflextype；
theyarecalledforthbydeterminatesensorystimuliincontactwiththeanimal’sbody，oratadistanceinhisenvironment。Thecatrunsafterthemouse，runsorshowsfightbeforethedog，avoidsfallingfromwallsandtrees，shunsfireandwater，etc。，notbecausehehasanynotioneitheroflifeorofdeath，orofself，orofpreservation。Hehasprobablyattainedtonooneoftheseconceptionsinsuchawayastoreactdefinitelyuponit。Heactsineachcaseseparately，andsimplybecausehecannothelpit；beingsoframedthatwhenthatparticularrunningthingcalledamouseappearsinhisfieldofvisionhemustpursue；thatwhenthatparticularbarkingandobstreperousthingcalledadogappeartherehemustretire，ifatadistance，andscratchifcloveby；thathemustwithdrawhisfeetfromwaterandhisfacefromflame，etc。Hisnervoussystemistoagreatextentapreorganizedbundleofsuchreactions——theyareasfatalassneezing，andasexactlycorrelatedtotheirspecialexcitantsasitistoitsown。Althoughthenaturalistmay，forhisownconvenience，classthesereactionsundergeneralheads，hemustnotforgetthatintheanimalitisaparticularsensationorperceptionorimagewhichcallsthemforth。
Atfirstthisviewastoundsusbytheenormousnumberofspecialadjustmentsitsupposesanimalstopossessready-madeinanticipationoftheouterthingsamongwhichtheyaretodwell。Canmutualdependencebesointricateandgosofar？Iseachthingbornfittedtoparticularotherthings，andtothemexclusively，aslocksarefittedtotheirkeys？Undoubtedlythismustbebelievedtobeso。Eachnookandcrannyofcreation，downtoourveryskinandentrails，hasitslivinginhabitants，withorganssuitedtotheplace，todevouranddigestthefooditharborsandtomeetthedangersitconceals；andtheminutenessofadaptationthusshowninthewayofstructureknowsnohounds。Evensoaretherenoboundstotheminutenessofadaptationinthewayofconductwhichtheseveralinhabitantsdisplay。
Theolderwritingsoninstinctareineffectualwastesofwords，becausetheirauthorsnevercamedowntothisdefi-[p。385]niteandsimplepointofview，butsmotheredeverythinginvaguewonderattheclairvoyantandpropheticpoweroftheanimals——sosuperiortoanythinginman——andatthebeneficenceofGodinendowingthemwithsuchagift。ButGod’sbeneficenceendowsthem，firstofall，withanervoussystem；and，turningourattentiontothis，makesinstinctimmediatelyappearneithermorenorlesswonderfulthanalltheotherfactsoflife。
Everyinstinctisanimpulse。Whetherweshallcallsuchimpulsesasblushing，sneezing，coughing，smiling，ordodging，orkeepingtimetomusic，instinctsornot，isamerematterofterminology。Theprocessisthesamethrough-out。Inhisdelightfullyfreshandinterestingwork，DerThierischeWille，HerrG。H。SchneidersubdividesimpulsesTriebe
intosensation-impulses，perception-impulses，andidea-impulses。Tocrouchfromcoldisasensation-impulse；toturnandfollow，ifweseepeoplerunningoneway，isaperception-impulse；tocastaboutforcover，ifitbeginstoblowandrain，isanimagination-impulse。Asinglecomplexinstinctiveactionmayinvolvesuccessivelytheawakeningofimpulsesofallthreeclasses。Thusahungrylionstartstoseekpreybytheawakeninginhimofimaginationcoupledwithdesire；hebeginstostalkitwhen，oneye，ear，ornostril，hegetsanimpressionofitspresenceatacertaindistance；hespringsuponit，eitherwhenthebootytakesalarmandsees，orwhenthedistanceissufficientlyreduced；heproceedstotearanddevouritthemomenthegetsasensationofitscontactwithhisclawsandfangs。
Seeking，stalking，springing，anddevouringarejustsomanydifferentkindsofmuscularcontraction，andneitherkindiscalledforthbythestimulusappropriatetotheother。
Schneidersaysofthehamster，whichstorescorninitshole:
\"Ifweanalyzethepropensityofstoring，wefindthatitconsistsofthreeimpulses:First，animpulsetopickupthenutritiousobject，duetoperception；second，animpulsetocarryitoffintothedwelling-placeduetotheideaofthislatter；andthird，animpulsetolayitdownthere，duetothesightoftheplace。Itliesinthenatureofthehamsterthatitshouldneverseeafullearofcornwithoutfeelingadesire[p。386]tostripit；itlieuinitsnaturetofeel，assoonasitscheek-pouchesarefilled，anirresistibledesiretohurrytoitshome；andfinally，itliesinitsnaturethatthesightofthestorehouseshouldawakentheimpulsetoemptythecheeks\"p。208。
Incertainanimalsofaloworderthefeelingofhavingexecutedoneimpulsivestepissuchanindispensablepartofthestimulusofthenextone，thattheanimalcannotmakeanyvariationintheorderofitsperformance。
Now，whydothevariousanimalsdowhatseemtoussuchstrangethings，inthepresenceofsuchoutlandishstimuli？Whydoesthehen，forexample，submitherselftothetediumofincubatingsuchafearfullyuninterestingsetofobjectsasanestfulofeggs，unlessshehavesomesortofapropheticinklingoftheresult？Theonlyanswerisadhominem。Wecanonlyinterprettheinstinctsofbrutesbywhatweknowofinstinctsinourselves。Whydomenalwaysliedown，whentheycan，onsoftbedsratherthanonhardfloors？Whydotheysitroundthestoveonacoldday？’Why，ina，room，dotheyplacethemselves，ninety-ninetimesoutofahundred，withtheirfacestowardsitsmiddleratherthantothewall？Whydotheyprefersaddleofmuttonandchampagnetohard-tackandditch-water？Whydoesthemaideninteresttheyouthsothateverythingaboutherseemsmoreimportantandsignificantthananythingelseintheworld？Nothingmorecanbesaidthanthatthesearehumanways，andthateverycreaturelikesitsownways，andtakestothefollowingthemasa，matterofcourse。Sciencemaycomeandconsidertheseways，andfindthatmostofthemareuseful。Butitisnotforthesakeoftheirutilitythattheyarefollowed，butbecauseatthemomentoffollowingthemwefeelthatthatistheonlyappropriateandnaturalthingtodo。Notonemaninabillion，whentakinghisdinner，everthinksofutility。Heeatsbecausethefoodtastesgoodandmakeshimwantmore。Ifyouaskhimwhyheshouldwanttoeatmoreofwhattasteslikethat，insteadofreveringyouasaphilosopherhewillprobablylaughatyouforafool。Theconnectionbetweenthesavorysensationandtheactitawakensisforhimabsoluteandselbstverstä；ndlich，an’apriorisyn-[p。387]thesis’ofthemostperfectsort，needingnoproofbutitsownevidence。Ittakes，inshort，whatBerkeleycallsaminddebauchedbylearningtocarrytheprocessofmakingthenaturalseemstrange，sofarastoaskforthewhyofanyinstinctivehumanact。Tothemetaphysicianalonecansuchquestionsoccuras:Whydowesmile，whenpleased，andnotscowl？Whyareweunabletotalktoacrowdaswetalktoasinglefriend？Whydoesaparticularmaidenturnourwitssoupside-down？Thecommonmancanonlysay，\"Ofcoursewesmile，ofcourseourheartpalpitatesatthesightofthecrowd，ofcoursewelovethemaiden，thatbeautifulsoulcladinthatperfectform，sopalpablyandflagrantlymadefromalleternitytobeloved！\"
Andso，probably，doeseachanimalfeelabouttheparticularthingsittendstodoinpresenceofparticularobjects。They，too，areapriorisyntheses。Tothelionitisthelionesswhichismadetobeloved；tothebear，theshe-bear。Tothebroodyhenthenotionwouldprobablyseemmonstrousthatthereshouldbeacreatureintheworldtowhomanestfulofeggswasnottheutterlyfascinatingandpreciousandnever-to-be-too-much-sat-uponobjectwhichitistoher。[3]
Thuswemaybesurethat，howevermysterioussomeanimals’instinctsmayappeartous，ourinstinctswillappearnolessmysterioustothem。
Andwemayconcludethat，totheanimalwhichobeysit，everyimpulseandeverystepofeveryinstinctshineswithitsownsufficientlight，endseemsatthemomenttheonlyeternallyrightandproperthingtodo。Itisdoneforitsownsakeexclusively。Whatvolup-[p。388]tuousthrillmaynotshakeafly，whensheatlastdiscoverstheoneparticularleaf，orcarrion，orbitofdung，thatoutofalltheworldcanstimulateherovipositortoitsdischarge？Doesnotthedischargethenseemtohertheonlyfittingthing？Andneedshecareorknowanythingaboutthefuturemaggotanditsfood？
Sincetheegg-layinginstinctsaresimpleexamplestoconsider，afewquotationsaboutthemfromSchneidermaybeserviceable:
\"Thephenomenonsooftentalkedabout，sovariouslyinterpreted，sosurroundedwithmystification，thataninsectshouldalwayslayhereggsinaspotappropriatetothenourishmentofheryoung，isnomoremarvellousthanthephenomenonthateveryanimalpairswithamatecapableofbearingposterity，orfeedsonmaterialcapableofaffordinghimnourishment……Notonlythechoiceofaplaceforlayingtheeggs，butallthevariousactsfordepositingandprotectingthem，areoccasionedbytheperceptionoftheproperobject，andtherelationofthisperceptiontothevariousstagesofmaternalimpulse。Whentheburyingbeetleperceivesacarrion，sheisnotonlyimpelledtoapproachitandlodgehereggsinit，butalsotogothroughthemovementsrequisiteforburyingit；justasabirdwhoseeshishen-birdisimpelledtocaressher，tostrutaroundher，dancebeforeher，orinsomeotherwaytowooher；justasatiger，whenheseesanantelope，isimpelledtostalkit，topounceuponit，andtostrangleit。Whenthetailor-beecutsoutpiecesofrose-leaf，bendsthem，carriesthemintoacaterpillar-ormouse-holeintreesorintheearth，coverstheirseamsagainwithotherpieces，andsomakesathimble-shapedcase——whenshefillsthiswithhoneyandlaysanegginit，allthesevariousappropriateexpressionsofherwillaretobeexplainedbysupposingthatatthetimewhentheeggsareripewithinher，theappearanceofasuitablecaterpillar-ormouse-holeandtheperceptionofrose-leavesaresocorrelatedintheinsectwiththeseveralimpulsesinquestion，thattheperformancesfollowasamatterofcoursewhentheperceptionstakeplace……\"
Theperceptionoftheemptynest，orofasingleegg，seemsinbirdstostandinsuchacloserelationtothephysiologicalfunctionsofoviparation，thatitservesasadirectstimulustothesefunctions，whiletheperceptionofasufficient。numberofeggshasjusttheoppositeeffect。Itiswellknownthathensandduckslaymoreeggsifwekeepremovingthemthanifweleavetheminthenest。Theimpulsetositarises，asarule，whenabirdseesacertainnumberofeggsinhernest。Ifthisnumberisnotyettobeseenthere，theduckscontinuetolay，althoughtheyperhapshavelaidtwiceasmanyeggsastheyareaccustomedtositupon……Thatsitting，also，isindependentofanyideaofpurposeandisapureperception-impulseisevident，amongotherthings，[p。389]fromthefactthatmanybirds，e。g。wildducks，stealeggsfromeachother……Thebodilydispositiontositis，itistrue，onecondition[sincebroodyhenswillsitwheretherearenoeggs]，[4]buttheperceptionoftheeggsistheotherconditionoftheactivityoftheincubatingimpulse。Thepropensityofthecuckooandofthecow-birdtolaytheireggsinthenestsofotherspeciesmustalsobeinterpretedasapureperception-impulse。Thesebirdshavenobodilydispositiontobecomebroody，andthereisthereforeinthemnoconnectionbetweentheperceptionofaneggandtheimpulsetosatuponit。Eggsripen，however，intheiroviducts，andthebodytendstogetridofthem。Andsincethetwobirdsjustnameddonotdroptheireggsany-whereontheground，butinnests，whicharetheonlyplaceswheretheymaypreservethespecies，itmighteasilyappearthatsuchpreservationofthespecieswaswhattheyhadinview，andthattheyactedwithfullconsciousnessofthepurpose。Butthisisnotso……Thecuckooissimplyexcitedbytheperceptionofquitedeterminatesortsofnest，whichalreadycontaineggs，todropherownintothem，andthrowtheothersout，becausethisperceptionisadirectstimulustotheseacts。Itisimpossiblethatsheshouldhaveanynotionoftheotherbirdcom-ingandsittingonheregg。\"
[5]INSTINCTSNOTALWAYSBLINDORINVARIABLE。
Rememberthatnothingissaidyetoftheoriginofinstincts，butonlyoftheconstitutionofthosethatexistfullyformed。Howstandsitwiththeinstinctsofmankind？
NothingiscommonerthantheremarkthatMandiffersfromlowercreaturesbythealmosttotalabsenceofinstincts，andtheassumptionoftheirworkinhimby’reason。’Afruitlessdiscussionmightbewagedonthispointbytwotheorizerswhowerecarefulnottodefinetheirterms。’Reason’
mightbeused，asitoftenhasbeen，sinceKant，notasthemerepowerof’inferring，’butalsoasanameforthetendencytoobeyimpulsesofacertainloftysort，suchasduty，oruniversalends。And’instinct’
mighthaveitssignificancesobroadenedastocoverallimpulseswhatever，eventheimpulsetoactfromtheideaofadistantfact，aswellastheimpulsetoactfromapresentsensation。Werethewordinstinctusedinthisbroadway，itwouldofcoursebeimpossibletorestrictit，aswebeganbydoing，toactionsdonewithnoprevisionofanend。Wemustofcourseavoidaquarrelaboutwords，andthefactsofthecaseare[p。390]
reallytolerablyplain。Manhasafargreatervarietyofimpulsesthananyloweranimal；andanyoneoftheseimpulses，takeninitself，isas’blind’asthelowestinstinctcanbe；but，owingtoman’smemory，powerofreflection，andpowerofinference，theycomeeachonetobefeltbyhim，afterhehasonceyieldedtothemandexperiencedtheirresults，inconnectionwithaforesightofthoseresults。Inthisconditionanimpulseactedoutmaybesaidtobeactedout，inpertatleast，forthesakeofitsresults。Itisobviousthateveryinstinctiveact，inananimalwithmemory，mustceasetobe’blind’afterbeingoncerepeated，andmustbeaccompaniedwithforesightofits’end’justsofarasthatendmayhavefallenundertheanimal’scognizance。Aninsectthatlayshereggsinaplacewheresheneverseesthemhatchedmustalwaysdoso’blindly；’butahenwhohasalreadyhatchedabroodcanhardlybeassumedtositwithperfect’blindness’onhersecondnest。Someexpectationofconsequencesmustineverycaselikethisbearoused；andthisexpectation，accordingasitisthatofsomethingdesiredorofsomethingdisliked，mustnecessarilyeitherreinforceorinhibitthemereimpulse。Thehen’sideaofthechickenswouldprobablyencouragehertosit；arat’smemory，on，theotherhand，ofaformerescapefromatrapwouldneutralizehisimpulsetotakebaitfromanythingthatremindedhimofthattrap。Ifaboyseesafathopping-toad，heprobablyhasincontinentlyanimpulseespeciallyifwithotherboystosmashthecreaturewithastone，whichimpulsewemaysupposehimblindlytoobey。Butsomethingintheexpressionofthedyingtoad’sclaspedhandssuggeststhemeannessoftheact，orremindshimofsayingshehasheardaboutthesufferingsofanimalsbeinglikehisown；sothat，whennextheistemptedbyatoad，anideaariseswhich，farfromspurringhimagaintothetorment，promptskindlyactions，andmayevenmakehimthetoad’schampionagainstlessreflectingboys。
Itisplain，then，that，nomatterhowwellendowedananimalmayoriginallybeinthewayofinstincts，hisresultantactionswillbemuchmodifiediftheinstinctscombinewithexperience，ifinadditiontoimpulseshehavememories，associations，inferences，andexpectations，onanyconsiderablescale。An[p。391]objectO，onwhichhehasaninstinctiveimpulsetoreactinthemannerA，woulddirectlyprovokehimtothatreaction。
ButOhasmeantimebecomeforhimasignofthenearnessofP，onwhichhehasanequallystrongimpulsetoreactinthemannerB，quiteunlikeA。SothatwhenhemeetsOtheimmediateimpulseAandtheremoteimpulseBstruggleinhisbreastforthemastery。ThefatalityanduniformitysaidtobecharacteristicofinstinctiveactionswillbesolittlemanifestthatonemightbetemptedtodenytohimaltogetherthepossessionofanyinstinctabouttheobjectO。Yethowfalsethisjudgmentwouldbe！TheinstinctaboutOisthere；onlybythecomplicationoftheassociativemachineryithascomeintoconflictwithanotherinstinctaboutP。
Hereweimmediatelyreapthegoodfruitsofoursimplephysiologicalconceptionofwhataninstinctis。Ifitbeamereexcite-motorimpulse，duetothepre-existenceofacertain’reflexarc’inthenerve-centresofthecreature，ofcourseitmustfollowthelawofallsuchreflexarea。
Oneliabilityofsuchareaistohavetheiractivity’inhibited，’byotherprocessesgoingonatthesametime。Itmakesnodifferencewhetherthearebeorganizedatbirth，orripenspontaneouslylater，orbeduetoacquiredhabit，itmusttakeitschanceswithalltheotherarea，andsometimessucceed，andsometimesfail，indraftingoffthecurrentsthroughitself。
Themysticalviewofaninstinctwouldmakeitinvariable。Thephysiologicalviewwouldrequireittoshowoccasionalirregularitiesinanyanimalinwhomthenumberofseparateinstincts，andthepossibleentranceofthesamestimulusintoseveralofthem，weregreat。Andsuchirregularitiesarewhateverysuperioranimal’sinstinctsdoshowinabundance。\"[6]
Whereverthemindiselevatedenoughtodiscriminate；whereverseveraldistinctsensoryelementsmustcombinetodischargethereflex-arc；wherever，insteadofplumpingintoactioninstantlyatthefirstroughintimationofwhatsortofathingisthere，theagentwaitstoseewhichoneofitskinditisandwhatthecircumstancesareofitsappearance；
whereverdifferentindividualsanddifferentcircumstancescanimpelhimindifferentways；whereverthesearetheconditions——wehaveamaskingoftheelementaryconstitutionoftheinstinctivelife。Thewholestoryofourdealingswiththelowerwildanimalsisthehistoryofourtakingadvantageofthewayinwhichtheyjudgeofeverythingbyitsmerelabel，asitwere，soastoensnareorkillthem。Nature，inthem，hasleftmattersinthisroughway，andmadethemactalwaysinthemannerwhichwouldbeoftenestright。Therearemorewormsunattachedtohooksthanimpaleduponthem；therefore，onthewhole，saysNaturetoherfishychildren，biteateverywormandtakeyourchances。Butasherchildrengethigher，andtheirlivesmoreprecious，shereducestherisks。Sincewhatseemstobethesameobjectmaybenowagenuinefoodandnowabait；
sinceingregariousspecieseachindividualmayprovetobeeitherthefriendortherival，accordingtothecircumstances，ofanother；sinceanyentirelyunknownobjectmaybefraughtwithwealorwoe，Natureimplantscontraryimpulsestoactonmanyclassesofthings，andleavesittoslightalterationsintheconditionsoftheindividualcasetodecidewhichimpulseshallcarrytheday。Thus，greedinessandsuspicion，curiosityandtimidity，coynessanddesire，bashfulnessandvanity，sociabilityandpugnacity，seemtoshootoverintoeachotherasquickly，andtoremaininasunstableequilibrium，inthehigherbirdsandmammalsasinman。
Theyareallimpulses，congenital，blindatfirst，andproductiveofmotorreactionsofarigorouslydeterminatesort。Eachoneofthem，then，isaninstinct，asinstinctsarecommonlydefined。Buttheycontradicteachother——’experience’ineachparticularoppor-[p。393]tunityofapplicationusuallydecidingtheissue。Theanimalthatexhibitsthemlosesthe>instinctive’demeanorandappearstoleadalifeofhesitationandchoice，anintellectuallife；not，however，becausehehasnoinstincts——ratherbecausehehassomanythattheyblockeachother’spath。
Thus，then，withouttroublingourselvesaboutthewordsinstinctandreason，wemayconfidentlysaythathoweveruncertainman’sreactionsuponhisenvironmentmaysome-timesseemincomparisonwiththoseoflowercreatures，theuncertaintyisprobablynotduetotheirpossessionofanyprinciplesofactionwhichhelacks。Onthecontrary，manpossessesalltheimpulsesthattheyhave，andagreatmanymorebesides。Inotherwords，thereisnomaterialantagonismbetweeninstinctandreason。Reason，perse，caninhibitnoimpulses；theonlythingthatcanneutralizeanimpulseisanimpulsetheotherway。Reasonmay，however，makeaninferencewhichwillexcitetheimaginationsoastosetloosetheimpulsetheotherway；andthus，thoughtheanimalrichestinreasonmightbealsotheanimalrichestininstinctiveimpulsestoo，hewouldneverseemthefatalautomatonwhicha，merelyinstinctiveanimalwouldbe。
Letusnowturntohumanimpulseswitha，littlemoredetail。Allwehaveascertainedsofaristhatimpulsesofanoriginallyinstinctivecharactermayexist，andyetnotbetraythemselvesbyautomaticfatalityofconduct。
Butinmallwhatimpulsesdoexist？Inthelightofwhathasbeensaid，itisobviousthatanexistingimpulsemaynotalwaysbesuperficiallyapparentevenwhenitsobjectisthere。Andweshallseethatsomeimpulsesmaybemaskedbycausesofwhichwehavenotyetspoken。TWOPRINCIPLESOFNON-UNIFORMITYININSTINCTS。
Wereonedevisinganabstractscheme，nothingwouldbeeasierthantodiscoverfromananimal’sactionsjusthowmanyinstinctshepossessed。
Hewouldreactinonewayonlyuponeachclassofobjectswithwhichhislifehadtodeal；hewouldreactinidenticallythesamewayuponeveryspecimenofaclass；andhewouldreactinvariablyduringhiswholelife。
Therewouldbenogapsamonghis[p。394]instincts；allwouldcometolightwithoutperversionordisguise。Buttherearenosuchabstractanimals，andno-wheredoestheinstinctivelifedisplayitselfinsucha，way。Notonly，aswehaveseen，mayobjectsofthesameclassarousereactionsofOppositesortsinconsequenceofslightchangesintilecircumstances，intheindividualobject，orintheagent’sinwardcondition；buttwootherprinciplesofwhichwehavenotyetspoken，maycomeintoplayandproduceresultssostrikingthatobserversaseminentasMessrs。D。A。SpaldingandRomanesdonothesitatetocallthem’derangementsofthementalconstitution，’
andtoconcludethattheinstinctivemachineryhasgotoutofgear。
Theseprinciplesarethose1。Oftheinhibitionofinstinctsbyhabits；and2。Ofthetransitorinessofinstincts。
Takeninconjunctionwiththetwoformerprinciples——thatthesameobjectmayexciteambiguousimpulses，orsuggestanimpulsedifferentfromthatwhichitexcites，bysuggestingaremoteobject——theyexplainanyamountofdeparturefromuniformityofconduct，withoutimplyinganygettingoutofgearoftheelementaryimpulsesfromwhichtheconductflows。
1。Thelawofinhibitionofinstinctsbyhabitsisthis:
Whenobjectsofacertainclasselicitfromananimalacertainsortofreaction，itoftenhappensthattheanimalbecomespartialtothefirstspecimenoftheclassonwhichithasreacted，andwillnotafterwardreactonanyotherspecimen。
Theselectionofaparticularholetolivein，ofa，particularmate，ofaparticularfeeding-ground，aparticularvarietyofdiet，aparticularanything，inshort，outofapossiblemultitude，isaverywide-spreadtendencyamonganimals，eventhoselowdowninthescale。Thelimpetwillreturntothesamesticking-placeinitsrook，andthelobstertoitsfavoritenookonthesea-bottom。Therabbitwilldeposititsdunginthesamecorner；
thebirdmakesitsnestonthesamebough。Buteachofthesepreferencescarrieswithitaninsensibilitytootheropportunitiesandoccasions——
aninsensibilitywhichcanonlybedescribedphysiologicallyasaninhibitionof[p。395]newimpulsesbythehabitofoldonesalreadyformed。Thepossessionofhomesandwivesofourownmakesusstrangelyinsensibletothecharmsofthoseofotherpeople；Fewofusareadventurousinthematteroffood；
infact，mostofusthinkthereissomethingdisgustinginabilloffaretowhichweareunused。Strangers，weareapttothink，cannotbeworthknowing，especiallyiftheycomefromdistantcities，etc。Theoriginalimpulsewhichgotushomes，wives，dietaries，andfriendsatall，seemstoexhaustitselfinitsfirstachievementsandtoleavenosurplusenergyforreactingonnewcases。Andsoitcomesaboutthat，witnessingthistorpor，anobserverofmankindmightsaythatnoinstinctivepropensitytowardcertainobjectsexistedatall。Itexisted，butitexistedmiscellaneously，orasaninstinctpureandsimple，onlybeforehabitwasformed。Ahabit，oncegraftedonaninstinctivetendency，restrictstherangeofthetendencyitself，andkeepsusfromreactingonanybutthehabitualobject，althoughotherobjectsmightjustaswellhavebeenchosenhadtheybeenthefirst-comers。
Anothersortofarrestofinstinctbyhabitiswherethesameclassofobjectsawakenscontraryinstinctiveimpulses。Heretheimpulsefirstfollowedtowardagivenindividualoftheclassisapttokeephimfromeverawakeningtheoppositeimpulseinus。Infact，thewholeclassmaybeprotectedbythisindividualspecimenfromtheapplicationtoitoftheotherimpulse。Animals，forexample，awakeninachildtheoppositeimpulsesoffearingandfondling。Butifachild，inhisfirstattemptstopatadog，getssnappedatorbitten，sothattheimpulseoffearisstronglyaroused，itmaybethatforyearstocomenodogwillexciteinhimtheimpulsetofondleagain。Ontheotherhand，thegreatestnaturalenemies，ifcarefullyintroducedtoeachotherwhenyoungandguidedattheoutsetbysuperiorauthority，settledownintothose’happyfamilies’
offriendswhichweseeinourmenageries。Younganimals，immediatelyafterbirth，havenoinstinctoffear，butshowtheirdependencebyallowingthemselvestobefreelyhandled。Later，however，theygrow’wild，’and，iflefttothemselves，willnotletmanapproachthem。Iamtoldbyfarmersinthe[p。396]Adirondackwildernessthatitisaveryseriousmatterifacowwandersoffandcalvesinthewoodsandisnotfoundforaweekormore。
Thecalf，bythattime，isaswildandalmostasfleetasadeer，andhardtocapturewithoutviolence。Butcalvesrarelyshowanyparticularwildnesstothemenwhohavebeenincontactwiththemduringthefirstdaysoftheirlife，whentheinstincttoattachthemselvesisuppermost，nordotheydreadstrangersastheywouldifbroughtupwild。
Chickensgiveacuriousillustrationofthesamelaw。Mr。Spalding’swonderfularticleoninstinctshallsupplyuswiththefacts。Theselittlecreaturesshowoppositeinstinctsofattachmentandfear，eitherofwhichmaybearousedbythesameobject，man。Ifachickisbornintheabsenceofthehen，it\"willfollowanymovingobject。And，whenguidedbysightalone，theyseemtohavenomoledispositiontofollowahenthantofollowaduckorahumanbeing。Unreflectinglookers-on，whentheysawchickensadayoldrunningafterme，\"saysMr。Spalding，\"andolderonesfollowingmeformiles，andansweringtomywhistle，imaginedthatImusthavesomeoccultpoweroverthecreatures:whereasIhadsimplyallowedthemtofollowmefromthefirst。Thereistheinstincttofollow；andtheear，priortoexperience，attachesthemtotherightobject。\"[7]
Butifamanpresentshimselfforthefirsttimewhentheinstinctoffearisstrong，thephenomenaarealtogetherreversed。Mr。Spaldingkeptthreechickenshoodeduntiltheywerenearlyfourdaysold，andthusdescribestheirbehavior:
\"Eachofthem，onbeingunhooded，evincedthegreatestterrortome，dashingoffintheoppositedirectionwheneverIsoughttoapproachit。
Thetableonwhichtheywereunhoodedstoodbeforeawindow，andeachinitsturnbeatagainstthewindowlikeawildbird。Oneofthemdartedbehindsomebooks，and，squeezingitselfintoacorner，remainedcoweringforalengthoftime。Wemightguessatthemeaningofthisstrangeandexceptionalwildness；buttheoddfactisenoughformypresentpurpose。Whatevermighthavebeenthemeaningofthismarkedchangeintheirmentalconstitution-hadtheybeenunhoodedonthepreviousdaytheywouldhaveruntomeinsteadoffromme——itcouldnothavebeentheeffectofexperience；itmusthaveresultedwhollyfromchangesintheirownorganizations。\"[8][p。
397]
TheircasewaspreciselyanalogoustothatoftheAdirondackcalves。
Thetwooppositeinstinctsrelativetothesameobjectripeninsuccession。
Ifthefirstoneengendersahabit，thathabitwillinhibittheapplicationofthesecondinstincttothatobject。Allanimalsaretameduringtheearliestphaseoftheirinfancy。Habitsformedthenlimittheeffectsofwhateverinstinctsofwildnessmaylaterbeevolved。
Mr。Romanesgivessomeverycuriousexamplesofthewayinwhichinstinctivetendenciesmaybealteredbythehabitstowhichtheirfirst’objects’
havegivenrise。Thecasesarealittlemorecomplicatedthanthosementionedinthetext，inasmuchastheobjectreactedonnotonlystartsahabitwhichinhibitsotherkindsofimpulsetowarditalthoughsuchotherkindsmightbenatural，butevenmodifiesbyitsownpeculiarconducttheconstitutionoftheimpulsewhichitactuallyawakens。
Twooftheinstancesinquestionarethoseofhenswhohatchedoutbroodsofchicksafterhavinginthreepreviousyearshatchedducks。Theystrovetocoaxortocompeltheirnewprogenytoenterthewater，andseemedmuchperplexedattheirunwillingness。Anotherhenadoptedabroodofyoungferretswhich，havinglosttheirmother，wereputunderher。Duringallthetimetheywereleftwithhershehadtositonthenest，fortheycouldnotwanderlikeyoungchicks。Sheobeyedtheirhoarsegrowlingasshewouldhaveobeyedherchickens’peep。Shecombedouttheirhairwithherbill，and\"usedfrequentlytostopandlookwithoneeyeatthewrigglingnestful，withaninquiringgraze，expressiveofastonishment。\"Atothertimesshewouldflyupwithaloudscream，doubtlessbecausetheorphanshadnippedherintheirsearchforteats。Finally，aBrahmahennursedayoungpeacockduringtheenormousperiodofeighteenmonths，andneverlaidanyeggsduringallthistime。TheabnormaldegreeofpridewhichsheshowedinherwonderfulchickenisdescribedbyDr。Romanesasludicrous。\"[9]
[p。398]
2。Thisleadsustothelawoftransitoriness，whichisthis:Manyinstinctsripenatacertainageandthenfadeaway。Aconsequenceofthislawisthatif，duringthetimeofsuchaninstinct’svivacity，objectsadequatetoarouseitaremetwith，ahabitofactingonthemisformed，whichremainswhentheoriginalinstincthaspassedaway；
butthatifnosuchobjectsaremetwith，thennohabitwillbeformed；
and，lateroninlife，whentheanimalmeetstheobjects，hewillaltogetherfailtoreact，asattheearlierepochhewouldinstinctivelyhavedone。
Nodoubtsuchalawisrestricted。Someinstinctsarefarlesstransientthanothers——thoseconnectedwithfeedingand’self-preservation’mayhardlybetransientatall，endsome，afterfadingoutforatime，recurasstrongasever，e。g。，theinstinctsofpairingandrearingyoung。Thelaw，however，thoughnotabsolute，iscertainlyverywide-spread，andafewexampleswillillustratejustwhatitmeans。
Inthechickensandcalvesabovementioned，itisobviousthattheinstincttofollowandbecomeattachedfadesoutafterafewdays，andthattheinstinctofflightthentakesitsplace，theconductofthecreaturetowardmanbeingdecidedbytheformationornon-formationofacertainhabitduringthosedays。Thetransiencyofthechicken’sinstincttofollowisalsoprovedbyitsconducttowardthehen。Mr。Spaldingkeptsomechickensshutuptilltheywerecomparativelyold，and，speakingofthese，hesays:
\"Achickenthathasnotheardthecallofthemothertilluntileightortendaysoldthenhearsitasifithearditnot。IregrettofindthatonthispointmynotesarenotsofullasIcouldwish，orastheymighthavebeen。Thereis，however，anaccountofonechickenthatcouldnotbereturnedtothemotherwhentendaysold。Thehenfollowedit，andtriedtoenticeitineveryway；still，itcontinuallyleftherandrantothehouseortoanypersonofwhomitcaughtsight。Thisitpersistedindoing，thoughbeatenbackwithasmallbranchdozensoftimes，and，indeed，cruellymistreated。Itwasalsoplacedunderthemotheratnight，butitagainleftherinthemorning。\"
Theinstinctofsuckingisripeinallmammalsatbirth，andleadstothathabitoftakingthebreastwhich，inthehumaninfant，maybeprolongedbydailyexerciselongbe-[p。399]yonditsusualtermofayearorayearandahalf。Buttheinstinctitselfistransient，inthesensethatif，foranyreason，thechildbefedbyspoonduringthefirstfewdaysofitslifeandnotputtothebreast，itmaybenoeasymatterafterthattomakeitsuckatall。Soofcalves。Iftheirmotherdie，orbedry，orrefusetoletthemsuckforadayortwo，sothattheyarefedbyhand，itbecomeshardtogetthemtosuckatallwhenanewnurseisprovided。
Theeasewithwhichsuckingcreaturesareweaned，bysimplybreakingthehabitandgivingthemfoodinanewway，showsthattheinstinct，purelyassuch，mustbeentirelyextinct。
Assuredlythesimplefactthatinstinctsaretransient，andthattheeffectoflateronesmaybealteredbythehabitswhichearlieroneshaveleftbehind，isafarmorephilosophicalexplanationthanthenotionofaninstinctiveconstitutionvaguely’deranged’or’thrownoutofgear。’
IhaveobservedaScotchterrier，bornonthefloorofastableinDecember，andtransferredsixweekslatertoa，carpetedhouse，make，whenhewaslessthanfourmonthsold，averyelaboratepretenseofburyingthings，suchasgloves，etc。，withwhichhehadplayedtillhewastired。Hescratchedthecarpetwithhisforefeet，droppedtheobjectfromhismouthuponthespot，andthenscratchedallaboutitwithbothfore-andhind-feet，ifIrememberrightly，andfinallywentawayandletitlie。Ofcourse，theactwasentirelyuseless。Isawhimperformitatthatage，somefourorfivetimes，andneveragaininhislife。Theconditionswerenotpresenttofixahabitwhichshouldlastwhenthepromptinginstinctdiedaway。
Butsupposemeatinsteadofa，glove，earthinsteadofacarpet，hunger-pangsinsteadofafreshsupperafewhourslater，anditiseasytoseehowthisdogmighthavegotintoahabitofburyingsuperfluousfood，whichmighthavelastedallhislife。Whocanswearthatthestrictlyinstructivepartofthefood-buryingpropensityinthewildCanidæ；maynotbeasshort-livedasitwasinthisterrier？
AsimilarinstanceisgivenbyDr。H。D。Schmidt[10]ofNewOrleans:
[p。400]
\"ImaycitetheexampleofayoungsquirrelwhichIhadtamed，anumberofyearsago，whenservinginthearmy，andwhenIhadsufficientleisure；
andopportunitytostudythehabitsofanimals。Intheautumn，beforethewintersetsin，adultsquirrelsburyasmanynutsastheycancollect，separately，intheground。Holdingthenutfirmlybetweentheirteeth，theyfirstscratchaholeintheground，and，afterpointingtheirearsinalldirectionstoconvincethemselvesthatnoenemyisnear，theyram——thehead，withthenutstillbetweenthefrontteeth，servingasasledge-hammer——thenutintotheground，andthenfilluptheholebymeansoftheirpaws。Thewholeprocessisexecutedwithgreatrapidity，and，asitappearedtome，alwayswithexactlythesamemovements；infact，itisdonesowellthatIcouldneverdiscoverthetracesoftheburial-ground。Now，asregardstheyoungsquirrel，which，ofcourse，neverhadbeenpresentattheburialofanut，Iobservedthat，afterhavingeatenanumberofhickory-nutstoappeaseitsappetite，itwouldtakeonebetweenitsteeth，thensituprightandlisteninalldirections。Findingallright，itwouldscratchuponthesmoothblanketonwhichIwasplayingwithitasiftomakeahole，thenhammerwiththenutbetweenitsteethupontheblanket，andfinallyperformallthemotionsrequiredtofillupahole——intheair；afterwhichitwouldjumpaway，leavingthenut，ofcourse，uncovered。\"
Theanecdote，ofcourse，illustratesbeautifullythecloserelationofinstincttoreflexaction——aparticularperceptioncallsforthparticularmovements，andthatisall。Dr。Schmidtwritesmethatthesquirrelinquestionsoonpassedawayfromhisobservation。Itmayfairlybepresumedthat，ifhehadbeenlongretainedprisonerinacage，hewouldsoonhaveforgottenhisgesticulationsoverthehickory-nuts。
Onemight，indeed，gostillfurtherwithsafety，andexpectthat，ifsuchacaptivesquirrelwerethensetfree，hewouldneverafterwardsacquirethispeculiarinstinctofhistribe。[11]
Leavingloweranimalsaside，andturningtohumaninstincts，weseethelawoftransiencycorroboratedonthe[p。401]widestscalebythealternationofdifferentinterestsandpassionsashumanlifegoeson。
Withthechild，lifeisallplayandfairy-talesandlearningtheexternalpropertiesof’things；’withtheyouth，itisbodilyexercisesofamoresystematicsort，novelsoftherealworld，boon-fellowshipandsong，friendshipandlove，nature，travelandadventure，scienceandphilosophy；withtheman，ambition-andpolicy，acquisitiveness，responsibilitytoothers，andtheselfishzestofthebattleoflife。Ifaboygrowsupaloneattheageofgamesandsports，andlearnsneithertoplayball，norrow，norsail，norride，norskate，norshoot，probablyhewillbesedentarytotheendofhisdays；and，thoughthebestofopportunitiesbeaffordedhimforlearningthesethingslater，itisahundredtoonebuthewillpassthembyandshrinkbackfromtheeffortoftakingthosenecessaryfirststepstheprospectofwhich，atanearlierage，wouldhavefilledhimwitheagerdelight。Thesexualpassionexpiresafteraprotractedreign；
butitiswellknownthatitspeculiarmanifestationsinagivenindividualdependalmostentirelyonthehabitshemayformduringtheearlyperiodofitsactivity。Exposuretobadcompanythenmakeshimalooseliverallhisdays；chastitykeptatfirstmakesthesameeasylateron。Inallpedagogythegreatthingistostriketheironwhilehot，andtoseizethewaveofthepupil’sinterestineachsuccessivesubjectbeforeitsebbhascome，sothatknowledgemaybegotandahabitofskillacquired——aheadwayofinterest，inshort，secured，onwhichafterwardtheindividualmayfloat。
Thereisahappymomentforfixingskillindrawing，formakingboyscollectorsinnaturalhistory，andpresentlydissectorsandbotanists；thenforinitiatingthemintotheharmoniesofmechanicsandthewondersofphysicalandchemicallaw。Later，introspectivepsychologyandthemetaphysicalandreligiousmysteriestaketheirturn；and，lastofall，thedramaofhumanaffairsandworldlywisdominthewidestsenseoftheterm。Ineachofusasaturation-pointissoonreachedinallthesethings；theimpetusofourpurelyintellectualzealexpires，andunlessthetopicbeoneassociatedwithsomeurgentpersonalneedthatkeepsourwitsconstantlywhettedaboutit，we[p。402]settleintoanequilibrium，andliveonwhatwelearnedwhenourinterestwasfreshandinstinctive，withoutaddingtothestore。Outsideoftheirownbusiness，theideasgainedbymenbeforetheyaretwenty-fivearepracticallytheonlyideastheyshallhaveintheirlives。Theycannotgetanythingnew。Disinterestedcuriosityispast，thementalgroovesandchannelsset，thepowerofassimilationgone。Ifbychanceweeverdolearnanythingaboutsomeentirelynewtopicweareafflictedwithastrangesenseofinsecurity，andwefeartoadvancearesoluteopinion。But，withthingslearnedintheplasticdaysofinstinctivecuriosityweneverloseentirelyoursenseofbeingathome。Thereremainsakinship，asentimentofintimateacquaintance，which，evenwhenweknowwehavefailedtokeepabreastofthesubject，mattersuswithasenseofpoweroverit，andmakesusfeelnotaltogetheroutofthepale。
Whateverindividualexceptionsmightbecitedtothisareofthesortthat’provetherule。’
Todetectthemomentoftheinstinctivereadinessforthesubjectis，then，thefirstdutyofeveryeducator。Asforthepupils，itwouldprobablyleadtoamoreearnesttemperonthepartofcollegestudentsiftheyhadlessbeliefintheirunlimitedfutureintellectualpotentialities，andcouldbebroughttorealizethatwhateverphysicsandpoliticaleconomyandphilosophytheyarenowacquiringare，forbetterorworse，thephysicsandpoliticaleconomyandphilosophythatwillhavetoservethemtotheend。
Thenaturalconclusiontodrawfromthistransiencyofinstinctsisthatmostinstinctsareimplantedforthesakeofgivingrisetohabits，andthat，thispurposeonceaccomplished，theinstinctsthemselves，assuch，havenoraisond’ê；treinthepsychicaleconomy，andconsequentlyfadeaway。Thatoccasionallyaninstinctshouldfadebeforecircumstancespermitofahabitbeingformed，orthat，ifthehabitbeformed，otherfactorsthanthepureinstinctshouldmodifyitscourse，neednotsurpriseus。Lifeisfulloftheimperfectadjustmenttoindividualcases，ofarrangementswhich，takingthespeciesasawhole，arequiteorderlyandregular。Instinctcannotbeexpectedtoescapethisgeneralrisk。[p。403]SPECIALHUMANINSTINCTS。
Letusnowtestourprinciplesbyturningtohumaninstinctsinmoredetail。Wecannotpretendinthesepagestobeminuteorexhaustive。Butwecansayenoughtosetalltheabovegeneralitiesinamorefavorablelight。But，first，whatkindofmotorreactionsuponobjectsshallwecountasinstincts？This，asaforesaid，isasomewhatarbitrarymatter。Someoftheactionsarousedinusbyobjectsgonofurtherthanourownbodies。
Suchisthebristlingupoftheattentionwhenanovelobjectisperceived，orthe’expression’onthefaceorthebreathingapparatusofanemotionitmayexcite。Thesemovementsmergeintoordinaryreflexactionslikelaughingwhentickled，ormakingawryfaceatabadtaste。Otheractionstakeeffectupontheouterworld。Suchareflightfromawildbeast，imitationofwhatweseeacomradedo，etc。Onthewholeitisbesttobecatholic，sinceitisveryhardtodrawanexactline；andcallbothofthesekindsofactivityinstinctive，sofaraseithermaybenaturallyprovokedbythepresenceofspecialsortsofoutwardfact。
ProfessorPreyer，inhiscarefullittlework，’DieSeelesKindes，’says\"instinctiveactsareinmanfewinnumber，and，apartfromthoseconnectedwiththesexualpassion，difficulttorecognizeafterearlyyouthispast。\"
Andheadds，\"somuchthemoreattentionshouldwepaytotheinstinctivemovementsofnew-bornbabies，sucklings，andsmallchildren。\"Thatinstinctiveactsshouldbeeasiestrecognizedinchildhoodwouldbeaverynaturaleffectofourprinciplesoftransitoriness，andoftherestrictiveinfluenceofhabitsonceacquired；butweshallseehowfartheyarefrombeing’fewinnumber’inman。ProfessorPreyerdividesthemovementsofinfantsintoimpulsive，reflex，andinstinctive。Byimpulsivemovementshemeansrandommovementsoflimbs，body，andvoice，withnoaim，andbeforeperceptionisaroused。Amongthefirstreflexmovementsarecryingoncontactwiththeair，sneezing，snuffling，snoring，coughing，sighing，sobbing，gagging，vomiting，hiccuping，starting，movingthelimbswhentickled，touched，orblownupon，etc。，etc。[p。404]
Ofthemovementscalledbyhiminstinctiveinthechild，ProfessorPreyergivesafullaccount。HerrSchneiderdoesthesame；andastheirdescriptionsagreewitheachotherandwithwhatotherwritersaboutinfancysay，I
willbasemyownverybriefstatementontheirs。
Sucking:almostperfectatbirth；notcoupledwithanycongenitaltendencytoseekthebreast，thisbeingalateracquisition。Aswehaveseen，suckingisatransitoryinstinct。
Bitinganobjectplacedinthemouth，chewingandgrindingtheteeth；lickingsugar；makingcharacteristicgrimacesoverbitterandsweettastes；spittingout。
Claspinganobjectwhichtouchesthefingersortoes。Later，attemptstograspatanobjectseenatadistance。
Pointingatsuchobjects，andmakingapeculiarsoundexpressiveofdesire，which，inmyownthreechildren，wasthefirstmanifestationofspeech，occurringmanyweeksbeforeothersignificantsounds。
Carryingtothemouthoftheobject，whengrasped。Thisinstinct，guidedandinhibitedbythesenseoftaste，andcombinedwiththeinstinctsofbiting，chewing，sucking，spitting-out，etc。，andwiththereflexactofswallowing，leadsintheindividualtoasetofhabitswhichconstitutehisfunctionofalimentation，andwhichmayormaynotbegraduallymodifiedaslifegoeson。
Cryingatbodilydiscomfort，hunger，orpain，andatsolitude。Smilingatbeingnoticed，fondled，orsmiledatbyothers。Itseemsverydoubtfulwhetheryounginfantshaveanyinstinctivefearofaterribleorscowlingface。Ihavebeenunabletomakemyownchildren，underayearold，changetheirexpressionwhenIchangedmine；atmosttheymanifestedattentionorcuriosity。Preyerinstancesaprotrusionofthelips，which，hesays，maybesogreatastoremindoneofthatinthechimpanzee，asaninstinctiveexpressionofconcentratedattentioninthehumaninfant。
Turningtheheadasideasagestureofrejection，agestureusuallyaccompaniedwithafrownandabendingbackofthebody，andwithholdingthebreath。
Holdingheaderect。
Sittingup。[p。405]
Standing。
Locomotion。Theearlymovementsofchildren’slimbsaremoreorlesssymmetrical。Laterababywillmovehislegsinalternationifsuspendedintheair。Butuntiltheimpulsetowalkawakensbythenaturalripeningofthenerve-centres，itseemstomakenodifferencehowoftenthechild’sfeetmaybeplacedincontactwiththeground；thelegsremainlimp，anddonotrespondtothesensationofcontactinthesolesbymuscularcontractionspressingdownwards。Nosooner，however，isthestandingimpulseborn，thanthechildstiffenshislegsandpressesdownwardassoonashefeelsthefloor。Insomebabiesthisisthefirstlocomotoryreaction。Inothersitisprecededbytheinstincttocreep，whicharises，asIcantestify，ofteninaverysuddenway。Yesterdaythebabysatquitecontentedlywhereverhewasput；to-dayithasbecomeimpossibletokeephimsittingatall，soirresistibleistheimpulse，arousedbythesightofthefloor，tothrowhimselfforwarduponhishands。Usuallythearmsaretooweak，andtheambitiouslittleexperimenterfallsonhisnose。Buthisperseveranceisdauntless，andheendsinafewdaysbylearningtotravelrapidlyaroundtheroominthequadrupedalway。Thepositionofthelegsin’creeping’variesmuchfromonechildtoanother。Myownchild，whencreeping，wasoftenobservedtopickupobjectsfromthefloorwithhismouth，aphenomenonwhich，asDr。O。W。Holmeshasremarked，liketheearlytendencytograspwiththetoes，easilylendsitselftointerpretationasareminiscenceofprehumanancestralhabits。
Thewalkinginstinctmayawakenwithnolesssudden-ness，anditsentireeducationbecompletedwithinaweek’scompass，barring，ofcourse，itlittle’grogginess’inthegait。Individualinfantsvaryenormously；butonthewholeitissafetosaythatthemodeofdevelopmentoftheselocomotorinstinctsisinconsistentwiththeaccountgivenbytheolderEnglishassociationistschool，oftheirbeingresultsoftheindividual’seducation，duealtogethertothegradualassociationofcertainperceptionswithcertainhap-hazardmovementsandcertainresultantpleasures。Mr[p。406]Bainhastried，[12]bydescribingthedemeanorofnew-bornlambs，toshowthatlocomotionislearnedbyaveryrapidexperience。Buttheobservationrecordedprovesthefacultytobealmostperfectfromthefirst；andallotherswhohaveobservednew-borncalves，lambs，andpigsagreethatintheseanimalsthepowersofstandingandwalking，andofinterpretingthetopographicalsignificanceofsightsandsounds，areallbutfullydevelopedatbirth。Ofteninanimalswhoseemtobe’learning’towalkorflythesemblanceisillusive。Theawkwardnessshownisnotduetothefactthat’experience’hasnotyetbeentheretoassociatethesuccessfulmovementsandexcludethefailures，buttothefactthattheanimalisbeginninghisattemptsbeforetheco-ordinatingcentreshavequiteripenedfortheirwork。Mr。Spalding’sobservationsonthispointareconclusiveastobirds。
\"Birds，\"besays，Adonotlearntofly。TwoyearsagoIshutupfiveunfledgedswallowsinasmallbox，notmuchlargerthanthenestfromwhichtheyweretaken。
Thelittlebox，whichhadawirefront，washungonthewallnearthenest，andtheyoungswallowswerefedbytheirparentsthroughthewires。Inthisconfinement，wheretheycouldnotevenextendtheirwings，theywerekeptuntilaftertheywerefullyfledged……Ongoingtosettheprisonersfree，onewasfounddead……Theremainingfourwereallowedtoescapeoneatatime。Twoofthesewereperceptiblywaveringandunsteadyintheirflight。Oneofthem，afteraflightofsomeninetyyards，disappearedamongsometrees。\"No。3andNo。4\"neverflewagainstanything，norwasthere，intheiravoidingobjects，anyappreciabledifferencebetweenthemandtheoldbirds。No。3sweptroundtheWellingtonia，andNo。4roseoverthehedge，justasweseetheoldswallowsdoingeveryhouroftheday。
Ihavethissummerverifiedtheseobservations。OftwoswallowsIhadsimilarlyconfined，one，onbeingsetfree，hewayardortwoclosetotheground，roseinthedirectionofabeech-tree，whichitgracefullyavoided；itwasseenforaconsiderabletimesweepingroundthebeechesandperformingmagnificentevolutionsintheairhighabovethem。Theother，whichwasobservedtobeattheairwithitswingsmorethanusual，wassoonlosttosight，behindsometrees。Titmice，tomtits，andwrensIhavemadethesubjectsofsimilarobservations，andwithsimilarresults。\"[13]
Inthelightofthisreport，onemaywellbetemptedtomakeapredictionaboutthehumanchild，slidsaythatifa[p。407]babywerekeptfromgettingonhisfeetfortwoorthreeweeksafterthefirstimpulsetowalkhadshownitselfinhim，——asmallblisteroneachsolewoulddothebusiness，——hemightthenbeexpectedtowalkaboutaswell，throughthemereripeningofhisnerve-centres，asiftheordinaryprocessof’learning’hadbeenallowedtooccurduringalltheblisteredtime。Itistobehopedthatsomescientificwidower，leftalonewithhisoffspringatthecriticalmoment，mayerelongtestthissuggestiononthelivingsubject。Climbingontrees，fences，furniture，banisters，etc。，isawell-markedinstinctivepropensitywhichripensafterthefourthyear。