InthetwelfthcenturytherebegantobeintroducedintothelanguagesomeofthetermsofAristotle’sphilosophy。andtowardsthesixteenthcenturyoneexpressedbyGreektermsallthepartsofthehumanbody，theirdiseases，theirremedies。whencethewordscardiaque，cephalique，podagre，apoplectique，asthmatique，iliaque，empyeme，andsomanyothers。AlthoughthelanguagethenenricheditselffromtheGreek，andalthoughsinceCharlesVIII。ithaddrawnmuchaidfromItalianalreadyperfected，theFrenchlanguagehadnotyettakenregularconsistence。Francoisl。abolishedtheancientcustomofpleading，judging，contractinginLatin。customwhichborewitnesstothebarbarismofalanguagewhichonedidnotdareuseinpublicdocuments，aperniciouscustomforcitizenswhoselotwasregulatedinalanguagetheydidnotunderstand。OnewasobligedthentocultivateFrench。butthelanguagewasneithernoblenorregular。Thesyntaxwaslefttocaprice。Thegeniusforconversationbeingturnedtopleasantries，thelanguagebecameveryfertileinburlesqueandnaiveexpressions，andverysterileinnobleandharmoniousterms：fromthisitcomesthatinrhymingdictionariesonefindstwentytermssuitableforcomicpoetry，foroneformoreexalteduse。anditis，further，areasonwhyMarotneversucceededinaseriousstyle，andwhyAmyotcouldrenderPlutarch’seleganceonlywithnaivete。
FrenchacquiredvigourbeneaththepenofMontaigne。butitstillhadneithernobilitynorharmony。RonsardspoiledthelanguagebybringingintoFrenchpoetrytheGreekcompoundswhichthedoctorsandphilosophersused。MalherberepairedRonsard’smischiefsomewhat。ThelanguagebecamemorenobleandmoreharmoniouswiththeestablishmentoftheAcademieFrancaise，andacquiredfinally，inthereignofLouisXIV。，theperfectionwherebyitmightbecarriedintoallformsofcomposition。
Thegeniusofthislanguageisorderandclarity。foreachlanguagehasitsgenius，andthisgeniusconsistsinthefacilitywhichthelanguagegivesforexpressingoneselfmoreorlesshappily，forusingorrejectingthefamiliartwistsofotherlanguages。Frenchhavingnodeclensions，andbeingalwayssubjecttothearticle，cannotadoptGreekandLatininversions。
itobligeswordstoarrangethemselvesinthenaturalorderofideas。OnlyinonewaycanonesayPlancusaprissoindesaffairesdeCesar。
Thatistheonlyarrangementonecangivetothesewords。ExpressthisphraseinLatin-ResCaesarisPlancusdiligentercuravit：onecanarrangethesewordsinahundredandtwentyways，withoutinjuringthesenseandwithouttroublingthelanguage。Theauxiliaryverbswhichekeoutandenervatethephrasesinmodernlanguages，stillrendertheFrenchtonguelittlesuitedtotheconciselapidarystyle。Theauxiliaryverbs，itspronouns，itsarticles，itslackofdeclinableparticiples，andfinallyitsuniformgait，areinjurioustothegreatenthusiasmofpoetry，inwhichithaslessresourcesthanItalianandEnglish。butthisconstraintandthisbondagerenderitmoresuitablefortragedyandcomedythananylanguageinEurope。Thenaturalorderinwhichoneisobligedtoexpressone’sthoughtsandconstructone’sphrases，diffusesinthislanguageasweetnessandeasinessthatispleasingtoallpeoples。andthegeniusofthenationminglingwiththegeniusofthelanguagehasproducedmoreagreeablywrittenbooksthancanbeseenamonganyotherpeople。
ThepleasureandlibertyofsocietyhavingbeenlongknownonlyinFrance，thelanguagehasreceivedtherefromadelicacyofexpressionandafinessefullofsimplicitybarelytobefoundelsewhere。Thisfinessehassometimesbeenexaggerated，butpeopleoftastehavealwaysknownhowtoreduceitwithinjustlimits。
ManypersonshavethoughtthattheFrenchlanguagehasbecomeimpoverishedsincethetimeofAmyotandMontaigne：onedoesindeedfindinmanyauthorsexpressionswhicharenolongeradmissible。buttheyareforthemostpartfamiliarexpressionsforwhichequivalentshavebeensubstituted。Thelanguagehasbeenenrichedwithaquantityofnobleandenergeticexpressions。andwithoutspeakinghereoftheeloquenceofthings，ithasacquiredtheeloquenceofwords。ItisinthereignofLouisXIV。，ashasbeensaid，thatthiseloquencehaditsgreatestsplendour，andthatthelanguagewasfixed。
Whateverchangestimeandcapriceprepareforit，thegoodauthorsoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieswillalwaysserveasmodels。PhilosophicalDictionary：FriendshipFRIENDSHIPFRIENDSHIPisthemarriageofthesoul。andthismarriageissubjecttodivorce。Itisatacitcontractbetweentwosensitiveandvirtuouspersons。
Isaysensitive，becauseamonk，areclusecanbenotwickedandlivewithoutknowingwhatfriendshipis。Isayvirtuous，becausethewickedhaveonlyaccomplices。voluptuarieshavecompanionsindebauch，self-seekershavepartners，politiciansgetpartisans。thegeneralityofidlemenhaveattachments。princeshavecourtiers。virtuousmenalonehavefriends。CetheguswastheaccompliceofCatilina，andMaecenasthecourtierofOctavius。
butCicerowasthefriendofAtticus。PhilosophicalDictionary：GodGODDURINGthereignofArcadius，Logomacos，lecturerintheologyofConstantinople，wenttoScythiaandhaltedatthefootoftheCaucasus，inthefertileplainsofZephirim，onthefrontierofColchis。ThatgoodoldmanDondindacwasinhisgreatlowerhall，betweenhissheepfoldandhisvastbarn。hewaskneelingwithhiswife，hisfivesonsandfivedaughters，hiskindredandhisservants，andafteralightmealtheywereallsingingGod’spraises。
Whatdoyouthere，idolator？saidLogomacostohim。
Iamnotanidolator，answeredDondindac。
Youmustbeanidolator，saidLogomacos，seeingthatyouarenotGreek。Tellme，whatwasthatyouweresinginginyourbarbarousScythianjargon？
AlltonguesareequalintheearsofGod，answeredtheScythian。
WeweresingingHispraises。
That’sveryextraordinary，returnedthetheologian。AScythianfamilywhoprayGodwithouthavingbeentaughtbyus！HesoonengagedDondindactheScythianinconversation，forheknewalittleScythian，andtheotheralittleGreek。ThefollowingconversationwasfoundinamanuscriptpreservedinthelibraryofConstantinople。LOGOMACOS：
Letusseeifyouknowyourcatechism。WhydoyouprayCod？DONDINDAC：
BecauseitisrighttoworshiptheSupremeBeingfromwhomweholdeverything。LOGOMACOS：
Notbadforabarbarian！Andwhatdoyouaskofhim？DONDINDAC：
IthankHimforthebenefitsIenjoy，andevenfortheillswithwhichhetriesme。butItakegoodcarenottoaskHimforanything。Heknowsbetterthanuswhatweneed，andbesides，IamafraidtoaskHimforgoodweatherwhenmyneighbourisaskingforrain。LOCOMACOS：
Ah！Ithoughthewasgoingtosaysomethingsilly。Letusstartagainfartherback。Barbarian，whohastoldyouthereisaGod？DONDINDAC：
Thewholeofnature。LOGOMACOS：
Thatdoesnotsuffice。WhatideahaveyouofGod？DONDINDAC：
Theideaofmycreator，ofmymaster，whowillrewardmeifIdogood，andwhowillpunishmeifIdoill。LOGOMACOS：
Trash，nonsenseallthat！Letuscometoessentials。IsGodinfinitesecundumquid，orinessence？DONDINDAC：
Idon’tunderstandyou。LOGOMACOS：
Brutishfool！IsGodinoneplace，beyondallplaces，orinallplaces？DONDINDAC：
Ihavenoidea……justasyouplease。LOGOMACOS：
Dolt！Isitpossibleforwhathasbeennottohavebeen，andcanasticknothavetwoends？DoesHeseethefutureasfutureoraspresent？
howdoesHedrawthebeingoutofnon-existence，andhowannihilatethebeing？DONDINDAC：
Ihaveneverexaminedthesethings。LOGOMACOS：
Whatablockhead！Come，onemusthumbleoneself，seethingsinproportion。
Tellme，myfriend，doyouthinkthatmattercanbeeternal？DONDINDAC：
Whatdoesitmattertomewhetheritexistsfromalleternityornot？
Idonotexistfromalleternity。Godisalwaysmymaster。Hehasgivenmethenotionofjustice，Imustfollowit。Idonotwanttobeaphilosopher，Iwanttobeaman。LOGOMACOS：
Theseblockheadsaretroublesome。Letusgostepbystep。WhatisGod？DONDINDAC：
Mysovereign，myjudge，myfather。LOGOMACOS：
That’snotwhatI’maskingyou。WhatisHisnature？DONDINDAC：
Tobepotentandgood。LOGOMACOS：
But，isHecorporealorspiritual？DONDINDAC：
HowshouldIknow？LOGOMACOS：
What！youdon’tknowwhataspiritis？DONDINDAC：
Notintheleast：ofwhatusewoulditbetome？shouldIbemorelust？
shouldIbeabetterhusband，abetterfather，abettermaster，abettercitizen？LOGOMACOS：
Itisabsolutelyessentialyoushouldlearnwhataspiritis。Itis，itis，itis……Iwilltellyouanothertime。DONDINDAC：
I’mverymuchafraidthatyoumaytellmelesswhatitisthanwhatitisnot。Allowmetoputaquestiontoyouinmyturn。Ioncesawoneofyourtemples。whydoyoudepictGodwithalongbeard？LOGOMACOS：
That’saverydifficultquestionwhichneedspreliminaryinstruction。DONDINDAC：
Beforereceivingyourinstruction，Imusttellyouwhathappenedtomeoneday。Ihadjustbuiltaclosetattheendofmygarden。Iheardamolearguingwithacockchafer。That’safinebuilding，Saidthemole。
Itmusthavebeenaverypowerfulmolewhodidthatpieceofwork。
You’rejoking，saidthecockchafer。Itwasacock-chaferbubblingoverwithgeniuswhoisthearchitectofthisbuilding。FromthattimeIresolvednevertoargue。PhilosophicalDictionary：HelvetiaHELVETIAHAPPYHelvetia！towhatcharterdoyouoweyourliberty？toyourcourage，toyourresolution，toyourmountains。
ButIamyouremperor。
ButIdonotwantyouanylonger。
Butyourfathersweremyfather’sslaves。
Itisforthatveryreasonthattheirchildrendonotwishtoserveyou。
ButIhadtherightbelongingtomyrank。
Andwehavetherightofnature。
Whyislibertysorare？Becauseitisthechiefestgood。PhilosophicalDictionary：HistoryHISTORYDEFINITION
HISTORYistherecitaloffactsgivenastrue，incontra-distinctiontothefable，whichistherecitaloffactsgivenasfalse。
Thereisthehistoryofopinionswhichishardlyanythingbutacollectionofhumanerrors。
Thehistoryoftheartscanbethemostusefulofallwhenitjoinstotheknowledgeoftheinventionandtheprogressoftheartsthedescriptionoftheirmechanism。
Naturalhistory，improperlycalledhistory，isanessentialpartofnaturalphilosophy。Thehistoryofeventshasbeendividedintosacredhistoryandprofanehistory。sacredhistoryisaseriesofdivineandmiraculousoperationswherebyitpleasedGodonceonatimetoleadtheJewishnation，andto-daytoexerciseourfaith。FIRSTFOUNDATIONSOFHISTORY
Thefirstfoundationsofallhistoryaretherecitalsofthefatherstothechildren，transmittedafterwardfromonegenerationtoanother。
attheirorigintheyareattheverymostprobable，whentheydonotshockcommonsense，andtheyloseonedegreeofprobabilityineachgenerationWithtimethefablegrowsandthetruthgrowsless。fromthisitcomesthatalltheoriginsofpeoplesareabsurd。ThustheEgyptianshadbeengovernedbythegodsformanycenturies。thentheyhadbeengovernedbydemi-gods。finallytheyhadhadkingsforeleventhousandthreehundredandfortyyears。andinthatspaceoftimethesunhadchangedfourtimesfromeasttowest。
ThePhoeniciansofAlexander’stimeclaimedtohavebeenestablishedintheircountryforthirty，thousandyears。andthesethirtythousandyearswerefilledwithasmanyprodigiesastheEgyptianchronology。I
avowthatphysicallyitisverypossiblethatPhoeniciahasexistednotmerelythirtythousandyears，butthirtythousandmilliardsofcenturies，andthatitexperiencedliketherestoftheworldthirtymillionrevolutions。
Butwehavenoknowledgeofit。OneknowswhataridiculouslymarvellousstateofaffairsruledintheancienthistoryoftheGreeks。
TheRomans，forallthattheywereserious，didnotanythelessenvelopthehistoryoftheirearlycenturiesinfables。Thisnation，sorecentcomparedwiththeAsiaticpeoples，wasfivehundredyearswithouthistorians。
Itisnotsurprising，therefore，thatRomuluswasthesonofMars，thatashe-wolfwashisfostermother，thathemarchedwithathousandmenofhisvillageofRomeagainsttwenty-fivethousandcombatantsofthevillageoftheSabines：thatlaterhebecameagod。thatTarquin，theancient，cutastonewitharazor，andthatavestaldrewashiptolandwithhergirdle，etc。
Theearlyannalsofallourmodernnationsarenolessfabulous。theprodigiousandimprobablethingsmustsometimesbereported，butasproofsofhumancredulity：theyenterthehistoryofopinionsandfoolishnesses。
butthefieldistoovast。OFRECORDS
Inordertoknowwithalittlecertaintysomethingofancienthistory，thereisonlyonemeans，itistoseeifanyincontestablerecordsremain。
Wehaveonlythreeinwriting：thefirstisthecollectionofastronomicalobservationsmadefornineteenhundredconsecutiveyearsatBabylon，sentbyAlexandertoGreece。Thisseriesofobservations，whichgoesbacktotwothousandtwohundredandthirty-fouryearsbeforeourera，provesinvinciblythattheBayloniansexistedasabodyofpeopleseveralcenturiesbefore。
fortheartsareonlytheworkoftime，andmen’snaturallazinessleavesthemforsomethousandofyearswithoutotherknowledgeandwithoutothertalentsthanthoseoffeedingthemselves，ofdefendingthemselvesagainsttheinjuriesoftheair，andofslaughteringeachother。LetusjudgebytheGermansandbytheEnglishinCaesar’stime，bytheTartarsto-day，bythetwo-thirdsofAfrica，andbyallthepeopleswehavefoundinAmerica，exceptinginsomerespectsthekingdomsofPeruandofMexico，andtherepublicofTlascala。Letusrememberthatinthewholeofthisnewworldnobodyknewhowtoreadorwrite。
Thesecondrecordisthecentraleclipseofthesun，calculatedinChinatwothousandonehundredandfifty-fiveyearsbeforeourera，andrecognizedtruebyourastronomers。OftheChinesethesamethingmustbesaidasofthepeoplesofBabylon。theyalreadycomprisedavastcivilizedempirewithoutadoubt。ButwhatputstheChineseaboveallthepeoplesoftheearthisthatneithertheirlaws，northeircustoms，northelanguagespokenamongthembytheirletteredmandarinshaschangedforaboutfourthousandyears。Nevertheless，thisnationandthenationofIndia，themostancientofallthosethatexistto-day，whichpossessthevastestandthemostbeautifulcountry，whichinventedalmostalltheartsbeforewehadlearnedanyofthem，havealwaysbeenomittedrighttoourdaysinallso-calleduniversalhistories。AndwhenaSpaniardandaFrenchmantookacensusofthenations，neitheronenortheotherfailedtocallhiscountrythefirstmonarchyintheworld，andhiskingthegreatestkingintheworld，flatteringhimselfthathiskingwouldgivehimapensionassoonashehadreadhisbook。
Thethirdrecord，veryinferiortothetwoothers，existsintheArundelmarbles：thechronicleofAthensisgravedtheretwohundredandsixty-threeyearsbeforeourera。butitgoesbackonlytoCecrops，thirteenhundredandnineteenyearsbeyondthetimewhenitwasengraved。Inthehistoryofantiquitythosearethesoleincontestableepochsthatwehave。
LetusgiveseriousattentiontothesemarblesbroughtbackfromGreecebyLordArundel。Theirchroniclebeginsfifteenhundredandeighty-twoyearsbeforeourera。Thatisto-day1771anantiquityof3，353years，andyoudonotseethereasinglefacttouchingonthemiraculous，ontheprodigious。ItisthesamewiththeOlympiads。itisnottherethatoneshouldsayGraeciamendax，lieingGreece。TheGreeksknewverywellhowtodistinguishbetweenhistoryandfable，betweenrealfactsandthetalesofHerodotus：justasintheirseriousaffairstheiroratorsborrowednothingfromthespeechesofthesophistsorfromtheimagesofthepoets。
ThedateofthetakingofTroyisspecifiedinthesemarbles。butnomentionismadeofApollo’sarrows，orofthesacrificeofIphigenia，oroftheridiculouscombatsofthegods。ThedateoftheinventionsofTriptolemyandCeresisfoundthere。butCeresisnotcalledgoddess。MentionismadeofapoemontheabductionofProsperpine。itisnotsaidthatsheisthedaughterofJupiterandagoddess，andthatsheiswifeofthegodoftheinfernalregions。
HerculesisinitiatedintothemysteriesofEleusis。butnotawordonhistwelvelabours，noronhispassageintoAfricainhiscup，noronhisdivinity，noronthebigfishbywhichhewasswallowed，andwhichkepthiminitsbellythreedaysandthreenights，accordingtoLycophron。
Amongus，onthecontrary，astandardisbroughtfromheavenbyanangeltothemonksofSaint-Denis。apigeonbringsabottleofoiltoachurchinRheims。twoarmiesofsnakesgivethemselvesovertoapitchedbattleinGermany。anarchbishopofMayenceisbesiegedandeatenbyrats。and，tocrowneverything，greatcarehasbeentakentomarktheyearoftheseadventures。
Allhistoryisrecent。Itisnotastonishingthatwehavenoancientprofanehistorybeyondaboutfourthousandyears。Therevolutionsofthisglobe，thelonganduniversalignoranceofthatartwhichtransmitsfactsbywritingarethecauseofit。Thisartwascommononlyamongaverysmallnumberofcivilizednations。andwasinveryfewhandseven。NothingrareramongtheFrenchandtheGermansthantoknowhowtowrite。uptothefourteenthcenturyofoureranearlyalldeedswereonlyattestedbywitnesses。Itwas，inFrance，onlyunderCharlesVII。，in1454，thatonestartedtodraftinwritingsomeofthecustomsofFrance。TheartofwritingwasstillrareramongtheSpanish，andfromthatitresultsthattheirhistoryissodryandsouncertain，uptothetimeofFerdinandandIsabella。Oneseesbythattowhatextenttheverysmallnumberofmenwhoknewhowtowritecoulddeceive，andhoweasyitwastomakeusbelievethemostenormousabsurdities。
Therearenationswhichhavesubjugatedapartoftheworldwithouthavingtheusageofcharacters。WeknowthatGengis-khanconqueredapartofAsiaatthebeginningofthethirteenthcentury，butitisnotthrougheitherhimortheTartarsthatweknowit。Theirhistory，writtenbytheChineseandtranslatedbyFatherGaubil，statesthattheseTartarshadnotatthattimetheartofwriting。
ThisartcannothavebeenlessunknowntotheScythianOguskan，namedMadiesbythePersiansandtheGreeks，whoconqueredapartofEuropeandAsiasolongbeforethereignofCyrus。Itisalmostcertainthatatthattimeofahundrednationstherewerehardlytwoorthreewhousedcharacters。
Itispossiblethatinanancientworlddestroyed，menknewwritingandtheotherarts。butinourstheyareallveryrecent。
Thereremainrecordsofanotherkind，whichservetoestablishmerelytheremoteantiquityofcertainpeoples，andwhichprecedealltheknownepochs，andallthebooks。thesearetheprodigiesofarchitecture，likethepyramidsandthepalacesofEgypt，whichhaveresistedtime。Herodotus，wholivedtwothousandtwohundredyearsago，andwhohadseenthem，wasnotabletolearnfromtheEgyptianpriestsatwhattimetheyhadbeenerected。
Itisdifficulttogivetothemostancientofthepyramidslessthanfourthousandyearsofantiquity。butonemustconsiderthattheseeffortsoftheostentationofthekingscouldonlyhavebeencommencedlongaftertheestablishmentofthetowns。Buttobuildtownsinalandinundatedeveryyear，letusalwaysremarkthatitwasfirstnecessarytoraisethelandofthetownsonpilesinthislandofmud，andtorendertheminaccessibletotheflood。itwasessential，beforetakingthisnecessarycourse，andbeforebeinginastatetoattemptthesegreatworks，forthepeopletohavepractisedretreatingduringtherisingoftheNile，amidtherockswhichformtwochainsrightandleftofthisriver。Itwasnecessaryforthesemusteredpeoplestohavetheinstrumentsfortilling，thoseofarchitecture，aknowledgeofsurveying，withlawsandapolice。Allthisnecessarilyrequiresaprodigiousspaceoftime。Weseebythelongdetailswhichfaceeverydaythemostnecessaryandthesmallestofourundertakings，howdifficultitistodogreatthings，anditneedsnotonlyindefatigablestubbornness，butseveralgenerationsanimatedwiththisstubbornness。
However，whetheritbeMenes，ThautorCheops，orRameseswhoerectedoneortwooftheseprodigiousmasses，weshallnotbethemoreinstructedofthehistoryofancientEgypt：thelanguageofthispeopleislost。Wethereforeknownothingbutthatbeforethemostancienthistorianstherewasmatterformakinganancienthistory。PhilosophicalDictionary：TheImpiousTHEIMPIOUSWHOaretheimpious？thosewhogiveawhitebeard，feetandhandstotheBeingofbeings，tothegreatDemiourgos，totheeternalintelligencebywhichnatureisgoverned。Buttheyareonlyexcusablyimpious，poorimpiouspeopleagainstwhomonemustnotgrowwroth。
IfeventheypaintthegreatincomprehensibleBeingbornonacloudwhichcanbearnothing。iftheyarefoolishenoughtoputGodinamist，intherain，oronamountain，andtosurroundhimwithlittlechubby，flushedfacesaccompaniedbytwowings。IlaughandIpardonthemwithallmyheart。
TheimpiouspersonswhoattributetotheBeingofbeingspreposterouspredictionsandinjusticeswouldangermeifthisgreatBeinghadnotgivenmeareasonwhichquellsmywrath。Thesillyfanaticrepeatstome，afterothers，thatitisnotforustojudgewhatisreasonableandjustinthegreatBeing，thatHisreasonisnotlikeourreason，thatHisjusticeisnotlikeourjustice。Eh！how，youmaddemoniac，doyouwantmetojudgejusticeandreasonotherwisethanbythenotionsIhaveofthem？doyouwantmetowalkotherwisethanwithmyfeet，andtospeakotherwisethanwithmymouth？
TheimpiousmanwhosupposesthegreatBeingjealous，arrogant，malignant，vindictive，ismoredangerous。Iwouldnotwanttosleepunderthesameroofasthisman。
Buthowwouldyoutreattheimpiousmanwhosaystoyou：Seeonlythroughmyeyes，donotthink。IannouncetoyouatyrannicalGodwhohasmademetobeyourtyrant。Iamhiswell-beloved。duringalleternityhewilltorturemillionsofhiscreatureswhomhedetestsinordertogladdenme。
Ishallbeyourmasterinthisworld，andIshalllaughatyourtormentsintheother？
Doyounotfeelanitchingtothrashthiscruel，impiousfellow？Ifyouareborngentle，willyounotrunwithallyourmighttothewestwhenthisbarbarianuttershisatrociousreveriesintheeast？PhilosophicalDictionary：JoanofArcJOANOFARCITismeetthatthereadershouldbeacquaintedwiththetruehistoryofJoanofArcsurnamedtheMaid。Thedetailsofheradventureareverylittleknownandmaygivereaderspleasure。heretheyare。
PaulJovesaysthatthecourageoftheFrenchwasstimulatedbythisgirl，andtakesgoodcarenottobelieveherinspired。NeitherRobert，Gaguin，PaulEmile，PolydoreVergile，Genebrard，PhilipofBergamo，PapyreMasson，norevenMariana，saythatshewassentbyGod。andeventhoughMarianatheJesuithadsaidit，thatwouldnotdeceiveme。
Mezerairelatesthattheprinceofthecelestialmilitiaappearedtoher。IamsorryforMezerai，andIaskpardonoftheprinceofthecelestialmilitia。
Mostofourhistorians，whocopyeachother，supposethattheMaidutteredprophecies，andthatherprophecieswereaccomplished。SheismadetosaythatshewilldrivetheEnglishoutofthekingdom，andtheywerestilltherefiveyearsafterherdeath。SheissaidtohavewrittenalonglettertotheKingofEngland，andassuredlyshecouldneitherreadnorwrite。
suchaneducaticnwasnotgiventoaninnservantintheBarois。andtheinformationlaidagainstherstatesthatshecouldnotsignhername。
But，itissaid，shefoundarustedsword，thebladeofwhichwasengravedwithfivegoldenfleurs-de-lis。andthisswordwashiddeninthechurchofSainteCatherinedeFierboisatTours。There，certainlyisagreatmiracle！
PoorJoanofArchavingbeencapturedbytheEnglish，despiteherpropheciesandhermiracles，maintainedfirstofallinhercross-examinationthatSt。CatherineandSt。Margueritehadhonouredherwithmanyrevelations。
Iamastonishedthatsheneversaidanythingofhertalkswiththeprinceofthecelestialmilitia。ThesetwosaintsapparentlylikedtalkingbetterthanSt。Michael：Herjudgesthoughtherasorceress，shethoughtherselfinspired。
OnegreatproofthatCharlesVII。’scaptainsmadeuseofthemarvellousinordertoencouragethesoldiers，inthedeplorablestatetowhichFrancewasreduced，isthatSaintrailleshadhisshepherd，astheComtedeDunoishadhisshepherdess。Theshepherdmadepropheciesononeside，whiletheshepherdessmadethemontheother。
ButunfortunatelytheComtedeDunois’prophetesswascapturedatthesiegeofCompiegnebyabastardofVendome，andSaintrailles’prophetwascapturedbyTalbot。ThegallantTalbotwasfarfromhavingtheshepherdburned。ThisTalbotwasoneofthosetrueEnglishmenwhoscornsuperstition，andwhohavenotthefanaticismforpunishingfanatics。
This，itseemstome，iswhatthehistoriansshouldhaveobserved，andwhattheyhaveneglected。
TheMaidwastakentoJeandeLuxembourg，ComtedeLigny。ShewasshutupinthefortressofBeaulieu，theninthatofBeaurevoir，andfromthereinthatofCrotoyinPicardy。
FirstofallPierreCauchon，BishopofBeauvais，whowasoftheKingofEngland’spartyagainsthisownlegitimateking，claimstheMaidasasorceressarrestedonthelimitsofhisdiocese。Hewishestojudgeherasasorceress。Hesupportedtherightheclaimedbyadown-rightlie。
JoanhadbeencapturedontheterritoryofthebishopricofNoyon：andneithertheBishopofBeauvais，northeBishopofNoyonassuredlyhadtherightofcondemninganybody，andstilllessofcommittingtodeathasubjectoftheDukeofLorraine，andawarriorinthepayoftheKingofFrance。
Therewasatthattimewhowouldbelieveit？avicar-generaloftheInquisitioninFrance，bynameBrotherMartin。Itwasoneofthemosthorribleeffectsofthetotalsubversionofthatunfortunatecountry。BrotherMartinclaimedtheprisonerassmellingofheresyodorantemhaeresim。HecalledupontheDukeofBurgundyandtheComtedeLigny，bytherightofhisoffice，andoftheauthoritygiventohimbytheHolySee，todeliverJoantotheHolyInquisition。
TheSorbonnehastenedtosupportBrotherMartin，andwrotetotheDukeofBurgundyandtoJeandeLuxembourg-YouhaveusedyournoblepowertoapprehendthiswomanwhocallsherselftheMaid，bymeansofwhomthehonourofGodhasbeenimmeasurablyoffended，thefaithexceedinglyhurt，andtheChurchtoogreatlydishonoured。forbyreasonofher，idolatry，errors，baddoctrine，andotherinestimableevilshaveensuedinthiskingdom……butwhatthiswomanhasdonewouldbeofsmallaccount，ifdidnotensuewhatismeetforsatisfyingtheoffenceperpetratedbyheragainstourgentleCreatorandHisfaith，andtheHolyChurchwithherotherinnumerablemisdeeds……anditwouldbeintolerableoffenceagainstthedivinemajestyifithappenedthatthiswomanwerefreed。
Finally，theMaidwasawardedtoJeanCauchonwhompeoplecalledtheunworthybishop，theunworthyFrenchman，andtheunworthyman。JeandeLuxembourgsoldtheMaidtoCauchonandtheEnglishfortenthousandlivres，andtheDukeofBedfordpaidthem。TheSorbonne，thebishopandBrotherMartin，thenpresentedanewpetitiontothisDukeofBedford，regentofFrance，inhonourofourLordandSaviourJesusChrist，forthatthesaidJoanmaybebrieflyputintothehandsoftheChurch。JoanwasledtoRouen。Thearchbishopricwasvacantatthattime，andthechapterpermittedtheBishopofBeauvaistoworkinthetown。Besogneristhetermwhichwasused。HechoseasassessorsninedoctorsoftheSorbonnewiththirty-fiveotherassisiants，abbotsormonks。ThevicaroftheInquisition，Martin，presidedwithCauchon。andasliewasonlyavicar，hehadbutsecondplace。
Joanunderwentfourteenexaminations。theyaresingular。ShesaidthatshesawSt。CatherineandSt。MargueriteatPoitiers。DoctorBeaupereasksherhowsherecognizedthesaints。Sheanswersthatitwasbytheirwayofbowing。Beaupereasksheriftheyaregreatchatterboxes。Golookontheregister，shesays。Beaupereasksherif，whenshesawSt。Michael，hewasnaked。Sheanswers：DoyouthinkourLordhadnothingtoclothehimwith？
ThecuriouswillcarefullyobserveherethatJoanhadlongbeendirectedwithotherreligiouswomenofthepopulacebyaroguenamedRichard，whoperformedmiracles，andwhotaughtthesegirlstoperformthem。OnedayhegavecommunionthreetimesinsuccessiontoJoan，inhonouroftheTrinity。
Itwasthenthecustominmattersofimportanceandintimesofgreatperil。
Theknightshadthreemassessaid，andcommunicatedthreetimeswhentheywenttoseekfortuneortofightinaduel。ItiswhathasbeenobservedonthepartoftheChevalierBayard。
Theworkersofmiracles，Joan’scompanions，whoweresubmissivetoRichard，werenamedPierroneandCatherine。PierroneaffirmedthatshehadseenthatGodappearedtoherinhumanformasafriendtoafriend。
Godwascladinalongwhiterobe，etc。’’
Uptothepresenttheridiculous。herenowisthehorrible。
OneofJoan’sjudges，doctoroftheologyandpriest，bynameNicholastheBird-Catcher，comestoconfessherinprison。HeabusesthesacramenttothepointofhidingbehindapieceofsergetwopriestswhotranscribedJoanofArc’sconfession。Thusdidthejudgesusesacrilegeinordertobemurderers。Andanunfortunateidiot，whohadhadenoughcouragetorenderverygreatservicestothekingandthecountry，wascondemnedtobeburnedbyfortyfourFrenchpriestswhoimmolatedherfortheEnglishfaction。
Itissufficientlywell-knownhowsomeonehadthecunningandmeannesstoputaman’ssuitbesidehertotempthertowearthissuitagain，andwithwhatabsurdbarbarismthistransgressionwasclaimedasapretextforcondemninghertotheflames，asifinawarriorgirlitwasacrimeworthyofthefire，toputonbreechesinsteadofaskirt。Allthiswringstheheart，andmakescommonsenseshudder。Onecannotconceivehowwedare，afterthecountlesshorrorsofwhichwehavebeenguilty，callanynationbythenameofbarbarian。
Mostofourhistorians，loversoftheso-calledembellishmentsofhistoryratherthanoftruth，saythatJoanwentfearlesslytothetorture。
butasthechroniclesofthetimesbearwitness，andasthehistorianVillaretadmits，shereceivedhersentencewithcriesandtears。aweaknesspardonableinhersex，andperhapsinours，andverycompatiblewiththecouragewhichthisgirlhaddisplayedamidthedangersofwar。foronecanbefearlessinbattle，andsensitiveonthescaffold。
ImustaddthatmanypersonshavebelievedwithoutanyexaminationthattheMaidofOrleanswasnotburnedatRouenatall，althoughwehavetheofficialreportofherexecution。TheyhavebeendeceivedbytheaccountwestillhaveofanadventuresswhotookthenameoftheMaid，deceivedJoanofArc’sbrothers，andundercoverofthisimposture，marriedinLorraineanoblemanofthehouseofArmoise。ThereweretwootherrogueswhoalsopassedthemselvesoffastheMaidofOrleans。AllthreeclaimedthatJoanwasnotburnedatall，andthatanotherwomanhadbeensubstitutedforher。Suchstoriescanbeadmittedonlybythosewhowanttobedeceived。PhilosophicalDictionary：KissingKISSINGIASKpardonoftheboysandthegirls。butmaybetheywillnotfindherewhattheywillseek。Thisarticleisonlyforscholarsandseriouspersonsforwhomitisbarelysuitable。
ThereisbuttoomuchquestionofkissinginthecomediesofMoliere’stime。Champagne，inthecomedyofLaMereCoquettebyQuinault，askskissesofLaurette。Shesaystohim-Youarenotcontent，then。reallyitisshameful。Ihavekissedyoutwice。Champagneanswersher-What！
youkeepaccountofyourkisses？ActI。Sc。I。。
Thevaletsalwaysusedtoaskkissesofthesoubrettes。peoplekissedeachotheronthestage。Usuallyitwasverydullandveryintolerable，particularlyinthecaseofuglyactors，whowerenauseating。
Ifthereaderwantskisses，lethimlookfortheminthePastorFido。thereisoneentirechoruswherenothingbutkissesismentioned。andthepieceisfoundedsolelyonakissthatMirtillogaveonedaytoAmarilli，inagameofblindman’sbuff，unbaciomoltosaporito。
Everyoneknowsthechapteronkisses。inwhichJeandelaCasa，ArchbishopofBenevento，saysthatpeoplecankisseachotherfromheadtofoot。Hepitiesthepeoplewithbignoseswhocanonlyapproacheachotherwithdifficulty。andhecounselsladieswithlongnosestohaveflat-nosedlovers。
Thekisswasaveryordinaryformofsalutationthroughoutancienttimes。
Plutarchrecallsthattheconspirators，beforekiiiingCaesar，kissedhisface，handandbreast。TacitussaysthatwhenAgricola，hisfather-in-law，returnedfromRome，Domitianreceivedhimwithacoldkiss，saidnothingtohim，andlefthimconfoundedinthecrowd。TheinferiorwhocouldnotsucceedingreetinghisSuperiorbykissinghim，puthismouthtohisownhand，andsenthimakissthattheotherreturnedinthesamewayifhesowished。
Thissignwasusedevenforworshippingthegods。Job，inhisparableChap。xxxi。，whichisperhapstheoldestofknownbooks，saysthathehasnotworshippedthesunandthemoonliketheotherArabs，thathehasnotcarriedhishandtohismouthashelookedatthestars。
InourOccidentnothingremainsofthisancientcustombutthepuerileandgenteelcivilitythatisstilltaughttochildreninsomesmalltowns，ofkissingtheirrighthandswhensomeonehasgiventhemsomesweets。
Itwasahorriblethingtobetraywithakiss。itwasthatthatmadeCaesar’sassassinationstillmorehateful。WeknowallaboutJudas’kisses。
theyhavebecomeproverbial。
Joab，oneofDavid’scaptains，beingveryjealousofAmasa，anothercaptain，saystohim2Sam。xx。9：Artthouinhealth，mybrother？
AndhetookAmasabythebeardwiththerighthandtokisshim，andwithhisotherhanddrewhisswordandsmotehimtherewithinthefifthrib，andshedouthisbowelsontheground。
NootherkissistobefoundintheotherfairlyfrequentassassinationswhichwerecommittedamongtheJews，unlessitbeperhapsthekisseswhichJudithgavetothecaptainHolophernes，beforecuttingoffhisheadwhilehewasinbedasleep。butnomentionismadeofthem，andthethingismerelyprobable。
InoneofShakespeare’stragediescalledOthello，thisOthello，whoisablack，givestwokissestohiswifebeforestranglingher。Thatseemsabominabletohonourablepeople。butShakespeare’spartisanssayitisbeautifullynatural，particularlyinablack。
WhenGiovanniGaleasSforzawasassassinatedinMilanCathedral，onSt。Stephen’sday，thetwoMediciintheRepahtachurch。AdmiralColigny，thePrinceofOrange，theMarechald’Ancre，thebrothersWitt，andsomanyothers。atleasttheywerenotkissed。
TherewasamongtheancientsIknownotwhatofsymbolicandsacredattachedtothekiss，sinceonekissedthestatuesofthegodsandtheirbeards，whenthesculptorshadshownthemwithabeard。InitiateskissedeachotheratthemysteriesofCeres，asasignofconcord。
TheearlyChristians，menandwomen，kissedeachotheronthemouthattheiragapae。Thiswordsignifiedlovefeast。Theygaveeachothertheholykiss，thekissofpeace，thekissofbrotherandsister。
Thiscustomlastedformorethanfourcenturies，andwasabolishedatlastonaccountofitsconsequences。Itwasthesekissesofpeace，theseagapaeoflove，thesenamesofbrotherand’’sister，thatlongdrewtothelittle-knownChristians，thoseimputationsofdebaucherywithwhichthepriestsofJupiterandthepriestessesofVestachargedthem。YouseeinPetronius，andinotherprofaneauthors，thatthelibertinescalledthemselvesbrotherandsister。ItwasthoughtthatamongtheChristiansthesamenamessignifiedthesameinfamies。TheywereinnocentaccomplicesinspreadingtheseaccusationsovertheRomanempire。
TherewereinthebeginningseventeendifferentChristiansocieties，justastherewerenineamongtheJews，includingthetwokindsofSamaritans。
Thesocietieswhichflatteredthemselvesatbeingthemostorthodoxaccusedtheothersofthemostinconceivableobscenities。Thetermofgnostic，
whichwasatfirstsohonourable，signifyinglearned，enlightened，
pure，becameatermofhorrorandscorn，areproachofheresy。SaintEpiphanius，inthethirdcentury，claimedthattheyusedfirsttotickleeachother，themenandthewomen。thatthentheygaveeachotherveryimmodestkisses，andthattheyjudgedthedegreeoftheirfaithbythevoluptuousnessofthesekisses。thatthehusbandsaidtohiswife，inpresentingayounginitiatetoher：Haveanagapewithmybrother，andthattheyhadanagapa。
Wedonotdarerepeathere，inthechasteFrenchtongue，whatSaintEpiphaniusaddsinGreekEpiphanius，contrahaeres，lib。I。，vol。
ii。Wewillsaymerelythatperhapsthissaintwassomewhatimposedupon。
thatheallowed，himselftobetoocarriedawaybyzeal，andthatallhereticsarenothideousdebauchees。
ThesectofPietists，wishingtoimitatetheearlyChristians，to-daygiveeachotherkissesofpeaceonleavingtheassembly，callingeachothermybrother，mysister。itiswhat，twentyyearsago，averyprettyandveryhumanPietistladyavowedtome。Theancientcustomwastokissonthemouth。thePietistshavecarefullypreservedit。
TherewasnoothermannerofgreetingdamesinFrance，Germany，Italy，England。itwastherightofcardinalstokissqueensonthemouthandinSpaineven。WhatissingularisthattheyhadnotthesameprerogativeinFrance，whereladiesalwayshadmorelibertythananywhereelse，buteverycountryhasitsceremonies，andthereisnousagesogeneralthatchanceandcustomhavenotprovidedexceptions。Itwouldhavebeenanincivility，anaffront，foranhonourablewoman，whenshereceivedalord’sfirstvisit，nottohavekissedhim，despitehismoustaches。Itisadispleasingcustom，
saysMontaigneBookIII。，chap。v。，andoffensivetoladies，tohavetolendtheirlipstowhoeverhasthreeserving-meninhissuite，disagreeablethoughhebe。Thiscustomwas，nevertheless，theoldestintheworld。
Ifitisdisagreeableforayoungandprettymouthtostickitselfoutofcourtesytoanoldanduglymouth，therewasagreatdangerbetweenfresh，redmouthsoftwentytotwenty-fiveyearsold。andthatiswhatfinallybroughtabouttheabolitionoftheceremonyofkissinginthemysteriesandtheagapae。ItiswhatcausedwomentobeconfinedamongtheOrientals，sothattheymightkissonlytheirfathersandtheirbrothers。customlongsinceintroducedintoSpainbytheArabs。
Beholdthedanger：thereisonenerveofthefifthpairwhichgoesfromthemouthtotheheart，andthencelowerdown，withsuchdelicateindustryhasnaturepreparedeverything！Thelittleglandsofthelips，theirspongytissue，theirvelvetypaps，thefineskin，ticklish，givesthemanexquisiteandvoluptuoussensation，whichisnotwithoutanalogywithastillmorehiddenandstillmoresensitivepart。ModestymaysufferfromalengthilysavouredkissbetweentwoPietistsofeighteen。
ItistoberemarkedthatthehumanSpecies，theturtledovesandthepigeonsaloneareacquaintedwithkisses。thencecameamongtheLatinsthewordcolumbatim，whichourlanguagehasnotbeenabletorender。Thereisnothingofwhichabusehasnotbeenmade。Thekiss，designedbynatureforthemouth，hasoftenbeenprostitutedtomembraneswhichdonotseemmadeforthisusage。Oneknowsofwhatthetemplarswereaccused。
Wecannothonestlytreatthisinterestingsubjectatgreaterlength，althoughMontaignesays：Oneshouldspeakthereofshamelessly：brazenlydoweutter’killing，’’wounding，’’betraying，’butofthatwedarenotspeakbutwithbatedbreath。PhilosophicalDictionary：LanguagesLANGUAGESTHEREisnocompletelanguage，nolanguagewhichcanexpressallourideasandalloursensations。theirshadesaretoonumerous，tooimperceptible。
Nobodycanmakeknowntheprecisedegreeofsensationheexperiences。Oneisobliged，forexample，todesignatebythegeneralnamesofloveandhateathousandlovesandathousandhatesalldifferentfromeachother。
itisthesamewithourpleasuresandourpains。Thusalllanguagesare，likeus，imperfect。
Theyhaveallbeenmadesuccessivelyandbydegreesaccordingtoourneeds。Itistheinstinctcommontoallmenwhichmadethefirstgrammarswithoutperceivingit。TheLapps，theNegroes，aswellastheGreeks，neededtoexpressthepast，thepresentandthefuture。andtheydidit：butastherehasneverbeenanassemblyoflogicianswhoformedalanguage，nolanguagehasbeenabletoattainaperfectlyregularplan。
Allwords，inallpossiblelanguages，arenecessarilytheimagesofsensations。Menhaveneverbeenabletoexpressanythingbutwhattheyfelt。Thuseverythinghasbecomemetaphor。everywherethesoulisenlightened，theheartburns，themindwanders。Amongallpeoplestheinfinitehasbeenthenegationofthefinite。immensitythenegationofmeasure。Itisevidentthatourfivesenseshaveproducedalllanguages，aswellasallourideas。
Theleastimperfectarelikethelaws：thoseinwhichthereistheleastthatisarbitraryarethebest。Themostcompletearenecessarilythoseofthepeopleswhohavecultivatedtheartsandsociety。ThustheHebraiclanguageshouldbeoneofthepoorestlanguages，likethepeoplewhousedtospeakit。HowshouldtheHebrewshavehadmaritimeterms，theywhobeforeSolomonhadnotaboat？howthetermsofphilosophy，theywhowereplungedinsuchprofoundignoranceuptothetimewhentheystartedtolearnsomethingintheirmigrationtoBabylon？ThelanguageofthePhoenicians，fromwhichtheHebrewsdrewtheirjargon，shouldbeverysuperior，becauseitwastheidiomofanindustrious，commercial，richpeople，distributedallovertheearth。
Themostancientknownlanguageshouldbethatofthenationmostancientlygatheredtogetherasabodyofpeople。Itshouldbe，further，thatofthepeoplewhichhasbeenleastsubjugated，orwhich，havingbeensubjugated，hascivilizeditsconquerors。Andinthisrespect，itisconstantthatChineseandArabicarethemostancientofallthosethatarespokento-day。
Thereisnomother-tongue。Allneighbouringnationshaveborrowedfromeachother：butonehasgiventhenameofmother-tonguetothosefromwhichsomeknownidiomsarederived。Forexample，LatinisthemothertongueinrespectofItalian，SpanishandFrench：butitwasitselfderivedfromTuscan。andTuscanwasderivedfromCelticandGreek。
Themostbeautifulofalllanguagesmustbethatwhichisatonce，themostcomplete，themostsonorous，themostvariedinitstwistsandthemostregularinitsprogress，thatwhichhasmostcompoundwords，thatwhichbyitsprosodybestexpressesthesoul’ssloworimpetuousmovements，thatwhichmostresemblesmusic。
Greekhasalltheseadvantages：ithasnottheroughnessofLatin，inwhichsomanywordsendinum，ur，us。IthasallthepompofSpanish’，andallthesweetnessofItalian。Ithasaboveallthelivinglanguagesoftheworldtheexpressionofmusic，bylongandshortsyllables，andbythenumberandvarietyofitsaccents。Thusalldisfiguredasitisto-dayinGreece，itcanstillberegardedasthemostbeautifullanguageintheuniverse。
Themostbeautifullanguagecannotbethemostwidelydistributed，whenthepeoplewhichspeaksitisoppressed，notnumerous，withoutcommercewithothernations，andwhentheseothernationshavecultivatedtheirownlanguages。ThusGreekshouldbelessdiffusedthanArabic，andevenTurkish。
OfallEuropeanlanguagesFrenchshouldbethemostgeneral，becauseitisthemostsuitedtoconversation：ithastakenitscharacterfromthatofthepeoplewhichspeaksit。
TheFrenchhavebeen，fornearlyahundredandfiftyyears，thepeoplewhichhasbestknownsociety，whichthefirstdiscardedallembarrassment，andthefirstamongwhomwomenwerefreeandevensovereign，whenelsewheretheywereonlyslaves。Thealwaysuniformsyntaxofthislanguage，whichadmitsnoinversions，isafurtherfacilitybarelypossessedbyothertongues。
itismorecurrentcointhanothers，eventhoughitlacksweight。Theprodigiousquantityofagreeablyfrivolousbookswhichthisnationhasproducedisafurtherreasonforthefavourwhichitslanguagehasobtainedamongallnations。
Profoundbookswillnotgivevoguetoalanguage：theywillbetranslated。
peoplewilllearnNewton’sphilosophy。buttheywillnotlearnEnglishinordertounderstandit。
WhatmakesFrenchstillmorecommonistheperfectiontowhichthedramahasbeencarriedinthistongue。ItistoCinna，Phedre，theMisanthrope’’thatitowesitsvogue，andnottotheconquestsofLouisXIV。
ItisnotsocopiousandsoflexibleasItalian，orsomajesticasSpanish，orsoenergeticasEnglish。andyetithashadmoresuccessthanthesethreelanguagesfromthesolefactthatitismoresuitedtointercourse，andthattherearemoreagreeablebooksinitthanelsewhere。IthassucceededlikethecooksofFrance，becauseithasmoreflatteredgeneraltaste。
ThesamespiritwhichhasledthenationstoimitatetheFrenchintheirfurniture，inthearrangementofrooms，ingardens，indancing，inallthatgivescharm，hasledthemalsotospeaktheirlanguage。ThegreatartofgoodFrenchwritersispreciselythatofthewomenofthisnation，whodressbetterthantheotherwomenofEurope，andwho，withoutbeingmorebeautiful，appeartobesobytheartwithwhichtheyadornthemselves，bythenobleandsimplecharmtheygivethemselvessonaturally。
Itisbydintofgoodbreedingthatthislanguagehasmanagedtomakethetracesofitsformerbarbarismdisappear。Everythingwouldbearwitnesstothisbarbarismtowhosoevershouldlookclosely。Onewouldseethatthenumbervingtcomesfromviginti，andthatformerlythisgandthistwerepronouncedwitharoughnesscharacteristicofallthenorthernnations。ofthemonthofAugustushasbeenmadethemonthofaout。NotsolongagoaGermanprincethinkingthatinFranceoneneverpronouncedthetermAugusteotherwise，calledKingAugusteofPolandKingAout。Alltheletterswhichhavebeensuppressedinpronunciation，butretainedinwriting，areourformerbarbarousclothes。
Itwaswhenmannersweresoftenedthatthelanguagealsowassoftened：
beforeFrancoisIsummonedwomentohiscourt，itwasasclownishaswewere。ItwouldhavebeenasgoodtospeakoldCelticastheFrenchofthetimeofCharlesVIII。andLouisXII。：Germanwasnotmoreharsh。
Ithastakencenturiestoremovethisrust。Theimperfectionswhichremainwouldstillbeintolerable，wereitnotforthecontinualcareonetakestoavoidthem，asaskilfulhorsemanavoidsstonesintheroad。Goodwritersarecarefultocombatthefaultyexpressionswhichpopularignorancefirstbringsintovogue，andwhich，adoptedbybadauthors，thenpassintothegazettesandthepamphlets。RoastbeefsignifiesinEnglishroastedox，andourwaiterstalktousnowadaysofaroastbeefofmutton。Ridingcoatmeansacoatforgoingonhorseback。ofitpeoplehavemaderedingote，andthepopulacethinksitanancientwordofthelanguage。Ithasbeennecessarytoadoptthisexpressionwiththepeoplebecauseitsignifiesanarticleofcommonuse。
Inmattersofartsandcraftsandnecessarythings，thecommonpeoplesubjugatedthecourt，ifonedaresayso。justasinmattersofreligionthosewhomostdespisethecommonrunofpeopleareobligedtospeakandtoappeartothinklikethem。
Tocallthingsbythenameswhichthecommonpeoplehasimposedonthemisnottospeakbadly。butonerecognizesapeoplenaturallymoreingeniousthananotherbythepropernameswhichitgivestoeachthing。
Itisonlythroughlackofimaginationthatapeopleadaptsthesameexpressiontoahundreddifferentideas。Itisaridiculoussterilitynottohaveknownhowtoexpressotherwiseanarmofthesea，ascalearm，anarmofachair。thereispovertyofthoughtinsayingequallytheheadofanail，theheadofanarmy。
Ignorancehasintroducedanothercustomintoallmodernlanguages。A
thousandtermsnolongersignifywhattheyshouldsignify。Idiotmeantsolitary，to-dayitmeansfoolish。epiphanysignifiedappearance，to-dayitisthefestivalofthreekings。baptizeistodipinwater，wesaybaptizewiththenameofJohnorJames。
Tothesedefectsinalmostalllanguagesareaddedbarbarousirregularities。Venusisacharmingname，venerealisabominable。Anotherresultoftheirregularityoftheselanguagescomposedathazardinuncouthtimesisthequantityofcompoundwordsofwhichthesimpleformdoesnotexistanymore。Theyarechildrenwhohavelosttheirfather。Wehavearchitectsandnotects。therearethingswhichareineffableandnonewhichareeffable。Oneisintrepid，oneisnottrepid。
Thereareimpudentfellows，insolentfellows，butneitherpudentfellowsnorsolentfellows。Alllanguagesmoreorlessretainsomeofthesedefects。theyareallirregularlandsfromwhichthehandoftheadroitartistknowshowtoderiveadvantage。
Otherdefectswhichmakeanation’scharacterevidentalwaysslipintolanguages。InFrancetherearefashionsinexpressionsasinwaysofdoingthehair。AfashionableinvalidordoctorwilltakeitintohisheadtosaythathehashadasoupconoffevertoSignifythathehashadaslightattack。soonthewholenationhassoupconsofcolics，soupconsofhatred，love，ridicule。PreachersinthepulpittellyouthatyoumusthaveatleastasoupconofGod’slove。Afterafewmonthsthisfashiongivesplacetoanother。
Whatdoesmostharmtothenobilityofthelanguageisnotthispassingfashionwithwhichpeoplearesoondisgusted，notthesolecismsoffashionablepeopleintowhichgoodauthorsdonotfall，buttheaffectationofmediocreauthorsinspeakingofseriousthingsinaconversationalstyle。Everythingconspirestocorruptalanguagethatisratherwidelydiffused。authorswhospoilthestylebyaffectation。thosewhowritetoforeigncountries，andwhoalmostalwaysmingleforeignexpressionswiththeirnaturaltongue。
merchantswhointroduceintoconversationtheirbusinessterms。
Alllanguagesbeingimperfect，itdoesnotfollowthatoneshouldchangethem。Onemustadhereabsolutelytothemannerinwhichthegoodauthorshavespokenthem。andwhenonehasasufficientnumberofapprovedauthors，alanguageisfixed。ThusonecannolongerchangeanythinginItalian，Spanish，English，French’，withoutcorruptingthem。thereasonisclear：
itisthatonewouldsoonrenderunintelligiblethebookswhichprovidetheinstructionandthepleasureofthenations。PhilosophicalDictionary：LawsLAWSSHEEPliveveryplacidlyincommunity，theyareconsideredveryeasy-going，becausewedonotseetheprodigiousquantityofanimalstheydevour。Itiseventobebelievedthattheyeattheminnocentlyandwithoutknowingit，likeUswhenweeataSassenagecheese。Therepublicofthesheepisafaithfulrepresentationofthegoldenage。
Achicken-runisvisiblythemostperfectmonarchicstate。Thereisnokingcomparabletoacock。Ifhemarchesproudlyinthemidstofhispeople，itisnotoutofvanity。Iftheenemyapproaches，hedoesnotgiveorderstohissubjectstogotokillthemselvesforhimbyvirtueofhiscertainknowledgeandplenarypower。hegoestobattlehimself，rangeshischickensbehindhimandfightstothedeath。Ifheisthevictor，hehimselfsingstheTeDeum。Incivillifethereisnoonesogallant，sohonest，sodisinterested。Hehasallthevirtues。Hasheinhisroyalbeakagrainofcorn，agrub，hegivesittothefirstladyamonghissubjectswhopresentsherself。Solomoninhisharemdidnotcomenearapoultry-yardcock。
Ifitbetruethatthebeesaregovernedbyaqueentowhomallhersubjectsmakelove，thatisastillmoreperfectgovernment。
Theantsareconsideredtobeanexcellentdemocracy。DemocracyisabovealltheotherStates，becausethereeveryoneisequal，andeachindividualworksforthegoodofall。
Therepublicofthebeaversisstillsuperiortothatoftheants，atleastifwejudgebytheirmasonrywork。
Themonkeysresemblestrollingplayersratherthanacivilizedpeople。
andtheydonotappeartobegatheredtogetherunderfixed，fundamentallaws，liketheprecedingspecies。
Weresemblethemonkeysmorethananyotheranimalbythegiftofimitation，thefrivolityofourideas，andbyourinconstancywhichhasneverallowedustohaveuniformanddurablelaws。
Whennatureformedourspeciesandgaveusinstincts，self-esteemforourpreservation，benevolenceforthepreservationofothers，lovewhichiscommontoallthespecies，andtheinexplicablegiftofcombiningmoreideasthanalltheanimalstogether。whenshehadthusgivenusourportion，shesaidtous：Doasyoucan。
Thereisnogoodcodeinanycountry。Thereasonforthisisevident。
thelawshavebeenmadeaccordingtothetimes，theplaceandtheneed，etc。
Whentheneedshavechanged，thelawswhichhaveremained，havebecomeridiculous。ThusthelawwhichforbadetheeatingofpigandthedrinkingofwinewasveryreasonableinArabia，wherepigandwineareinjurious。
itisabsurdatConstantinople。
Thelawwhichgivesthewholefeetotheeldestsonisverygoodintimesofanarchyandpillage。Thentheeldestsonisthecaptainofthecastlewhichthebrigandswillattacksoonerorlater。theyoungersonswillbehischiefofficers，thehusbandmenhissoldiers。AllthatistobefearedisthattheyoungersonmayassassinateorpoisontheSalianlordhiselderbrother，inordertobecomeinhisturnthemasterofthehovel。butthesecasesarerare，becausenaturehassocombinedourinstinctsandourpassionsthatwehavemorehorrorofassassinatingourelderbrotherthanwehaveofbeingenviousofhisposition。Butthislaw，suitablefortheownersofdungeonsinChilperic’stimeisdetestablewhenthereisquestionofsharingstocksinacity。
Totheshameofmankind，oneknowsthatthelawsofgamesaretheonlyoneswhicheverywherearejust，clear，inviolableandexecuted。WhyistheIndianwhogaveustherulesofthegameofchesswillinglyobeyedallovertheworld，andwhyarethepopes’decretals，forexample，to-dayanobjectofhorrorandscorn？thereasonisthattheinventorofchesscombinedeverythingwithprecisionforthesatisfactionoftheplayers，andthatthepopes，intheirdecretals，hadnothinginviewbuttheirowninterest。TheIndianwishedtoexercisemen’smindsequally，andgivethempleasure。thepopeswishedtobesotmen’sminds。Also，theessenceofthegameofchesshasremainedthesameforfivethousandyears，itiscommontoalltheinhabitantsoftheearth。andthedecretalsareknownonlyatSpoletto，Orvieto，Loretto，wheretheshallowestlawyersecretlyhatesanddespisesthem。
ButIdelightinthinkingthatthereisanaturallawindependentofallhumanconventions：thefruitofmyworkmustbelongtome。Imusthonourmyfatherandmymother。Ihavenorightovermyfellow’slife，andmyfellowhasnoneovermine，etc。ButwhenIthinkthatfromChedorlaomertoMentzel，colonelofhussars，everyoneloyallykillsandpillageshisfellowwithalicenceinhispocket，Iamveryafflicted。
Iamtoldthattherearelawsamongthieves，andalsolawsofwar。I
askwhataretheselawsofwar。Ilearnthattheymeanhangingabraveofficerwhohasheldfastinabadpostwithoutcannonagainstaroyalarmy。thattheymeanhavingaprisonerhanged，iftheenemyhashangedoneofyours。thattheymeanputtingtothefireandtheswordvillageswhichhavenotbroughttheirsustenanceontheappointedday，accordingtotheordersofthegracioussovereignofthedistrict。Good，sayI，thatisthe’SpiritoftheLaws。’
Itseemstomethatmostmenhavereceivedfromnatureenoughcommonsensetomakelaws，butthateveryoneisnotjustenoughtomakegoodlaws。PhilosophicalDictionary：LibertyLIBERTYEITHERIamverymuchmistaken，orLockethedefinerhasverywelldefinedlibertyaspower。Iammistakenagain，orCollins，celebratedLondonmagistrate，istheonlyphilosopherwhohasreallysiftedthisidea，andClark’sanswertohimwasmerelythatofatheologian。ButofallthathasbeenwritteninFranceonliberty，thefollowinglittledialogueseemstomethemostclear。
A：Thereisabatteryofgunsfiringinyourears，haveyouthelibertytohearthemornottohearthem？
B：Withoutdoubt，Icannotstopmyselfhearingthem。
A：Doyouwantthisguntocarryoffyourheadandtheheadsofyourwifeanddaughter，whoarewalkingwithyou？
B：Whatareyoutalkingabout？aslongasIamofsoundmind，Icannotwantsuchathing。itisimpossible。
A：Good。youhearthisgunnecessarily，andyouwishnecessarilythatneitheryounoryourfamilyshalldiefromacannonshotwhileyouareoutforawalk。youhavenotthepowereitherofnothearingorofwishingtoremainhere？
B：Clearly。
A：Youhaveconsequentlytakensomethirtystepsinordertobeshelteredfromthegun，youhavehadthepowertowalkthesefewstepswithme？
B：Againveryclearly。
A：Andifyouhadbeenaparalytic，youcouldnothaveavoidedbeingexposedtothisbattery，youwouldnecessarilyhaveheardandreceivedagunshot。andyouwouldbedeadnecessarily？
B：Nothingismoretrue。
A：Inwhatthendoesyourlibertyconsist，unlessitbeinthepowerthatyourselfhasexercisedinperformingwhatyourwillrequiredofabsolutenecessity？
B：Youembarrassme。libertythenisnothingbutthepowerofdoingwhatIwanttodo？
A：Thinkaboutit，andseeiflibertycanbeunderstoodotherwise。
B：InthatcasemyhuntingdogisasfreeasIam。hehasnecessarilythewilltorunwhenheseesahare，andthepowerofrunningifhehasnotapaininhislegs。Ihavethennothingabovemydog。youreducemetothestateofthebeasts。
A：Whatpoorsophistryfromthepoorsophistswhohavetaughtyou。Indeedyouareinabadwaytobefreelikeyourdog！Doyounoteat，sleep，propagatelikehim，evenalmosttotheattitude？Doyouwantthesenseofsmellotherthanthroughyournose？Whydoyouwanttohavelibertyotherwisethanyourdoghas？
B：ButIhaveasoulwhichreasonsmuch，andmydogreasonshardlyatall。Hehasalmostonlysimpleideas，andIhaveathousandmetaphysicalideas。
A：Well，youareathousandtimesfreerthanheis。thatis，youhaveathousandtimesmorepowerofthinkingthanhehas。butyoudonotthinkotherwisethanhedoes。
B：What！IamnotfreetowishwhatIwish？
A：Whatdoyoumeanbythat？
B：Imeanwhateveryonemeans。Doesn’tonesayeveryday，wishesarefree？
A：Aproverbisnotareason。explainyourselfmoreclearly。
B：ImeanthatIamfreetowishasIplease。
A：Withyourpermission，thathasnoSense。doyounotseethatitisridiculoustosay，Iwishtowish？Youwishnecessarily，asaresultoftheideasthathaveofferedthemselvestoyou。Doyouwishtobemarried。
yesorno？
B：ButifItellyouthatIwantneithertheonenortheother？
A：Youwillbeansweringlikesomeonewhosays：SomebelieveCardinalMazarintobedead，othersbelievehimtobealive，andasformeIbelieveneithertheonenortheother。
B：Well，Iwanttobemarried。
A：Ah！thatisananswer。Whydoyouwanttobemarried？
B：BecauseIaminlovewithabeautiful，sweet，well-bredyounggirl，whoisfairlyrichandsingsverywell，whoseparentsareveryhonestpeople，andbecauseIflattermyselfIamlovedbyher，andverywelcometoherfamily。
A：Thatisareason。Youseethatyoucannotwishwithoutreason。I
declaretoyouthatyouarefreetomarry。thatis，thatyouhavethepowertosignthecontract，haveyournuptials，andsleepwithyourwife。
B：Hownow！Icannotwishwithoutreason？Andwhatwillbecomeofthatotherproverb：Sitprorationevoluntas。mywillismyreason，IwishbecauseIwish？
A：Thatisabsurd，mydearfellow。therewouldbeinyouaneffectwithoutacause。
B：What！WhenIplayatoddsandevens，Ihaveareasonforchoosingevensratherthanodds？
A：Yes，undoubtedly。
B：Andwhatisthatreason，ifyouplease？
A：Thereasonisthattheideaofevenratherthantheoppositeideapresentsitselftoyourmind。Itwouldbecomicthattherewerecaseswhereyouwishedbecausetherewasacauseofwishing，andthattherewerecaseswhereyouwishedwithoutanycause。Whenyouwishtobemarried，youevidentlyfeelthedominatingreason。youdonotfeelitwhenyouareplayingatoddsandevens。andyettherecertainlymustbeone。
B：But，Irepeat，Iamnotfreethen？
A：Yourwillisnotfree，butyouractionsare。Youarefreetoact，whenyouhavethepowertoact。
B：ButallthebooksIhavereadonthelibertyofindifference……
A：Whatdoyoumeanbythelibertyofindifference？
B：Imeanthelibertyofspittingontherightorontheleft，ofsleepingonmyrightsideoronmyleft，oftakingawalkoffourturnsorfive。
A：Reallythelibertyyouwouldhavetherewouldbeacomicliberty！
Godwouldhavegivenyouafinegift！Itwouldreallybesomethingtoboastof！Ofwhatusetoyouwouldbeapowerwhichwasexercisedonlyonsuchfutileoccasions？Butthefactisthatitisridiculoustosupposethewilltowishtospitontheright。Notonlyisthiswilltowishabsurd，butitiscertainthatseveraltriflingcircumstancesdetermineyouintheseactsthatyoucallindifferent。Youarenomorefreeintheseactsthanintheothers。But，Irepeat，youarefreeatalltimes，inallplaces，assoonasyoudowhatyouwishtodo。
B：Isuspectyouareright。Iwillthinkaboutit。PhilosophicalDictionary：LibraryLIBRARYABIGlibraryhasthisinitofgood，thatitdismaysthosewholookatit。Twohundredthousandvolumesdiscourageamantemptedtoprint。
butunfortunatelyheatoncesaystohimself：Peopledonotreadallthosebooks，andtheymayreadmine。Hecompareshimselftoadropofwaterwhocomplainsofbeinglostintheoceanandignored：ageniushadpityonit。hecausedittobeswallowedbyanoyster。itbecamethemostbeautifulpearlintheOrient，andwasthechiefornamentinthethroneoftheGreatMogul。Thosewhoareonlycompilers，imitators，commentators，splittersofphrases，usuriouscritics，inshort，thoseonwhomageniushasnopity，willalwaysremaindropsofwater。
Ourmanworksinhisgarret，therefore，inthehopeofbecomingapearl。
Itistruethatinthisimmensecollectionofbooksthereareaboutahundredandninety-ninethousandwhichwillneverberead，fromcovertocoveratleast。butonemayneedtoconsultsomeofthemonceinalifetime。
Itisagreatadvantageforwhoeverwishestolearntofindathishandintheking’spalacethevolumeandpageheseeks，withoutbeingkeptwaitingamoment。Itisoneofthemostnobleinstitutions。Noexpenseismoremagnificentandmoreuseful。
ThepubliclibraryoftheKingofFranceisthefinestinthewholeworld，lessonaccountofthenumberandrarityofthevolumesthanoftheeaseandcourtesywithwhichthelibrarianslendthemtoallscholars。
ThislibraryisincontestablythemostpreciousmonumentthereisinFrance。
Thisastoundingmultitudeofbooksshouldnotscare。WehavealreadyremarkedthatPariscontainsaboutsevenhundredthousandmen，thatonecannotlivewiththemall，andthatonechoosesthreeorfourfriends。
Thusmustonenomorecomplainofthemultitudeofbooksthanofthemultitudeofcitizens。
Amanwhowishestolearnalittleabouthisexistence，andwhohasnotimetowaste，isquiteembarrassed。HewishestoreadsimultaneouslyHobbes，Spinosa，Baylewhowroteagainstthem，LeibnitzwhodisputedwithBayle，ClarkewhodisputedwithLeibnitz，Malebranchewhodifferedfromthemall，LockewhopassedashavingconfoundedMalebranche，StillingfleetwhothoughthehadvanquishedLocke，Cudworthwhothinkshimselfabovethembecauseheisunderstoodbynoone。Onewoulddieofoldagebeforehavingthumbedthehundredthpartofthemetaphysicalromances。
Oneisverycontenttohavethemostancientbooks，asoneinquiresintothemostancientmedals。Itisthatwhichmakesthehonourofalibrary。
TheoldestbooksintheworldaretheKingsoftheChinese，theShastabad，，oftheBrahmins，ofwhichMr。Holwellhasbroughttoourknowledgeadmirablepassages，whatremainsoftheancientZarathustra，thefragmentsofSanchoniathonwhichEusebiushaspreservedforusandwhichbearsthecharacteristicsofthemostremoteantiquity。IdonotspeakofthePentateuchwhichisaboveallonecouldsayofit。