Ispeakheretophilosophersonlyandnottotheologians。Weknowwellthatfaithisthethreadinthelabyrinth。WeknowthatthefallofAdamandEve，originalsin，theimmensepowergiventothedevil，thepredilectionaccordedbythegreatBeingtotheJewishpeople，andthebaptismsubstitutedfortheamputationoftheprepuce，aretheanswerswhichexplaineverything。
WehavearguedonlyagainstZarathustraandnotagainsttheuniversityofConimbreorCoimbre，towhichwesubmitinourarticles。PhilosophicalDictionary：PrayersPRAYERSWEdonotknowanyreligionwithoutprayers，eventheJewshadsome，althoughtherewasnotamongthemanypublicform，untilthetimewhentheysangcanticlesintheirsynagogues，whichhappenedverylate。
Allmen，intheirdesiresandtheirfears，invokedtheaidofadeity。
Somephilosophers，morerespectfultotheSupremeBeing，andlesscondescendingtohumanfrailty，forallprayerdesiredonlyresignation。Itisindeedwhatseemsproperasbetweencreatureandcreator。Butphilosophyisnotmadetogoverntheworld。sherisesabovethecommonherd。shespeaksalanguagethatthecrowdcannotunderstand。Itwouldbesuggestingtofishwivesthattheyshouldstudyconicsections。
Evenamongthephilosophers，IdonotbelievethatanyoneapartfromMaximusofTyrehastreatedofthismatter。thisisthesubstanceofMaximus’
ideas。
TheEternalhasHisintentionsfromalleternity。IfprayeraccordswithHisimmutablewishes，itisquiteuselesstoaskofHimwhatHehasresolvedtodo。IfonepraysHimtodothecontraryofwhatHehasresolved，itisprayingHimtobeweak，frivolous，inconstant。itisbelievingthatHeisthus，itistomockHim。EitheryouaskHimajustthing。inthiscaseHemustdoit，andthethingwillbedonewithoutyourprayingHimforit。entreatingHimiseventodistrustHim：orthethingisunjust，andthenyououtrageHim。Youareworthyorunworthyofthegraceyouimplore：ifworthy，Heknowsitbetterthanyou。ifunworthy，youcommitacrimethemoreinaskingforwhatyoudonotdeserve。
Inaword，wepraytoCodonlybecausewehavemadeHiminourownimage。
WetreatHimlikeapasha，likeasultanwhomonemayprovokeandappease。
Inshort，allnationspraytoGod：wisemenresignthemselvesandobeyHim。
Letuspraywiththepeople，andresignourselveswiththewisemen。PhilosophicalDictionary：PrecisofAncientPhilosophyPRECISOFANCIENTPHILOSOPHYIHAVEspentnearlyfortyyearsofmypilgrimageintwoorthreecornersofthisworldseekingthephilosopher’sstonethatiscalledTruth。Ihaveconsultedalltheadeptsofantiquity，EpicurusandAugustine，PlatoandMalebranchandIhaveremainedinmypoverty。Maybeinallthesephilosophers’
cruciblesthereareoneortwoouncesofgold。butalltherestisresidue，dullmud，fromwhichnothingcanbeborn。
ItseemstomethattheGreeksourmasterswrotemuchmoretoshowtheirintelligencethanthattheyusedtheirintelligenceinordertolearn。
Idonotseeasingleauthorofantiquitywhohadacoherentsystem，aclear，methodicalsystemprogressingfromconsequencetoconsequence。
WhenIwantedtocompareandcombinethesystemsofPlato，ofthepreceptorofAlexander，ofPythagorasandoftheOrientals，here，moreorless，iswhatIwasabletogather：
Chanceisawordemptyofsense。nothingcanexistwithoutacause。
Theworldisarrangedaccordingtomathematicallaws。itisthereforearrangedbyanintelligence。
ItisnotanintelligentbeingsuchasIam，whodirectedtheformationofthisworld，forIcannotformamite。thereforethisworldistheworkofaprodigiouslysuperiorintelligence。
Doesthisbeing，whopossessesintelligenceandpowerinsohighadegree，existnecessarily？Itmustbeso，foreitherthebeingreceivedexistencefromanother，orfromitsownnature。Ifthebeingreceivedexistencefromanother，whichisverydifficulttoimagine，Imusthaverecoursetothisother，andthisotherwillbetheprimeauthor。TowhicheversideIturnIhavetoadmitaprimeauthor，potentandintelligent，whoissuchnecessarilybyhisownnature。
Didthisprimeauthorproducethingsoutofnothing？thatisnotimaginable。
tocreateoutofnothingistochangenothingintosomething。ImustnotadmitsuchaproductionunlessIfindinvinciblereasonswhichforcemetoadmitwhatmyintelligencecannevercomprehend。
Allthatexistsappearstoexistnecessarily，sinceitexists。Forifto-daythereisareasonfortheexistenceofthings，therewasoneyesterday，therewasoneinalltime。andthiscausemustalwayshavehaditseffect，withoutwhichitwouldhavebeenduringeternityauselesscause。
Buthowshallthingshavealwaysexisted，beingvisiblyunderthehandoftheprimeauthor？Thispowerthereforemustalwayshaveacted。inthesameway，nearly，thatthereisnosunwithoutlight，sothereisnomovementwithoutabeingthatpassesfromonepointofspacetoanotherpoint。
Thereisthereforeapotentandintelligentbeingwhohasalwaysacted。
andifthisbeinghadneveracted，ofwhatusewouldhisexistencehavebeentohim？
Allthingsarethereforeeternalemanationsofthisprimeauthor。
ButhowimaginethatstoneandmudareemanationsoftheeternalBeing，potentandintelligent？
Oftwothingsone，eitherthematterofthisstoneandthismudexistnecessarilybythemselves，ortheyexistnecessarilythroughthisprimeauthor。thereisnomiddlecourse。
Thus，therefore，thereareonlytwochoicestomake，admiteithermattereternalbyitself，ormatterissuingeternallyfromthepotent，intelligent，eternalBeing。
But，eithersubsistingbyitsownnature，oremanatedfromtheproducingBeing，itexistsfromalleternity，becauseitexists，andthereisnoreasonwhyitshouldnothaveexistedbefore。
Ifmatteriseternallynecessary，itisthereforeimpossible，itisthereforecontradictorythatitdoesnotexist。butwhatmancanaffirmthatitisimpossible，thatitiscontradictorythatthispebbleandthisflyhavenotexistence？Oneis，nevertheless，forcedtosuppressthisdifficultywhichastonishestheimaginationmorethanitcontradictstheprinciplesofreasoning。
Infact，assoonasyouhaveimaginedthateverythinghasemanatedfromthesupremeandintelligentBeing，thatnothinghasemanatedfromtheBeingwithoutreason，thatthisBeingexistingalways，mustalwayshaveacted，thatconsequentlyallthingsmusthaveeternallyissuedfromthewombofHisexistence，youshouldnomorerefusetobelieveinthematterofwhichthispebbleandthisfly，aneternalproduction，areformed，thanyourefusetoimaginelightasaneternalemanationfromtheomnipotentBeing。
SinceIamabeingwithextensionandthought，myextensionandmythoughtarethereforenecessaryproductionsofthisBeing。ItisevidenttomethatIcannotgivemyselfeitherextensionorthought。IhavethereforereceivedbothfromthisnecessaryBeing。
CanHegivemewhatHehasnot？IhaveintelligenceandIaminspace。
thereforeHeisintelligent，andHeisinspace。
TosaythatthiseternalBeing，thisomnipotentGod，hasfromalltimenecessarilyfilledtheuniversewithHisproductions，isnottodepriveHimofHisliberty。onthecontrary，forlibertyisonlythepowerofacting。
Godhasalwaysactedtothefull。thereforeGodhasalwaysmadeuseofthefullnessofHisliberty。
Thelibertythatiscalledlibertyofindifferenceisaphrasewithoutidea，anabsurdity。foritwouldbedeterminationwithoutreason。
itwouldbeaneffectwithoutacause。Therefore，Godcannothavethisso-calledlibertywhichisacontradictioninterms。HehasthereforealwaysactedthroughthissamenecessitywhichmakesHisexistence。
ItisthereforeimpossiblefortheworldtobewithoutGod，itisimpossibleforGodtobewithouttheworld。
Thisworldisfilledwithbeingswhosucceedeachother，thereforeGodhasalwaysproducedbeingswhosucceedeachother。
ThesepreliminaryassertionsarethebasisoftheancientOrientalphilosophyandofthatoftheGreeks。OnemustexceptDemocritusandEpicurus，whosecorpuscularphilosophycombatedthesedogmas。ButletusremarkthattheEpicureansreliedonanentirelyerroneousnaturalphilosophy，andthatthemetaphysicalsystemofalltheotherphilosophersholdsgoodwithallthesystemsofnaturalphilosophy。Thewholeofnature，exceptingthevacuum，contradictsEpicurus。andnophenomenoncontradictsthephilosophywhichIhavejustexplained。WelI，isnotaphilosophywhichisinaccordwithallthatpassesinnature，andwhichcontentsthemostcarefulminds，superiortoallothernon-revealedsystems？
Aftertheassertionsoftheancientphilosophers，whichIhavereconciledasfarashasbeenpossibleforme，whatislefttous？achaosofdoubtsandchimeras。Idonotthinkthattherehaseverbeenaphilosopherwithasystemwhodidnotattheendofhislifeavowthathehadwastedhistime。Itmustbeadmittedthattheinventorsofthemechanicalartshavebeenmuchmoreusefultomankindthantheinventorsofsyllogisms：themanwhoinventedtheshuttlesurpasseswithavengeancethemanwhoimaginedinnateideas。PhilosophicalDictionary：PrejudicesPREJUDICESPREJUDICEisanopinionwithoutjudgment。Thusallovertheworlddopeopleinspirechildrenwithalltheopinionstheydesire，beforethechildrencanjudge。
Therearesomeuniversal，necessaryprejudices，whichevenmakevirtue。
InallcountrieschildrenaretaughttorecognizearewardingandrevengingGod。torespectandlovetheirfatherandtheirmother。tolookontheftasacrime，selfishlieingasavice，beforetheycanguesswhatisaviceandwhatavirtue。
Therearethensomeverygoodprejudices。theyarethosewhichareratifiedbyjudgmentwhenonereasons。
Sentimentisnotasimpleprejudice。itissomethingmuchstronger。
Amotherdoesnotlovehersonbecauseshehasbeentoldshemustlovehim。shecherisheshimhappilyinspiteofherself。Itisnotthroughprejudicethatyouruntothehelpofanunknownchildabouttofallintoaprecipice，orbeeatenbyabeast。
Butitisthroughprejudicethatyouwillrespectamancladincertainclothes，walkinggravely，speakinglikewise。Yourparentshavetoldyouthatyoushouldbowbeforethisman。yourespecthimbeforeknowingwhetherhemeritsyourrespect：yougrowinyearsandinknowledge。youperceivethatthismanisacharlatansteepedinarrogance，self-interestandartifice。
youdespisewhatyourevered，andtheprejudicecedestojudgment。Throughprejudiceyouhavebelievedthefableswithwhichyourchildhoodwascradled。
youhavebeentoldthattheTitansmadewaronthegods，andVenuswasamorousofAdonis。whenyouaretwelveyouacceptthesefablesastruths。
whenyouaretwentyyoulookonthemasingeniousallegories。
Letusexaminebrieflythedifferentsortsofprejudices，soastosetouraffairsinorder。Weshallbeperhapslikethosewho，atthetimeofLaw’ssystem，perceivedthattheyhadcalculatedimaginaryriches。PREJUDICESOFTHESENSES
Isitnotstrangethatoureyesalwaysdeceiveus，evenwhenwehaveverygoodsight，andthatonthecontraryourearsdonotdeceiveus？Letyourwell-informedearhearYouarebeautiful，Iloveyou。itisquitecertainthatsomeonehasnotsaidIhateyou，youareugly：butyouseeasmoothmirror。itisdemonstratedthatyouaremistaken，ithasaveryunevensurface。Youseethesunasabouttwofeetindiameter。itisdemonstratedthatitisamilliontimesbiggerthantheearth。
ItseemsthatGodhasputtruthinyourears，anderrorinyoureyes。
butstudyoptics，andyouwillseethatGodhasnotdeceivedyou，andthatitisimpossibleforobjectstoappeartoyouotherwisethanyouseetheminthepresentstateofthings。PHYSICALPREJUDICES
Thesunrises，themoonalso，theearthismotionless：thesearenaturalphysicalprejudices。Butthatlobstersaregoodfortheblood，becausewhencookedtheyarered。thateelscureparalysisbecausetheywriggle。
thatthemoonaffectsourmaladiesbecauseonedaysomeoneobservedthatasickmanhadanincreaseoffeverduringthewaningofthemoon。theseideasandathousandothersaretheerrorsofancientcharlatanswhojudgedwithoutreasoning，andwho，beingdeceived，deceivedothers。HISTORICALPREJUDICES
Mosthistoricalstorieshavebeenbelievedwithoutexamination，andthisbeliefisaprejudice。FabiusPictorrelatesthatmanycenturiesbeforehim，avestalofthetownofAlba，goingtodrawwaterinherpitcher，wasravished，thatshegavebirthtoRomulusandRemus，thattheywerefedbyashe-wolf，etc。TheRomanpeoplebelievedthisfable。theydidnotexaminewhetheratthattimetherewerevestalsinLatium，whetheritwereprobablethataking’sdaughterwouldleaveherconventwithherpitcher，whetheritwerelikelythatashe-wolfwouldsuckletwochildreninsteadofeatingthem。theprejudiceestablisheditself。
AmonkwritesthatClovis，beingingreatdangeratthebattleofTolbiac，madeavowtoturnChristianifheescaped。butisitnaturaltoaddressoneselftoaforeigngodonsuchanoccasion？isitnotthenthatthereligioninwhichonewasbornactsmostpotently？WhichistheChristianwho，inabattleagainsttheTurks，willnotaddresshimselftotheHolyVirginratherthantoMohammed？ItisaddedthatapigeonbroughttheholyphialinitsbeaktoanointClovis，andthatanangelbroughttheoriflammetoleadhim。prejudicebelievedallthelittlestoriesofthiskind。ThosewhounderstandhumannatureknowwellthatClovistheusurperandRolonorRoltheusurperturnedChristianinordertogoverntheChristiansmoreSurely，justastheTurkishusurpersturnedMussulmaninordertogoverntheMussulmansmoresurely。RELIGIOUSPREJUDICES
IfyournursehastoldyouthatCeresrulesoverthecrops，orthatVishnouandXacamadethemselvesmenseveraltimes，orthatSammonocodomcametocutdownaforest，orthatOdinawaitsyouinhishallnearJutland，orthatMohammedorsomebodyelsemadeajourneyintothesky。iflastlyyourtutorcomestodriveintoyourbrainwhatyournursehasimprintedonit，youkeepitforlife。Ifyourjudgmentwishestoriseagainsttheseprejudices，yourneighboursand，aboveall，yourneighbours’wivescryoutImpiousreprobate，anddismayyou。yourdervish，fearingtoseehisincomediminish，accusesyoutothecadi，andthiscadihasyouimpaledifhecan，becausehelikesrulingoverfools，andthinksthatfoolsobeybetterthanothers：andthatwilllastuntilyourneighboursandthedervishandthecadibegintounderstandthatfoolishnessisgoodfornothing，andthatpersecutionisabominable。PhilosophicalDictionary：RareRARERAREinnaturalphilosophyistheoppositeofdense。Inmoralphilosophy，itistheoppositeofcommon。
Thislastvarietyofrareiswhatexcitesadmiration。Oneneveradmireswhatiscommon，oneenjoysit。
Aneccentricthinkshimselfabovetherestofwretchedmortalswhenhehasinhisstudyararemedalthatisgoodfornothing，ararebookthatnobodyhasthecouragetoread，anoldengravingbyAlbrechtDurer，badlydesignedandbadlyprinted：hetriumphsifhehasinhisgardenastuntedtreefromAmerica。Thiseccentrichasnotaste。hehasonlyvanity。
Hehasheardsaythatthebeautifulisrare。butheshouldknowthatallthatisrareisnotbeautiful。
Beautyisrareinallnature’sworks，andinallworksofart。
Whateverillthingshavebeensaidofwomen，Imaintainthatitisrarertofindwomenperfectlybeautifulthanpassiblygood。
Youwillmeetinthecountrytenthousandwomenattachedtotheirhomes，laborious，sober，feeding，rearing，teachingtheirchildren。andyouwillfindbarelyonewhomyoucouldshowatthetheatresofParis，London，Naples，orinthepublicgardens，andwhowouldbelookedonasabeauty。
Likewise，inworksofart，youhavetenthousanddaubsandscrawlstoonemasterpiece。
Ifeverythingwerebeautifulandgood，itisclearthatonewouldnolongeradmireanything。onewouldenjoy。Butwouldonehavepleasureinenjoying？thatisabigquestion。
WhyhavethebeautifulpassagesinTheCid，TheHoraces，Cinna，
hadsuchaprodigioussuccess？Becauseintheprofoundnightinwhichpeoplewereplunged，theysuddenlysawshineanewlightthattheydidnotexpect。
Itwasbecausethisbeautywastherarestthingintheworld。
ThegrovesofVersailleswereabeautyuniqueintheworld，aswerethencertainpassagesofCorneille。St。Peter’s，Rome，isunique。
ButletussupposethatallthechurchesofEuropewereequaltoSt。
Peter’s，Rome，thatallstatueswereVenusdeiMedici，thatalltragedieswereasbeautifulasRacine’s’’Iphigenie’’，allworksofpoetryaswellwrittenasBoileau’sArtPoetique，allcomediesasgoodasTartufe，andthusineverysphere。wouldyouthenhaveasmuchpleasureinenjoyingmasterpiecesbecomecommonastheymadeyoutastewhentheywererare？
IsayboldlyNo！。andIbelievethattheancientschool，whichsorarelywasright，wasrightwhenitsaid：Abassuetisnonfitpassio，habitdoesnotmakepassion。
But，mydearreader，willitbethesamewiththeworksofnature？WillyoubedisgustedifallthemaidsaresobeautifulasHelen。andyou，ladies，ifalltheladsarelikeParis？Letussupposethatallwinesareexcellent，willyouhavelessdesiretodrink？ifthepartridges，pheasants，pulletsarecommonatalltimes，willyouhavelessappetite？IsayboldlyagainNo！，despitetheaxiomoftheschools，Habitdoesnotmakepassion：andthereason，youknowit，isthatallthepleasureswhichnaturegivesusarealwaysrecurringneeds，necessaryenjoyments，andthatthepleasuresoftheartsarenotnecessary。Itisnotnecessaryforamantohavegroveswherewatergushestoaheightofahundredfeetfromthemouthofamarbleface，andonleavingthesegrovestogotoseeafinetragedy。Butthetwosexesarealwaysnecessarytoeachother。Thetableandthebedarenecessities。Thehabitofbeingalternatelyonthesetwothroneswillneverdisgustyou。
InParisafewyearsagopeopleadmiredarhinoceros。Iftherewereinoneprovincetenthousandrhinoceroses，menwouldrunafterthemonlytokillthem。Butlettherebeahundredthousandbeautifulwomen，menwillalwaysrunafterthemto……honourthem。PhilosophicalDictionary：ReasonREASONATthetimewhenallFrancewasmadaboutLaw’ssystem，andLawwascontroller-general，therecametohiminthepresenceofagreatassemblyamanwhowasalwaysright，whoalwayshadreasononhisside。SaidhetoLaw：
Sir，youarethebiggestmadman，thebiggestfool，orthebiggestroguewhohasyetappearedamongus。andthatissayingagreatdeal：thisishowIproveit。Youhaveimaginedthatastate’swealthcanbeincreasedtenfoldwithpaper。butasthispapercanrepresentonlythemoneythatisrepresentativeoftruewealth，theproductsofthelandandindustry，youshouldhavebegunbygivingustentimesmorecorn，wine，cloth，canvas，etc。Thatisnotenough，youmustbesureofyourmarket。Butyoumaketentimesasmanynotesaswehaveofsilverandcommodities，thereforeyouaretentimesmoreextravagant，ormoreinept，ormoreofaroguethanallthecomptrollerswhohaveprecededyou。ThisishowIprovemymajor。
HardlyhadhestartedhismajorthanhewasconductedtoSaint-Lazare。
WhenhecameoutofSaint-Lazare，wherehestudiedmuchandstrengthenedhisreason，hewenttoRome。heaskedforapublicaudienceofthePope，onconditionthathewasnotinterruptedinhisharangue。andhespoketothePopeintheseterms：
HolyFather，youareanantichristandthisishowIproveittoYourHoliness。IcallantichristthemanwhodoesthecontrarytowhatChristdidandcommanded。NowChristwaspoor，andyouareveryrich。hepaidtribute，andyouexacttribute。hesubmittedtothepowersthatwere，andyouhavebecomeapower。hewalkedonfoot，andyougotoCastel-Gandolfoinasumptuousequipage。heateallthatonewassogoodastogivehim，andyouwantustoeatfishonFridayandSaturday，whenwelivefarfromseaandriver。heforbadeSimonBarjonatouseasword，andyouhaveswordsinyourservice，etc。，etc。，etc。ThereforeinthissenseYourHolinessisantichrist。IneveryothersenseIholdyouingreatveneration，andIaskyouforanindulgenceinarticulomortis。
MymanwasputintheCastelloSt。Angelo。
WhenhecameoutoftheCastelloSt。Angelo，herushedtoVenice，andaskedtospeaktothedoge。
YourSerenity，hesaid，mustbeascatter-braintomarrytheseaeveryyear：forfirstly，oneonlymarriesthesamepersononce。secondly，yourmarriageresemblesHarlequin’s，whichwashalfmade，seeingthatitlackedbuttheconsentofthebride。thirdly，whohastoldyouthatonedayothermaritimepowerswillnotdeclareyouincapableofconsummatingthemarriage？
Hespoke，andwasshutupintheTowerofSt。Mark’s。
WhenhecameoutoftheTowerofSt。Mark’s，hewenttoConstantinople。
hehadaudienceofthemufti。andspoketohimintheseterms：
Yourreligion，althoughithassomegoodpoints，suchasworshipofthegreatBeing，andthenecessityofbeingjustandcharitable，isotherwisenothingbutarehashofJudaismandatediouscollectionoffairytales。
IfthearchangelGabrielhadbroughttheleavesoftheKorantoMahometfromsomeplanet，allArabiawouldhaveseenGabrielcomedown：nobodysawhim。thereforeMahometwasabrazenimpostorwhodeceivedimbeciles。
Hardlyhadhepronouncedthesewordsthanhewasimpaled。Neverthelesshehadalwaysbeenright，andhadalwayshadreasononhisside。PhilosophicalDictionary：ReligionRELIGIONIMEDITATEDlastnight。Iwasabsorbedinthecontemplationofnature。
Iadmiredtheimmensity，thecourse，theharmonyoftheseinfiniteglobeswhichthevulgardonotknowhowtoadmire。
Iadmiredstillmoretheintelligencewhichdirectsthesevastforces。
Isaidtomyself：Onemustbeblindnottobedazzledbythisspectacle。
onemustbestupidnottorecognizetheauthorofit。onemustbemadnottoworshipHim。WhattributeofworshipshouldIrenderHim？Shouldnotthistributebethesameinthewholeofspace，sinceitisthesamesupremepowerwhichreignsequallyinallspace？ShouldnotathinkingbeingwhodwellsinastarintheMilkyWayofferHimthesamehomageasthethinkingbeingonthislittleglobewhereweare？LightisuniformforthestarSiriusandforus。moralphilosophymustbeuniform。Ifasentient，thinkinganimalinSiriusisbornofatenderfatherandmotherwhohavebeenoccupiedwithhishappiness，heowesthemasmuchloveandcareasweowetoourparents。IfsomeoneintheMilkyWayseesaneedycripple，ifhecanrelievehimandifhedoesnotdoit，heisguiltytowardallglobes。Everywherethehearthasthesameduties：onthestepsofthethroneofGod，ifHehasathrone。andinthedepthoftheabyss，ifHeisanabyss。
Iwasplungedintheseideaswhenoneofthosegeniiwhofilltheintermundanespacescamedowntome。IrecognizedthissameaerialcreaturewhohadappearedtomeonanotheroccasiontoteachmehowdifferentGod’sjudgmentswerefromourown，andhowagoodactionispreferabletoacontroversy。
Hetransportedmeintoadesertallcoveredwithpiledupbones。andbetweentheseheapsofdeadmentherewerewalksofever-greentrees，andattheendofeachwalkatallmanofaugustmien，whoregardedthesesadremainswithpity。
Alas！myarchangel，saidI，wherehaveyoubroughtme？
Todesolation，heanswered。
AndwhoarethesefinepatriarchswhomIseesadandmotionlessattheendofthesegreenwalks？theyseemtobeweepingoverthiscountlesscrowdofdead。
Youshallknow，poorhumancreature，answeredthegeniusfromtheintermundanespaces。butfirstofallyoumustweep。
Hebeganwiththefirstpile。These，hesaid，arethetwenty-threethousandJewswhodancedbeforeacalf，withthetwenty-fourthousandwhowerekilledwhilelyingwithMidianitishwomen。Thenumberofthosemassacredforsucherrorsandoffencesamountstonearlythreehundredthousand。
IntheotherwalksarethebonesoftheChristiansslaughteredbyeachotherformetaphysicaldisputes。Theyaredividedintoseveralheapsoffourcenturieseach。Oneheapwouldhavemountedrighttothesky。theyhadtobedivided。
What！Icried，brothershavetreatedtheirbrotherslikethis，andIhavethemisfortunetobeofthisbrotherhood！
Here，saidthespirit，arethetwelvemillionAmericanskilledintheirfatherlandbecausetheyhadnotbeenbaptized。
MyGod！whydidyounotleavethesefrightfulbonestodryinthehemispherewheretheirbodieswereborn，andwheretheywereconsignedtosomanydifferentdeaths？Whyassembleherealltheseabominablemonumentstobarbarismandfanaticism？
Toinstructyou。
Sinceyouwishtoinstructme，Isaidtothegenius，tellmeiftherehavebeenpeoplesotherthantheChristiansandtheJewsinwhomzealandreligionwretchedlytransformedintofanaticism，haveinspiredsomanyhorriblecruelties。
Yes，hesaid。TheMohammedansweresulliedwiththesameinhumanities，butrarely。andwhenoneaskedamman，pity，ofthem，andofferedthemtribute，theypardoned。Asfortheothernationstherehasnotbeenonerightfromtheexistenceoftheworldwhichhasevermadeapurelyreligiouswar。Followmenow。Ifollowedhim。
Alittlebeyondthesepilesofdeadmenwefoundotherpiles。theywerecomposedofsacksofgoldandsilver，andeachhaditslabel：Substanceofthehereticsmassacredintheeighteenthcentury，theseventeenthandthesixteenth。Andsooningoingback：GoldandsilverofAmericansslaughtered，etc。，etc。Andallthesepilesweresurmountedwithcrosses，mitres，croziers，triplecrownsstuddedwithpreciousstones。
What，mygenius！itwasthentohavetheserichesthatthesedeadwerepiledup？
Yes，myson。
Iwept。andwhenbymygriefIhadmeritedtobeledtotheendofthegreenwalks，heledmethere。
Contemplate，hesaid，theheroesofhumanitywhoweretheworld’sbenefactors，andwhowereallunitedinbanishingfromtheworld，asfarastheywereable，violenceandrapine。Questionthem。
Irantothefirstoftheband。h#hadacrownonhishead，andalittlecenserinhishand。Ihumblyaskedhimhisname。IamNumaPompilius，
hesaidtome。Isucceededabrigand，andIhadbrigandstogovern：I
taughtthemvirtueandtheworshipofGod。aftermetheyforgotbothmorethanonce。Iforbadethatinthetemplesthereshouldbeanyimage，becausetheDeitywhichanimatesnaturecannotberepresented。DuringmyreigntheRomanshadneitherwarsnorseditions，andmyreligiondidnothingbutgood。Alltheneighbouringpeoplescametohonourmeatmyfuneral：
thathappenedtonoonebutme。
Ikissedhishand，andIwenttothesecond。Hewasafineoldmanaboutahundredyearsold，cladinawhiterobe。Heputhismiddle-fingeronhismouth，andwiththeotherhandhecastsomebeansbehindhim。IrecognizedPythagoras。Heassuredmehehadneverhadagoldenthigh，andthathehadneverbeenacock。butthathehadgovernedtheCrotoniateswithasmuchjusticeasNumagovernedtheRomans，almostatthesametime。andthatthisjusticewastherarestandmostnecessarythingintheworld。
IlearnedthatthePythagoreansexaminedtheirconsciencestwiceaday。
Thehonestpeople！howfarwearefromthem！Butwewhohavebeennothingbutassassinsforthirteenhundredyears，wesaythatthesewisemenwerearrogant。
InordertopleasePythagoras，IdidnotsayawordtohimandIpassedtoZarathustra，whowasoccupiedinconcentratingthecelestialfireinthefocusofaconcavemirror，inthemiddleofahallwithahundreddoorswhichallledtowisdom。Zarathustra’spreceptsarecalleddoors，andareahundredinnumber。OvertheprincipaldoorIreadthesewordswhicharetheprecisofallmoralphilosophy，andwhichcutshortallthedisputesofthecausists：Whenindoubtifanactionisgoodorbad，refrain。
Certainly，Isaidtomygenius，thebarbarianswhoimmolatedallthesevictimshadneverreadthesebeautifulwords。
WethensawtheZaleucus，theThales，theAniximanders，andallthesageswhohadsoughttruthandpractisedvirtue。
WhenwecametoSocrates，Irecognizedhimveryquicklybyhisflatnose。Well，Isaidtohim，hereyouarethenamongthenumberoftheAlmighty’sconfidants！AlltheinhabitantsofEurope，excepttheTurksandtheTartarsoftheCrimea，whoknownothing，pronounceyournamewithrespect。Itisrevered，loved，thisgreatname，tothepointthatpeoplehavewantedtoknowthoseofyourpersecutors。MelitusandAnitusareknownbecauseofyou，justasRavaillacisknownbecauseofHenryIV……butI
knowonlythisnameofAnitus。Idonotknowpreciselywhowasthescoundrelwhocalumniatedyou，andwhosucceededinhavingyoucondemnedtotakehemlock。
Sincemyadventure，repliedSocrates，Ihaveneverthoughtaboutthatman。butseeingthatyoumakemerememberit，Ihavemuchpityforhim。Hewasawickedpriestwhosecretlyconductedabusinessinhides，atradereputedshamefulamongus。Hesenthistwochildrentomyschool。
Theotherdiscipfestauntedthemwithhavingafatherwhowasacurrier。
theywereobligedtoleave。Theirritatedfatherhadnorestuntilhehadstirredupallthepriestsandallthesophistsagainstme。TheypersuadedthecounselofthefivehundredthatIwasanimpiousfellowwhodidnotbelievethattheMoon，MercuryandMarsweregods。Indeed，Iusedtothink，asIthinknowthatthereisonlyoneGod，masterofallnature。Thejudgeshandedmeovertothepoisoneroftherepublic。hecutshortmylifebyafewdays：Idiedpeacefullyattheageofseventy。andsincethattimeIpassahappylifewithhallthesegreatmenwhomyousee，andofwhomIamtheleast。
AfterenjoyingsometimeinconversationwithSocrates，Ihwentforwardwithmyguideintoagrovesituatedabovethethicketswhereallthesagesofantiquityseemedtobetastingsweetrepose。
Isawamanofgentle，simplecountenance，whoseemedtometobeaboutthirty-fiveyearsold。Fromafarhecastcompassionateglancesonthesepilesofwhitenedbones，acrosswhichIhadhadtopasstoreachthesages’
abode。Iwasastonishedtofindhisfeetswollenandbleeding，hishandslikewise，hissidepierced，andhisribsflayedwithwhipcuts。GoodHeavens！Isaidtohim，isitpossibleforajustman，asage，tobeinthisstate？Ihavejustseenonewhowastreatedinaveryhatefulway，butthereisnocomparisonbetweenhistortureandyours。Wickedpriestsandwickedjudgespoisonedhim。isitbypriestsanhdjudgesthatyouhavebeensocruellyassassinated？
Heansweredwithmuchcourtesy——Yes。
Andwhowerethesemonsters？
Theywerehypocrites。
Ah！thatsayseverything。Iunderstandbythissinglewordthattheymusthavecondemnedyoutodeath。Hadyouthenprovedtothem，asSocratesdid，thattheMoonwasnotagoddess，andthatMercurywasnotagod？
No，theseplanetswerenotinquestion。Mycompatriotsdidnotknowatallwhataplanetis。theywereallarrantignoramuses。TheirsuperstitionswerequitedifferentfromthoseoftheGreeks。
Youwantedtoteachthemanewreligion，then？
Notatall。Isaidtothemsimply——’LoveGodwithallyourheartandyourfellow-creatureasyourself，forthatisman’swholeduty。’Judgeifthispreceptisnotasoldastheuniverse。judgeifIbroughtthemanewreligion。IdidnotstoptellingthemthatIhadcomenottodestroythelawbitttofulfilit。Ihadobservedalltheirrites。circumcisedastheyallwere，baptizedaswerethemostzealousamongthem，likethemIpaidtheCorban。IobservedthePassoverastheydid，eatingstandingupalahmbcookedwithlettuces。Iandmyfriendswenttoprayinthetemple。
myfriendsevenfrequentedthistempleaftermydeath。inaword，Ifulfilledalltheirlawswithoutasingleexception。
What！thesewretchescouldnotevenreproachyouwithswervingfromtheirlaws？
No，withoutadoubt。
WhythendidtheyputyouintheconditioninwhichInowseeyou？
Whatdoyouexpectmetosay！theywereveryarrogantandselfish。
TheysawthatIknewthem。theyknewthatIwasmakingthecitizensacquaintedwiththem。theywerethestronger。theytookawaymylife：andpeoplelikethemwillalwaysdoasmuch，iftheycan，towhoeverdoesthemtoomuchjustice。’’
Butdidyousaynothing，donothingthatcouldservethemasapretext？
Tothewickedeverythingservesaspretext。
Didyounotsayoncethatyouwerecomenottosendpeace，butasword？
Itisacopyist’serror。ItoldthemthatIsentpeaceandnotasword。Ihaveneverwrittenanything。whatIsaidcanhavebeenchangedwithoutevilintention。
Youthereforecontributedinnowaybyyourspeeches，badlyreported，badlyinterpreted，tothesefrightfulpilesofboneswhichIsawonmyroadincomingtoconsultyou？
ItiswithhorroronlythatIhaveseenthosewhohavemadethemselvesguiltyojthesemurders。
Andthesemonumentsofpowerandwealth，ofprideandavarice，thesetreasures，theseornaments，thesesignsofgrandeur，whichIhaveseenpiledupontheroadwhileIwasseekingwisdom，dotheycomefromyou？
Thatisimpossible。Iandmypeoplelivedinpovertyandmeanness：
mygrandeurwasinvirtueonly。
Iwasabouttobeghimtobesogoodastotellmejustwhohewas。
Myguidewarnedmetodonothingofthesort。hlietoldmethatIwasnotmadetounderstandthesesublimemysteries。OnlydidIconjurehimtotellmeinwhattruereligionconsisted。HaveInotalreadytoldyou？LoveGodandyourfellow-creatureasyourself。
What！ifonelovesGod，onecaneatmeatonFriday？
Ialwaysatewhatwasgivenme。forIwastoopoortogiveanyonefood。
InlovingGod，inbeingjust，shouldonenotberathercautiousnottoconfidealltheadventuresofone’slifetoanunknownman？
Thatwasalwaysmypractice。
CanInot，bydoinggood，dispensewithmakingapilgrimagetoSt。
JamesofCompostella？
Ihaveneverbeeninthatcountry。
Isitnecessaryformetoimprisonmyselfinaretreatwithfools？
Asforme，Ialwaysmadelittlejourneysfromtowntotown。’’
IsitnecessaryformetotakesideseitherfortheGreekChurchortheLatin？
WhenIwasintheworldInevermadeanydifferencebetweentheJewandtheSamaritan。
Well，ifthatisso，Itakeyouformyonlymaster。Thenhemademeasignwithhisheadwhichfilledmewithconsolation。Thevisiondisappeared，andaclearconsciencestayedwithme。PhilosophicalDictionary：SectSECTSECTIONI
EVERYsect，inwhateversphere，istherallying-pointofdoubtanderror。
Scotist，Thomist，Realist，Nominalist，Papist，Calvinist，Molinist，Jansenist，areonlypseudonyms。
Therearenosectsingeometry。onedoesnotspeakofaEuclidian，anArchimedean。
Whenthetruthisevident，itisimpossibleforpartiesandfactionstoarise。Neverhastherebeenadisputeastowhetherthereisdaylightatnoon。
Thebranchofastronomywhichdeterminesthecourseofthestarsandthereturnofeclipsesbeingonceknown，thereisnomoredisputeamongastronomers。
InEnglandonedoesnotsay——IamaNewtonian，aLockian，aHalleyan。
Why？Thosewhohavereadcannotrefusetheirassenttothetruthstaughtbythesethreegreatmen。ThemoreNewtonisrevered，thelessdopeoplestylethemselvesNewtonians。thiswordsupposesthatthereareanti-NewtoniansinEngland。MaybewestillhaveafewCartesiansinFrance。thatissolelybecauseDescartes’systemisatissueoferroneousandridiculousimaginings。
Itislikewisewiththesmallnumberoftruthsoffactwhicharewellestablished。TherecordsoftheTowerofLondonhavingbeenauthenticallygatheredbyRymer，therearenoRymerians，becauseifoccurstonoonetocombatthiscollection。Initonefindsneithercontradictions，absurditiesnorprodigies。nothingwhichrevoltsthereason，consequently，whichsectariansstrivetomaintainorupsetbyabsurdarguments。Everyoneagrees，therefore，thatRymer’srecordsareworthyofbelief。
YouareMohammedan，thereforetherearepeoplewhoarenot，thereforeyoumightwellbewrong。
WhatwouldbethetruereligionifChristianitydidnotexist？thereligioninwhichtherewerenosects。thereligioninwhichallmindswerenecessarilyinagreement。
Well，towhatdogmadoallmindsagree？totheworshipofaGodandtointegrity。Allthephilosophersoftheworldwhohavehadareligionhavesaidinalltime——ThereisaGod，andonemustbejust。There，then，istheuniversalreligionestablishedinalltimeandthroughoutmankind。
Thepointinwhichtheyallagreeisthereforetrue，andthesystemsthroughwhichtheydifferarethereforefalse。
Mysectisthebest，saysaBrahmintome。But，myfriend，ifyoursectisgood，itisnecessary。forifitwerenotabsolutelynecessaryyouwouldadmittomethatitwasuseless：ifitisabsolutelynecessary，itisforallmen。howthencanitbethatallmenhavenotwhatisabsolutelynecessarytothem？HowisitpossiblefortherestoftheworldtolaughatyouandyourBrahma？
WhenZarathustra，Hermes，Orpheus，Minosandallthegreatmensay-
LetusworshipGod，andletusbejust，nobodylaughs。buteveryonehissesthemanwhoclaimsthatonecannotpleaseGodunlesswhenonedieswhileoneisholdingacow’stail，andthemanwhowantsonetohavetheendofone’sprepucecutoff，andthemanwhoconsecratescrocodilesandonions，andthemanwhoattacheseternalsalvationtothedeadmen’sbonesonecarriesunderone’sshirt，ortoaplenaryindulgencewhichonebuysatRomefortwoandahalfsous。
Whencecomesthisuniversalcompetitioninhissesandderisionfromoneendoftheworldtotheother？Itisclearthatthethingsatwhicheveryonesneersarenotofaveryevidenttruth。WhatshallwesayofoneofSejan’ssecretarieswhodedicatedtoPetroniusabombasticbookentitled——TheTruthsoftheSibyllineOracles，ProvedbytheFacts？
ThissecretaryprovestoyoufirstthatitwasnecessaryforGodtosendonearthseveralsibylsoneaftertheother。forHehadnoothermeansofteachingmankind。ItisdemonstratedthatGodspoketothesesibyls，forthewordsibylsignifiesGod’scounsel。Theyhadtolivealongtime，foritistheveryleastthatpersonstowhomGodspeaksshouldhavethisprivilege。Theyweretwelveinnumber，forthisnumberissacred。
Theyhadcertainlypredictedalltheeventsintheworld，forTarquiniusSuperbusboughtthreeoftheirBooksfromanoldwomanforahundredcrowns。
Whatincredulousfellow，addsthesecretary，willdaredenyalltheseevidentfactswhichhappenedinacornerbeforethewholeworld？Whocandenythefulfilmentoftheirprophecies？HasnotVirgilhimselfquotedthepredictionsofthesibyls？IfwehavenotthefirstexamplesoftheSibyllineBooks，writtenatatimewhenpeopledidnotknowhowtoreadorwrite，havewenotauthenticcopies？Impietymustbesilentbeforesuchproofs。ThusdidHouttevillusspeaktoSejan。Hehopedtohaveapositionasaugurwhichwouldbeworthanincomeoffiftythousandfrancs，andhehadnothing。
Whatmysectteachesisobscure，Iadmitit，saysafanatic。anditisbecauseofthisobscuritythatitmustbebelieved。forthesectitselfsaysitisfullofobscurities。Mysectisextravagant，thereforeitisdivine。forhowshouldwhatappearssomadhavebeenembracedbysomanypeoples，ifitwerenotdivine？ItispreciselyliketheAlcoranwhichtheSonnitessayhasanangel’sfaceandananimal’sface。benotscandalizedbytheanimal’ssnout，andworshiptheangel’sface。Thusspeaksthisinsensatefellow。ButafanaticofanothersectanswersItisyouwhoaretheanimal，andIwhoamtheangel。
Well，whoshalljudgethesuit？whoshalldecidebetweenthesetwofanatics？
Thereasonable，impartialmanlearnedinaknowledgethatisnotthatofwords。themanfreefromprejudiceandloveroftruthandjustice。inshort，themanwhoisnotthefoolishanimal，andwhodoesnotthinkheistheangel。SECTIONII
Sectanderroraresynonymous。YouarePeripateticandIPlatonician。wearethereforebothwrong。foryoucombatPlatoonlybecausehisfantasieshaverevoltedyou，andIamalienatedfromAristotleonlybecauseitseemstomethathedoesnotknowwhatheistalkingabout。
Ifoneortheotherhaddemonstratedthetruth，therewouldbeasectnolonger。Todeclareoneselffortheopinionoftheoneortheotheristotakesidesinacivilwar。Therearenosectsinmathematics，inexperimentalphysics。AmanwhoexaminestherelationsbetweenaconeandasphereisnotofthesectofArchimedes：hewhoseesthatthesquareofthehypotenuseofaright-angledtriangleisequaltothesquareofthetwoothersidesisnotofthesectofPythagoras。
Whenyousaythatthebloodcirculates，thattheairisheavy，thatthesun’sraysarepencilsofsevenrefrangiblerays，youarenoteitherofthesectofHarvey，orthesectofTorricelli，orthesectofNewton。
youagreemerelywiththetruthdemonstratedbythem，andtheentireuniversewilleverbeofyouropinion。
Thisisthecharacteroftruth。itisofalltime。itisforallmen。
ithasonlytoshowitselftoberecognized。onecannotargueagainstit。
Alongdisputesignifies——Bothpartiesarewrong。PhilosophicalDictionary：Self-EsteemSELF-ESTEEMNICOLEinhisEssaisdeMorale，writtenaftertwoorthreethousandvolumesofethicsTreatiseonCharity，Chap。II，saysthatbymeansofthewheelsandgibbetswhichpeopleestablishincommonarerepressedthetyrannousthoughtsanddesignsofeachindividual’sself-esteem。
IshallnotexaminewhetherpeoplehavegibbetsinCommon，astheyhavemeadowsandwoodsincommon，andacommonpurse，andifonerepressesideaswithwheels。butitseemsverystrangetomethatNicoleshouldtakehighwayrobberyandassassinationforself-esteem。Oneshoulddistinguishshadesofdifferencealittlebetter。ThemanwhosaidthatNerohadhismotherassassinatedthroughself-esteem，thatCartouchehadmuchself-esteem，wouldnotbeexpressinghimselfverycorrectly。Self-esteemisnotwickedness，itisasentimentthatisnaturaltoallmen。itismuchnearervanitythancrime。
AbeggarinthesuburbsofMadridnoblybeggedcharity。apasser-bysaystohim：Areyounotashamedtopractisethisinfamouscallingwhenyouareabletowork？
Sir，answeredthebeggar，Iaskformoney，notadvice。AndheturnedonhisheelwithfullCastilliandignity。
Thisgentlemanwasaproudbeggar，hisvanitywaswoundedbyatrifle。
Heaskedcharityoutofloveforhimself，andcouldnottoleratethereprimandoutoffurtherloveforhimself。
AmissionarytravellinginIndiametafakirladenwithchains，nakedasamonkey，lyingonhisstomach，andhavinghimselfwhippedforthesinsofhiscompatriots，theIndians，whogavehimafewfarthings。
Whatself-denial！saidoneofthelookers-on。
Self-denial！answeredthefakir。LearnthatIhavemyselffloggedinthisworldinordertoreturnitinanother，whenyouwillbehorsesandIhorseman。
Thosewhohavesaidthatloveofourselvesisthebasisofallouropinionsandallouractions，havethereforebeenquiterightinIndia，Spain，andallthehabitableworld：andasonedoesnotwritetoprovetomenthattheyhavefaces，itisnotnecessarytoprovetothemthattheyhaveself-esteem。
Self-esteemistheinstrumentofourconservation。itresemblestheinstrumentoftheperpetuityoftheSpecies：itisnecessary，itisdeartous，itgivesuspleasure，andithastobehidden。PhilosophicalDictionary：Soul，Sect。1SOULSECTIONI
THISisavague，indeterminateterm，whichexpressesanunknownprincipleofknowneffectsthatwefeelinus。ThewordsoulcorrespondstotheLatinanima，totheGreekgreekword，tothetermofwhichallnationshavemadeusetoexpresswhattheydidnotunderstandanybetterthanwedo。
IntheproperandliteralsenseoftheLatinandthelanguagesderivedfromLatin，itsignifiesthatwhichanimates。Thuspeoplehavespokenofthesoulofmen，ofanimals，sometimesofplants，tosignifytheirprincipalofvegetationandlife。Inpronouncingthisword，peoplehaveneverhadotherthanaconfusedidea，aswhenitissaidinGenesis——AndtheLordGodformedmanofthedustoftheground，andbreathedintohisnostrilsthebreathoflife。andmanbecamealivingsoul。andthesoulofanimalsisintheblood。andkillnotmysoul，etc。
Thusthesoulwasgenerallytakenfortheoriginandthecauseoflife，forlifeitself。Thatiswhyallknownnationslongimaginedthateverythingdiedwiththebody。Ifonecandisentangleanythinginthechaosofancienthistories，itseemsthattheEgyptiansatleastwerethefirsttodistinguishbetweentheintelligenceandthesoul：andtheGreekslearnedfromthemtodistinguishtheirvous，theirgreekword，theirgreekword。TheLatins，followingtheirexample，distinguishedanimusandanima。
andwe，finally，havealsohadoursoulandourunderstanding。
Butisthatwhichistheprincipleofourlifedifferentfromthatwhichistheprincipleofourthoughts？isitthesamebeing？Doesthatwhichdirectsusandgivesussensationandmemoryresemblethatwhichisinanimalsthecauseofdigestionandthecauseoftheirsensationsandoftheirmemory？
Thereistheeternalobjectofthedisputesofmankind。Isayeternalobject。fornothavinganyfirstnotionfromwhichwecandescendinthisexamination，wecanonlyrestforeverinalabyrinthofdoubtandfeebleconjecture。
Wehavenotthesmalleststepwherewemayplaceafootinordertoreachthemostsuperficialknowledgeofwhatmakesusliveandofwhatmakesusthink。Howshouldwehave？weshouldhavehadtoseelifeandthoughtenterabody。Doesafatherknowhowhehasproducedhisson？doesamotherhowsheconceivedhim？Hasanyoneeverbeenabletodivinehowheacts，howhewakes，howhesleeps？Doesanyoneknowhowhislimbsobeyhiswill？hasanyonediscoveredbywhatartideasaremarkedoutinhisbrainandissuefromitathiscommand？FrailautomatonsmovedbytheinvisiblehandwhichdirectsusonthisStageoftheworld，whichofushasbeenabletodetectthewirewhichguidesus？
WedarequestionwhetherthesoulisSpiritormatter。ifitiscreatedbeforeus，ifitissuesfromnonexistenceatourbirth，ifafteranimatingusforonedayonearth，itlivesafterusintoeternity。Thesequestionsappearsublime。whatarethey？questionsofblindmensayingtootherblindmen-Whatislight？
Whenwewanttolearnsomethingroughlyaboutapieceofmetal，weputitinacrucibleinthefire。Buthaveweacrucibleinwhichtoputthesoul？Thesoulisspirit，saysone。Butwhatisspirit？Assuredlynoonehasanyidea。itisawordthatissovoidofsensethatoneisobligedtosaywhatspiritisnot，notbeingabletosaywhatitis。
Thesoulismatter，saysanother。Butwhatismatter？Weknowmerelysomeofitsappearancesandsomeofitsproperties。andnotoneoftheseproperties，notoneoftheseappearances，seemstohavetheslightestconnectionwiththought。
Thoughtissomethingdistinctfrommatter，sayyou。Butwhatproofofithaveyou？Isitbecausematterisdivisibleandfigurable，andthoughtisnot？Butwhohastoldyouthatthefirstprinciplesofmatteraredivisibleandfigurable？Itisveryprobablethattheyarenot。entiresectsofphilosophersmaintainthattheelementsofmatterhaveneitherformnorextension。Withatriumphantairyoucry——Thoughtisneitherwood，norstone，norsand，normetal，thereforethoughtdoesnotbelongtomatter。Weak，recklessreasoners！gravitationisneitherwood，norSand，normetal，norstone。
movement，vegetation，lifearenotthesethingseither，andyetlife，vegetation，movement，gravitation，aregiventomatter。TosaythatGodcannotmakematterthinkistosaythemostinsolentlyabsurdthingthatanyonehaseverdaredutterintheprivilegedschoolsoflunacy。WearenotcertainthatGodhastreatedmatterlikethis。weareonlycertainthatHecan。
Butwhatmattersallthathasbeensaidandallthatwillbesaidaboutthesoul？whatdoesitmatterthatithasbeencalledentelechy，quintessence，flame，ether？thatithasbeenthoughtuniversal，uncreated，transmigrant，etc。？
Inthesemattersthatareinaccessibletothereason，whatdotheseromancesofouruncertainimaginationsmatter？WhatdoesitmatterthattheFathersofthefirstfourcenturiesthoughtthesoulcorporeal？WhatdoesitmatterthatTertullian，byacontradictionfrequentinhim，hasdecidedthatitissimultaneouslycorporeal，formedandsimple？Wehaveathousandwitnessestoignorance，andnotonethatgivesaglimmerofprobability。
Howthenarewesoboldastoassertwhatthesoulis？Weknowcertainlythatweexist，thatwefeel，thatwethink。Dowewanttotakeastepbeyond？
wefallintoashadowyabyss。andinthisabyssweareStillsomadlyrecklessastodisputewhetherthissoul，ofwhichwehavenottheleastidea，wasmadebeforeusorwithus，andwhetheritperishesorisimmortal。
ThearticleSOUL，andallthearticlesofthenatureofmetaphysics，muststartbyasinceresubmissiontotheincontrovertibledogmasoftheChurch。Revelationisworthmore，withoutdoubt，thanthewholeofphilosophy。
Systemsexercisethemind，butfaithilluminesandguidesit。
Dowenotoftenpronouncewordsofwhichwehaveonlyaveryconfusedidea，orevenofwhichwehavenoneatall？Isnotthewordsoulaninstance？Whentheclapperorvalveofabellowsisoutoforder，andwhenairwhichisinthebellowsleavesitbysomeunexpectedopeninginthisvalve，sothatitisnolongercornpressedagainstthetwoblades，andisnotthrustviolentlytowardsthehearthwhichithastolight，Frenchservantssay——Thesoulofthebellowshasburst。Theyknownomoreaboutitthanthat。andthisquestioninnowisedisturbstheirpeaceofmind。
Thegardeneruttersthephrasethesouloftheplants，andcultivatesthemverywellwithoutknowingwhathemeansbythisterm。
Theviolin-makerposes，drawsforwardorbackthesoulofaviolinbeneaththebridgeinthebellyoftheinstrument。apunypieceofwoodmoreorlessgivestheviolinortakesawayfromitaharmonioussoul。
Wehavemanyindustriesinwhichtheworkmengivethequalificationofsoultotheirmachines。Neverdoesonehearthemdisputeaboutthisword。Suchisnotthecasewithphilosophers。
Forusthewordsoulsignifiesgenerallythatwhichanimates。OurancestorstheCeltsgavetotheirsoulthenameofseel，fromwhichtheEnglishsoul，andtheGermanseel。andprobablytheancientTeutonsandtheancientBritonshadnoquarrelsintheiruniversitiesoverthisexpression。
TheGreeksdistinguishedthreesortsofsoul——greek，whichsignifiedthesensitivesoul，thesoulofthesenses。andthatiswhyLove，childofAphrodite，hadsomuchpassionforPsyche，andwhyPsychelovedhimsotenderly：greek，thebreathwhichgiveslifeandmovementtothewholemachine，andwhichwehavetranslatedbyspiritus，spirit。
vaguewordtowhichhavebeengivenathousanddifferentmeanings：andfinallygreek，theintelligence。
Wepossessedthereforethreesouls，withouthavingtheleastnotionofanyofthem。St。ThomasAquinasSummationofSt。Thomas。Lyonsedition，1738admitsthesethreesoulsasaperipatetic，anddistinguisheseachofthesethreesoulsinthreeparts。greekwasinthebreast，greek
wasdistributedthroughoutthebody，andgreekwasinthehead。Therehasbeennootherphilosophyinourschoolsuptoourday，andwoebetideanymanwhotookoneofthesesoulsfortheother。
Inthischaosofideastherewas，nevertheless，afoundation。Menhadnoticedthatintheirpassionsoflove，hate，anger，fear，theirinternalorganswerestimulatedtomovement。Theliverandtheheartweretheseatofthepassions。Ifonethoughtdeeply，onefeltastrifeintheorgansofthehead。thereforetheintellectualsoulwasinthehead。Withoutrespirationnovegetation，nolife。thereforethevegetativesoulwasinthebreastwhichreceivesthebreathofair。
Whenmensawindreamstheirdeadrelativesorfriends，theyhadtoseekwhathadappearedtothem。Itwasnotthebodywhichhadbeenconsumedonafuneralpyre，orswallowedupintheseaandeatenbythefishes。
Itwas，however，something，sotheymaintained。fortheyhadseenit。thedeadmanhadspoken。thedreamerhadquestionedhim。Wasitgreek，wasitgreek，wasitgreek，withwhomonehadconversedinthedream？Oneimaginedaphantom，anairyfigure：itwasgreek，itwasgreek，aghostfromtheshades，alittlesoulofairandfire，veryunrestricted，whichwanderedIknownotwhere。
Eventually，whenonewantedtosiftthematter，itbecameaconstantthatthissoulwascorporeal。andthewholeofantiquityneverhadanyotheridea。AtlastcamePlatowhososubtilizedthissoulthatitwasdoubtfulifhedidnotseparateitentirelyfrommatter。butthatwasaproblemthatwasneversolveduntilfaithcametoenlightenus。
InvaindothematerialistsquotesomeofthefathersoftheChurchwhodidnotexpressthemselveswithprecision。St。IrenaeussaysLiv。
v。chaps。viandviithatthesoulisonlythebreathoflife，thatitisincorporealonlybycomparisonwiththemortalbody，andthatitpreservestheformofmansothatitmayberecognized。
InvaindoesTertullianexpresshimselflikethis——ThecorporealityofthesoulshinesbrightintheGospel。CorporalitasanimaeinipsoEvangeliorelucescit，DEANIMA。cap。vii。。Forifthesouldidnothaveabody，theimageofthesoulwouldnothavetheimageofthebody。
Invaindoesherecordthevisionofaholywomanwhohadseenaveryshiningsoul，ofthecolourofair。
InvaindoesTatiensayexpresslyOratioadGraecos，c。xxiii。——
Thesoulofmaniscomposedofmanyparts。
InvainisSt。HilariusquotedassayinginlatertimesSt。HilariusonSt。Matthew-Thereisnothingcreatedwhichisnotcorporeal，eitherinheaven，oronearth，oramongthevisible，oramongtheinvisible：everythingisformedofelements。andsouls，whethertheyinhabitabody，orissuefromit，havealwaysacorporealsubstance。
InvaindoesSt。Ambrose，inthesixthcenturysayOnAbraham，liv。
ii。，ch。viii。——Werecognizenothingbutthematerial，exceptthevenerableTrinityalone。
ThebodyoftheentireChurchhasdecidedthatthesoulisimmaterial。
Thesesaintsfellintoanerroratthattimeuniversal。theyweremen。
buttheywerenotmistakenoverimmortality，becausethatisclearlyannouncedintheGospels。
WehavesoevidentaneedofthedecisionoftheinfallibleChurchonthesepointsofphilosophy，thatwehavenotindeedbyourselvesanysufficientnotionofwhatiscalledpurespirit，andofwhatisnamedmatter。
Purespiritisanexpressionwhichgivesusnoidea。andweknowmatteronlybyafewphenomena。Weknowitsolittlethatwecallitsubstance。well，thewordsubstancemeansthatwhichisunder’’。butwhatisunderwillbeeternallyhiddenfromus。WhatisunderistheCreator’ssecret。andthissecretoftheCreatoriseverywhere。Wedonotknoweitherhowwereceivelife，orhowwegiveit，orhowwegrow，orhowwedigest，orhowwesleep，orhowwethink，orhowwefeel。
Thegreatdifficultyistounderstandhowabeing，whoeverhebe，hasthoughts。PhilosophicalDictionary：Soul，Sect。2SOULSECTIONII
TheauthorofthearticleSOULintheEncyclopediatheAbbeYvon
followedJaquelotscrupulously。butJaquelotteachesusnothing。HesetshimselfalsoagainstLocke，becausethemodestLockesaidliv。iv，ch。
iii，para。vi。——Wepossiblyshallneverbeabletoknowwhetheranymerematerialbeingthinksorno。itbeingimpossibleforus，bythecontemplationofourownideaswithoutrevelation，todiscoverwhetherOmnipotencyhasnotgiventosomesystemsofmatter，fitlydisposed，apowertoperceiveandthink，orelsejoinedandfixedtomatter，sodisposed，athinkingimmaterialsubstance：itbeing，inrespectofournotions，notmuchmoreremotefromourcomprehensiontoconceivethatGodcan，ifhepleases，superaddtomatterafacultyofthinking，thanthatheshouldsuperaddtoitanothersubstancewithafacultyofthinking。sinceweknownotwhereinthinkingconsists，nortowhatsortofsubstancestheAlmightyhasbeenpleasedtogivethatpowerwhichcannotbeinanycreatedbeingbutmerelybythegoodpleasureandbountyoftheCreator，forIseenocontradictioninit，thatthefirsteternalthinkingBeingshould，ifhepleased，givetocertainsystemsofcreatedsenselessmatter，puttogetherashethinksfit，somedegreesofsense，perceptionandthought。
Thosearethewordsofaprofound，religiousandmodestman。
Weknowwhatquarrelshehadtoundergoonaccountofthisopinionwhichappearedbold，butwhichwasinfactinhimonlyaconsequenceofhisconvictionoftheomnipotenceofGodandtheweaknessofman。Hedidnotsaythatmatterthought。buthesaidthatwehavenotenoughknowledgetodemonstratethatitisimpossibleforGodtoaddthegiftofthoughttotheunknownbeingcalled’’matter’’，afteraccordingitthegiftofgravitationandthegiftofmovement，bothofwhichareequallyincomprehensible。
Lockewasnotassuredlytheonlyonewhohadadvancedthisopinion。
itwastheopinionofallantiquity，who，regardingthesoulasveryunrestrictedmatter，affirmedconsequentlythatmattercouldfeelandthink。
ItwasGassendi’sopinion，asmaybeseeninhisobjectionstoDescartes。
Itistrue，saysGassendi，thatyouknowwhatyouthink。butyouareignorantofwhatspeciesofsubstanceyouare，youwhothink。Thusalthoughtheoperationofthoughtisknowntoyou，theprincipleofyouressenceishiddenfromyou。andyoudonotknowwhatisthenatureofthissubstance，oneoftheoperationsofwhichistothink。Youarelikeablindmanwho，feelingtheheatofthesunandbeinginformedthatitiscausedbytheheatofthesun，thinkshehasaclearanddistinctideaofthisluminary。
becauseifhewereaskedwhatthesunwas，hecouldreplythatitisathingwhichheats，etc。
ThesameGassendi，inhisEpicureanPhilosophy，repeatsseveraltimesthatthereisnomathematicalevidenceofthepurespiritualityofthesoul。
Descartes，inoneofhisletterstothePalatinePrincessElisabeth，saystoher——Iconfessthatbythenaturalreasonalonewecanmakemanyconjecturesonthesoul，andhavegratifyinghopes，butnocertainty。
AndinthatsentenceDescartescombatsinhisletterswhatheputsforwardinhisworks。atooordinarycontradiction。
InfinewehaveseenthatalltheFathersofthefirstcenturiesoftheChurch，whilebelievingthesoulimmortal，believeditatthesametimematerial。theythoughtthatitisaseasyforGodtoconserveastocreate。Theysaid——Godmadethesoulthinking，Hewillpreserveitthinking。’’
Malebranchehasprovedverywellthatwehavenoideabyourselves，andthatobjectsareincapableofgivingusideas：fromthatheconcludesthatweseeeverythinginGod。ThatisatthebottomthesamethingasmakingGodtheauthorofallourideas。forwithwhatshouldweseeinHim，ifwehadnotinstrumentsforseeing？andtheseinstruments，itisHealonewhoholdsthemandguidesthem。Thissystemisalabyrinth，onelaneofwhichwouldleadyoutoSpinozism，anothertoStoicism，anothertochaos。
Whenonehashadagoodargumentaboutspiritandmatter，onealwaysfinishesbynotunderstandingeachother。Nophilosopherhasbeenablewithhisownstrengthtoliftthisveilstretchedbynatureoverallthefirstprinciplesofthings。Menargue，natureacts。PhilosophicalDictionary：Soul，Sect。3SOULSECTIONIIIOFTHESOULOFANIMALS，ANDOFSOMEEMPTYIDEAS
Beforethestrangesystemwhichsupposesanimalstobepuremachineswithoutanysensation，menhadneverthoughtthatthebeastspossessedanimmaterialsoul。andnobodyhadpushedrecklessnesstothepointofsayingthatanoysterhasaspiritualsoul。EveryoneconcurredpeaceablyinagreeingthatthebeastshadreceivedfromGodfeeling，memory，ideas，andnopurespirit。Nobodyhadabusedthegiftofreasontothepointofsayingthatnaturehadgiventhebeastsalltheorgansoffeelingsothattheymightnotfeelanything。Nobodyhadsaidthattheycrywhentheyarewounded，andthattheyflywhenpursued，withoutexperiencingpainorfear。
AtthattimepeopledidnotdenytheomnipotenceofGod。Hehadbeenabletocommunicatetotheorganizedmatterofanimalspleasure，pain，remembrance，thecombinationofafewideas。Hehadbeenabletogivetoseveralofthem，suchasthemonkey，theelephant，thehunting-dog，thetalentofperfectingthemselvesintheartswhichweretaughttothem。
notonlyhadHebeenabletoendownearlyallcarnivorousanimalswiththetalentofwarringbetterintheirexperiencedoldagethanintheirtootrustfulyouth。notonly，Isay，hadHebeenabletodothesethings，butHehaddonethem：theuniverseborewitnessthereto。
PereiraandDescartesmaintainedthattheuniversewasmistaken，thatGodwasajuggler，thatHehadgivenanimalsalltheinstrumentsoflifeandsensation，sothattheymighthaveneitherlifenorsensation，properlyspeaking。ButIdonotknowwhatso-calledphilosophers，inordertoanswerDescartes’chimera，leapedintotheoppositechimera。theygaveliberallyofpurespirittothetoadsandtheinsects。
Betweenthesetwomadnesses，theonerefusingfeelingtotheorgansoffeeling，theotherlodgingapurespiritinabug，somebodythoughtofamiddlepath。Itwasinstinct。Andwhatisinstinct？Oh，oh，itisasubstantialform。itisaplasticform。itisIdonotknowwhat。itisinstinct。Ishallbeofyouropinionsolongasyouwillcallthemajorityofthings，Idonotknowwhat。solongasyourphilosophybeginsandendswithIdonotknowwhat，IshallquotePriortoyouinhispoemonthevanityoftheworld。
TheauthorofthearticleSOULintheEncyclopediaexplainshimselflikethis：-Ipicturetheanimals’soulasanimmaterialandintelligentsubstance，butofwhatspecies？Itmust，itseemstome，beanactiveprinciplewhichhassensations，andwhichhasonlythat……Ifwereflectonthenatureofthesoulofanimals，itsuppliesuswithgroundworkwhichmightleadustothinkthatitsspiritualitywillsaveitfromannihilation。
Idonotknowhowonepicturesanimmaterialsubstance。Topicturesomethingistomakeanimageofit。anduptillnownobodyhasbeenabletopaintthespirit。Forthewordpicture’’，Iwanttheauthortounderstand’’Iconceive’’。speakingformyself，IconfessIdonotconceiveit。
Iconfessstilllessthataspiritualsoulmaybeannihilated，becauseIdonotconceiveeithercreationornon-existence。becauseIhaveneverbeenpresentatGod’scouncil。becauseIknownothingatallabouttheprincipleofthings。