InEnglandandinsomeothercountries，onedeclaresoneselfbankruptinthegazettes。Thepartnersandcreditorsgathertogetherbyvirtueofthisannouncementwhichisreadinthecoffee-houses，andtheycometoanarrangementasbesttheycan。
Asamongthebankruptciestherearefrequentlyfraudulentcases，ithasbeennecessarytopunishthem。Iftheyaretakentocourttheyareeverywhereregardedastheft，andtheguiltyarecondemnedtoignominiouspenalties。
ItisnottruethatinFrancethedeathpenaltywasdecreedagainstbankruptswithoutdistinction。Simplefailuresinvolvednopenalty。fraudulentbankruptssufferedthepenaltyofdeathinthestatesofOrleans，underCharlesIX。，andinthestatesofBloisin1576，buttheseedicts，renewedbyHenryIV。，weremerelycomminatory。
Itistoodifficulttoprovethatamanhasdishonouredhimselfonpurpose，andhasvoluntarilycededallhisgoodstohiscreditorsinordertocheatthem。Whentherehasbeenadoubt，onehasbeencontentwithputtingtheunfortunatemaninthepillory，orwithsendinghimtothegalleys，althoughordinarilyabankermakesapoorconvict。
BankruptswereveryfavourablytreatedinthelastyearofLouisXIV。’sreign，andduringtheRegency。Thesadstatetowhichtheinteriorofthekingdomwasreduced，themultitudeofmerchantswhocouldnotorwouldnotpay，thequantityofunsoldorunsellableeffects，thefearofinterruptingallcommerce，obligedthegovernmentin1715，1716，1718，1721，1722，and1726tosuspendallproceedingsagainstallthosewhowereinastateofinsolvency。Thediscussionsoftheseactionswerereferredtothejudge-consuls。
thisisajurisdictionofmerchantsveryexpertinthesecases，andbetterconstitutedforgoingintothesecommercialdetailsthantheparliamentswhichhavealwaysbeenmoreoccupiedwiththelawsofthekingdomthanwithfinance。Asthestatewasatthattimegoingbankrupt，itwouldhavebeentoohardtopunishthepoormiddle-classbankrupts。
Sincethenwehavehademinentmen，fraudulentbankrupts，buttheyhavenotbeenpunished。PhilosophicalDictionary：BeautyBEAUTYAskatoadwhatbeautyis，thetokalon？Hewillansweryouthatitishistoadwifewithtwogreatroundeyesissuingfromherlittlehead，awide，flatmouth，ayellowbelly，abrownback。InterrogateaGuineanegro，forhimbeautyisablackoilyskin，deep-seteyes，aflatnose。
Interrogatethedevil。hewilltellyouthatbeautyisapairofhorns，fourclawsandatail。Consult，lastly，thephilosophers，theywillansweryouwithgibberish：theyhavetohavesomethingconformingtothearch-typeofbeautyinessence，tothetokalon。
OnedayIwasatatragedynearbyaphilosopher。Howbeautifulthatis！hesaid。
Whatdoyoufindbeautifulthere？Iasked。
Itisbeautiful，heanswered，becausetheauthorhasreachedhisgoal。
Thefollowingdayhetooksomemedicinewhichdidhimgood。Themedicinehasreacheditsgoal，Isaidtohim。Whatabeautifulmedicine！Hegraspedthatonecannotsayamedicineisbeautiful，andthattogivethenameofbeautytosomething，thethingmustcauseyoutoadmireitandgiveyoupleasure。Heagreedthatthetragedyhadinspiredthesesentimentsinhim，andthattherewasthetokalon，beauty。
WejourneyedtoEngland：thesamepiece，perfectlytranslated，wasplayedthere。itmadeeverybodyintheaudienceyawn。Ho，ho！hesaid，thetokalonisnotthesamefortheEnglishandtheFrench。Aftermuchreflectionhecametotheconclusionthatbeautyisoftenveryrelative，justaswhatisdecentinJapanisindecentinRome，andwhatisfashionableinParis，isnotfashionableinPekin。andhesavedhimselfthetroubleofcomposingalongtreatiseonbeauty。
Thereareactionswhichthewholeworldfindsbeautiful。TwoofCaesar’sofficers，mortalenemies，sendeachotherachallenge，notastowhoshallshedtheother’sbloodwithtierceandquartebehindathicketaswithus，butastowhoshallbestdefendtheRomancamp，whichtheBarbariansareabouttoattack。Oneofthem，havingrepulsedtheenemy，isnearsuccumbing。
theotherrushestohisaid，saveshislife，andcompletesthevictory。
Afriendsacrificeshislifeforhisfriend。asonforhisfather……TheAlgonquin，theFrenchman，theChinaman，willallsaythatthatisverybeautiful，thattheseactionsgivethempleasure，thattheyadmirethem。
Theywillsayasmuchofthegreatmoralmaxims，ofZarathustra’s-Indoubtifanactionbejust，abstain……ofConfucius’-Forgetinjuries，neverforgetkindnesses。
Thenegrowiththeroundeyesandflatnose，whowillnotgivethenameofbeautiestotheladiesofourcourts，willwithouthesitationgiveittotheseactionsandthesemaxims。Thewickedmanevenwillrecognizethebeautyofthesevirtueswhichhedarenotimitate。Thebeautywhichstrikesthesensesmerely，theimagination，andthatwhichiscalledintelligence，
isoftenuncertaintherefore。Thebeautywhichspeakstotheheartisnotthat。Youwillfindahostofpeoplewhowilltellyouthattheyhavefoundnothingbeautifulinthree-quartersoftheIliad。butnobodywilldenythatCodrus’devotiontohispeoplewasverybeautiful，supposingittobetrue。
Therearemanyotherreasonswhichdeterminemenottowriteatreatiseonbeauty。PhilosophicalDictionary：BishopBISHOPSAMUELORNIK，nativeofBasle，was，asyouknow，averyamiableyoungmanwho，besides，knewhisNewTestamentbyheartinGreekandGerman。
Whenhewastwentyhisparentssenthimonajourney。HewaschargedtocarrysomebookstothecoadjutorofParis，atthetimeoftheFronde。
Hearrivedatthedoorofthearchbishop’sresidence。theSwisstoldhimthatMonseigneursawnobody。Comrade，saidOrniktohim，youareveryrudetoyourcompatriots。Theapostlesleteveryoneapproach，andJesusChristdesiredthatpeopleshouldsufferallthelittlechildrentocometohim。Ihavenothingtoaskofyourmaster。onthecontrary，Ihavebroughthimsomething。
Comeinside，then，saidtheSwiss。
Hewaitsanhourinafirstantechamber。Ashewasverynaive，hebeganaconversationwithaservant，whowasveryfondoftellingallheknewofhismaster。Hemustbemightilyrich，saidOrnik，tohavethiscrowdofpagesandflunkeyswhomIseerunningaboutthehouse。
Idon’tknowwhathisincomeis，answeredtheother，butIhearditsaidtoJolyandtheAbbeCharierthathealreadyhadtwomillionsofdebts。
Butwhoisthatladycomingoutoftheroom？
ThatisMadamedePomereu，oneofhismistresses。
Sheisreallyverypretty。butIhavenotreadthattheapostleshadsuchcompanyintheirbedroomsinthemornings。Ah！Ithinkthearchbishopisgoingtogiveaudience。
Say-’HisHighness，Monseigneur。’
Willingly。OrniksalutesHisHighness，presentshisbooks，andisreceivedwithaverygracioussmile。Thearchbishopsaysfourwordstohim，thenclimbsintohiscoach，escortedbyfiftyhorsemen。Inclimbing，Monseigneurletsasheathfall。OrnikisquiteastonishedthatMonseigneurcarriessolargeanink-horninhispocket。Don’tyouseethat’shisdagger？
saysthechatterbox。Everyonecarriesadaggerwhenhegoestoparliament。
That’sapleasantwayofofficiating，saysOrnik。andhegoesawayveryastonished。
HetraversesFrance，andenlightenshimselffromtowntotown。thencehepassesintoItaly。WhenheisinthePope’sterritory，hemeetsoneofthosebishopswithathousandcrownsincome，walkingonfoot。Ornikwasverypolite。heoffershimaplaceinhiscambiature。Youaredoubtlessonyourwaytocomfortsomesickman，Monseigneur？
Sir，Iamonmywaytomymaster’s。
Yourmaster？thatisJesusChrist，doubtless？
Sir，itisCardinalAzolin。Iamhisalmoner。Hepaysmeverypoorly。
buthehaspromisedtoplacemeintheserviceofDonnaOlimpia，thefavouritesister-in-lawdinostrosignore。
What！youareinthepayofacardinal？ButdoyounotknowthattherewerenocardinalsinthetimeofJesusChristandSt。John？
Isitpossible？criedtheItalianprelate。
Nothingismoretrue。youhavereaditintheGospel。
Ihaveneverreadit，answeredthebishop。allIknowisOurLady’soffice。
Itellyoutherewereneithercardinalsnorbishops，andwhentherewerebishops，thepriestsweretheirequalsalmost，accordingtoJerome’sassertionsinseveralplaces。
HolyVirgin，saidtheItalian。Iknewnothingaboutit：andthepopes？
Therewerenotanypopesanymorethancardinals。
Thegoodbishopcrossedhimself。hethoughthewaswithanevilspirit，andjumpedoutofthecambiature。PhilosophicalDictionary：BooksBOOKSYoudespisethem，books，youwhosewholelifeisplungedinthevanitiesofambitionandinthesearchforpleasureorinidleness。butthinkthatthewholeoftheknownuniverse，withtheexceptionofthesavageracesisgovernedbybooksalone。ThewholeofAfricarighttoEthiopiaandNigritiaobeysthebookoftheAlcoran，afterhavingstaggeredunderthebookoftheGospel。ChinaisruledbythemoralbookofConfucius。agreaterpartofIndiabythebookoftheVeidam。PersiawasgovernedforcenturiesbythebooksofoneoftheZarathustras。
Ifyouhavealaw-suit，yourgoods，yourhonour，yourlifeevendependsontheinterpretationofabookwhichyouneverread。
RoberttheDevil，theFourSonsofAymon，theImaginingsofMr。Oufle，arebooksalso。butitiswithbooksaswithmen。theverysmallnumberplayagreatpart，therestaremingledinthecrowd。
Wholeadsthehumanraceincivilizedcountries？thosewhoknowhowtoreadandwrite。YoudonotknoweitherHippocrates，BoerhaaveorSydenham。
butyouputyourbodyinthehandsofthosewhohavereadthem。YouabandonyoursoultothosewhoarepaidtoreadtheBible，althoughtherearenotfiftyamongthemwhohavereaditinitsentiretywithcare。
Tosuchanextentdobooksgoverntheworld，thatthosewhocommandto-dayinthecityoftheScipiosandtheCatoshavedesiredthatthebooksoftheirlawshouldbeonlyforthem。itistheirsceptre。theyhavemadeitacrimeoflese-majestefortheirsubjectstolooktherewithoutexpresspermission。Inothercountriesithasbeenforbiddentothinkinwritingwithoutletterspatent。
Therearenationsamongwhomthoughtisregardedpurelyasanobjectofcommerce。Theoperationsofthehumanmindarevaluedthereonlyattwosousthesheet。
Inanothercountry，thelibertyofexplainingoneselfbybooksisoneofthemostinviolableprerogatives。Printallthatyoulikeunderpainofboringorofbeingpunishedifyouabusetooconsiderablyyournaturalright。
Beforetheadmirableinventionofprinting，bookswererarerandmoreexpensivethanpreciousstones。AlmostnobooksamongthebarbariannationsuntilCharlemagne，andfromhimtotheFrenchkingCharlesV。，surnamedthewise。andfromthisCharlesrighttoFrancoisIer，thereisanextremedearth。
TheArabsalonehadbooksfromtheeighthcenturyofoureratothethirteenth。
Chinawasfilledwiththemwhenwedidnotknowhowtoreadorwrite。
CopyistsweremuchemployedintheRomanEmpirefromthetimeoftheScipiosuptotheinundationofthebarbarians。
TheGreeksoccupiedthemselvesmuchintranscribingtowardsthetimeofAmyntas，PhilipandAlexander。theycontinuedthiscraftespeciallyinAlexandria。
Thiscraftissomewhatungrateful。Themerchantsalwayspaidtheauthorsandthecopyistsverybadly。IttooktwoyearsofassiduouslabourforacopyisttotranscribetheBiblewellonvellum。WhattimeandwhattroubleforcopyingcorrectlyinGreekandLatintheworksofOrigen，ofClementofAlexandria，andofallthoseotherauthorscalledfathers。
ThepoemsofHomerwerelongsolittleknownthatPisistratuswasthefirstwhoputtheminorder，andwhohadthemtranscribedinAthens，aboutfivehundredyearsbeforetheeraofwhichwearemakinguse。
To-daytherearenotperhapsadozencopiesoftheVeidamandtheZend-AvestainthewholeoftheEast。
YouwouldnothavefoundasinglebookinthewholeofRussiain1700，withtheexceptionofMissalsandafewBiblesinthehomesofagedmendrunkonbrandy。
To-daypeoplecomplainofasurfeit：butitisnotforreaderstocomplain。
theremedyiseasy。nothingforcesthemtoread。Itisnotanythemoreforauthorstocomplain。Thosewhomakethecrowdmustnotcrythattheyarebeingcrushed。Despitetheenormousquantityofbooks，howfewpeopleread！andifonereadprofitably，onewouldseethedeplorablefolliestowhichthecommonpeopleofferthemselvesaspreyeveryday。
Whatmultipliesbooks，despitethelawofnotmultiplyingbeingsunnecessarily，isthatwithbooksonemakesothers。itiswithseveralvolumesalreadyprintedthatanewhistoryofFranceorSpainisfabricated，withoutaddinganythingnew。Alldictionariesaremadewithdictionaries。almostallnewgeographybooksarerepetitionsofgeographybooks。TheSummationofSt。
Thomashasproducedtwothousandfatvolumesoftheology。andthesamefamilyoflittlewormsthathavegnawedthemother，gnawlikewisethechildren。PhilosophicalDictionary：BouleverdorBoulevartBOULEVERDORBOULEVARTBOULEVART，fortification，rampart。BelgradeistheboulevartoftheOttomanEmpireontheHungarianside。Whowouldbelievethatthiswordoriginallysignifiedonlyagameofbowls？ThepeopleofParisplayedbowlsonthegrassoftherampart。thisgrasswascalledtheverd，likethegrassmarket。Onboulaitsurleverd。FromthereitcomesthattheEnglish，whoselanguageisacopyofoursinalmostallthewordswhicharenotSaxon，havecalledthegameofbowlsbowling-green，theverdgreenofthegameofbowls。Wehavetakenbackfromthemwhatwehadlentthem。Followingtheirexample，wegavethenameofboulingrins，withoutknowingthestrengthoftheword，tothegrass-plotsweintroducedintoourgardens。
IonceheardtwogooddameswhoweregoingforawalkontheBouleverd，andnotontheBoulevart。Peoplelaughedatthem，andwrongly。Butinallmatterscustomcarriestheday。andeveryonewhoisrightagainstcustomishissedorcondemned。PhilosophicalDictionary：BourgesBOURGESOURquestionsbarelyturnongeography。butletusbepermittedtomarkintwowordsourastonishmentaboutthetownofBourges。TheDictionnairedeTrevouxclaimsthatitisoneofthemostancienttownsofEurope，thatitwastheseatoftheempireoftheGauls，andgavekingstotheCelts。
Idonotwishtocombattheancientnessofanytownoranyfamily。ButwasthereeveranempireoftheGauls？DidtheCeltshavekings？Thismaniaforantiquityisamaladyfromwhichonewillnotbehealedsosoon。TheGauls，Germany，Scandinaviahavenothingthatisantiquesavetheland，thetreesandtheanimals。Ifyouwantantiquities，gotowardAsia，andeventhenitisverysmallbeer。Manisancientandmonumentsnew，thatiswhatwehaveinviewinmorethanonearticle。
Ifitwerearealbenefittobeborninastoneorwoodenenclosuremoreancientthananother，itwouldbeveryreasonabletomakethefoundationofone’stowndatebacktothetimeofthewarofthegiants。butsincethereisnottheleastadvantageinthisvanity，onemustbreakawayfromit。ThatisallIhadtosayaboutBourges。PhilosophicalDictionary：BrahminsBRAHMINSIsitnotprobablethattheBrahminswerethefirstlegislatorsoftheearth，thefirstphilosophers，thefirsttheologians？
Donotthefewmonumentsofancienthistorywhichremaintousformagreatpresumptionintheirfavour，sincethefirstGreekphilosopherswenttothemtolearnmathematics，andsincethemostancientcuriositiescollectedbytheemperorsofChinaareallIndian？
WewillspeakelsewhereoftheShasta。itisthefirstbookoftheologyoftheBrahmins，writtenaboutfifteenhundredyearsbeforetheirVeidam，
andanteriortoalltheotherbooks。
Theirannalsmakenomentionofanywarundertakenbythematanytime。
Thewordsforarms，tokill，tomaim，arenottobefoundeitherinthefragmentsoftheShastawhichwehave，orintheEzourveidam，orintheCormoveidam。IcanatleastgivetheassurancethatIdidnotseethemintheselasttwocollections：andwhatisstillmoresingularisthattheShastawhichspeaksofaconspiracyinheaven，makesnomentionofanywarinthegreatpeninsulaenclosedbetweentheIndusandtheGanges。
TheHebrews，whowereknownsolate，nevernametheBrahmins。theyhadnoknowledgeofIndiauntilaftertheconquestsofAlexander，andtheirsettlinginEgypt，ofwhichtheyhadsaidsomuchevil。ThenameofIndiaistobefoundonlyintheBookofEsther，andinthatofJobwhichwasnotHebrew。OneremarksasingularcontrastbetweenthesacredbooksoftheHebrews，andthoseoftheIndians。TheIndianbooksannounceonlypeaceandgentleness。theyforbidthekillingofanimals：theHebrewbooksspeakonlyofkilling，ofthemassacreofmenandbeasts。everythingisslaughteredinthenameoftheLord。itisquiteanotherorderofthings。
ItisincontestablyfromtheBrahminsthatweholdtheideaofthefallofthecelestialbeingsinrevoltagainsttheSovereignofnature。anditisfromthereprobablythattheGreeksdrewthefableoftheTitans。
ItistherealsothattheJewsatlasttooktheideaoftherevoltofLucifer，inthefirstcenturyofourera。
HowcouldtheseIndianssupposearevoltinheavenwithouthavingseenoneonearth？Suchajumpfromhumannaturetodivinenatureisbarelyconceivable。Usuallyonegoesfromknowntounknown。
Onedoesnotimagineawarofgiantsuntilonehasseensomemenmorerobustthantheotherstyrannizeovertheirfellows。ThefirstBrahminsmusteitherhaveexperiencedviolentdiscords，oratleasthaveseentheminheaven。
Itisaveryastonishingphenomenonforasocietyofmenwhohavenevermadewartohaveinventedaspeciesofwarmadeintheimaginaryspaces，orinaglobedistantfromours，orinwhatiscalledthefirmament，
theempyrean。ButitmustbecarefullyobservedthatinthisrevoltofcelestialbeingsagainsttheirSovereignnoblowswerestruck，nocelestialbloodflowed，nomountainshurledatthehead，noangelscutintwo，asinMilton’ssublimeandgrotesquepoem。
AccordingtotheShasta，itisonlyaformaldisobediencetotheordersoftheMostHigh，acabalwhichGodpunishesbyrelegatingtherebelliousangelstoavastplaceofshadowscalledOnderaduringtheperiodofanentiremononthour。Amononthourisfourhundredandtwenty-sixmillionsofouryears。ButGoddeignedtopardontheguiltyafterfivethousandyears，andtheironderawasonlyapurgatory。
HemadeMhurdofthem，men，andplacedtheminourglobeonconditionthattheyshouldnoteatanimals，andthattheyshouldnotcopulatewiththemalesoftheirnewspecies，underpainofreturningtoondera。
ThosearetheprincipalarticlesoftheBrahmins’faith，whichhavelastedwithoutinterruptionfromimmemorialtimesrighttoourday：itseemsstrangetousthatamongthemitshouldbeasgraveasintoeatachickenastocommitsodomy。
ThisisonlyasmallpartoftheancientcosmogonyoftheBrahmins。
Theirrites，theirpagodas，provethatamongthemeverythingwasallegorical。
theystillrepresentvirtuebeneaththeemblemofawomanwhohastenarms，andwhocombatstenmortalsinsrepresentedbymonsters。Ourmissionarieshavenotfailedtotakethisimageofvirtueforthatofthedevil，andtoassureusthatthedevilisworshippedinIndia。Wehaveneverbeenamongthesepeoplebuttoenrichourselvesandtocalumniatethem。
ReallywehaveforgottenaveryessentialthinginthislittlearticleontheBrahmins。itisthattheirsacredbooksarefilledwithcontradictions。
Butthepeopledonotknowofthem，andthedoctorshavesolutionsready，figurativemeanings，allegories，symbols，expressdeclarationsofBirma，BrahmaandVitsnou，whichshouldclosethemouthsofallwhoreason。PhilosophicalDictionary：CharacterCHARACTERFROMtheGreekwordimpression，engraving。
Itiswhatnaturehasgravedinus。
Canonechangeone’scharacter？Yes，ifonechangesone’sbody。Itispossibleforamanbornblunderer，unbendingandviolent，beingstrickenwithapoplexyinhisoldage，tobecomeafoolish，tearfulchild，timidandpeaceable。Hisbodyisnolongerthesame。Butaslongashisnerves，hisbloodandhismarrowareinthesamestate，hisnaturewillnotchangeanymorethanawolf’sandamarten’sinstinct。
Thecharacteriscomposedofourideasandourfeelings：well，itissubstantiatedthatwegiveourselvesneitherfeelingsnorideas。thereforeourcharacterdoesnotdependonus。
Ifitdependedonus，thereisnobodywhowouldnotbeperfect。
Wecannotgiveourselvestastes，talents。whyshouldwegiveourselvesqualities？
Ifonedoesnotreflect，onethinksoneselfmasterofeverything。whenonereflectsthereon，oneseesthatoneismasterofnothing。
Shouldyouwishtochangeaman’scharactercompletely，purgehimwithdiluentseverydayuntilyouhavekilledhim。CharlesXII。，inhissuppurativefeverontheroadtoBender，wasnolongerthesameman。Oneprevaileduponhimasuponachild。
IfIhaveacrookednoseandtwocat’seyes，Icanhidethemwithamask。CanIdomorewiththecharacterwhichnaturehasgivenme？
Amanbornviolent，hasty，presentedhimselfbeforeFrancoisI。，KingofFrance，tocomplainofaninjustice。theprince’scountenance，therespectfulbearingofthecourtiers，theveryplacewhereheis，makeapowerfulimpressiononthisman。mechanicallyhelowershiseyes，hisroughvoicesoftens，hepresentshispetitionhumbly，onewouldbelievehimbornasgentleasareatthatmomentatleastthecourtiers，amongstwhomheisevendisconcerted。
butFrancoisI。understandsphysiognomy，heeasilydiscoversintheloweredeyes，burningneverthelesswithsombrefire，inthestrainedfacialmuscles，inthecompressedlips，thatthismanisnotsogentleasheisforcedtoappear。ThismanfollowshimtoPavia，istakenwithhim，ledtothesameprisoninMadrid：FrancoisI。’smajestynolongermakesthesameimpressiononhim。hegrowsfamiliarwiththeobjectofhisrespect。Onedaywhenpullingofftheking’sboots，andpullingthemoffbadly，theking，embitteredbyhismisfortune，getsangry。mymansendsthekingabouthisbusiness，andthrowshisbootsoutofthewindow。
SixtusV。wasbornpetulant，stubborn，haughty，impetuous，vindictive，arrogant。thischaracterseemedsoftenedduringthetrialsofhisnovitiate。
Hebeginstoenjoyacertaincreditinhisorder。hefliesintoapassionwithaguard，andbattershimwithhisfist：heisinquisitoratVenice。
heperformshisdutieswithinsolence：beholdhimcardinal，heispossesseddallarabbiapapale：thisfurytriumphsoverhisnature。heburieshispersonandhischaracterinobscurity。heapesthehumbleandthedyingman。heiselectedPope。thismomentgivesbacktothespring，whichpoliticshavebent，allitslongcurbedelasticity。heisthehaughtiestandmostdespoticofsovereigns。
Naturamexpellafurca，tamenusquerecurret。
Hor。L。I。，ep。x。
Driveawaynature，itreturnsatthegallop。
DESTOUCHES，Glorieux，Act3，Sc。5。
Religion，moralityputabrakeonanature’sstrength。theycannotdestroyit。Thedrunkardinacloister，reducedtoahalf-setierofciderateachmeal，willnolongergetdrunk，buthewillalwayslikewine。
Ageenfeeblescharacter。itisatreethatproducesonlydegeneratefruit，butthefruitisalwaysofthesamenature。itisknottedandcoveredwithmoss，itbecomesworm-eaten，butitisalwaysoakorpeartree。Ifonecouldchangeone’scharacter，onewouldgiveoneselfone，onewouldbemasterofnature。Canonegiveoneselfanything？dowenotreceiveeverything？
Trytoanimateanindolentmanwithacontinuedactivity。tofreezewithapathytheboilingsoulofanimpetuousfellow，toinspiresomeonewhohasneitherearnortastewithatasteformusicandpoetry，youwillnomoresucceedthanifyouundertooktogivesighttoamanbornblind。Weperfect，wesoften，weconcealwhatnaturehasputinus，butwedonotputinourselvesanythingatall。
Onesaystoafarmer：Youhavetoomanyfishinthispond，theywillnotprosper。therearetoomanycattleinyourmeadows，grasslacks，theywillgrowthin。Ithappensafterthisexhortationthatthepikeseathalfmyman’scarp，andthewolvesthehalfofhissheep。therestgrowfat。
Willhecongratulatehimselfonhiseconomy？Thiscountryman，itisyou。
oneofyourpassionshasdevouredtheothers，andyouthinkyouhavetriumphedoveryourself。Donotnearlyallofusresemblethatoldgeneralofninetywho，havingmetsomeyoungofficerswhoweredebauchingthemselveswithsomegirls，saystothemangrily：Gentlemen，isthattheexampleIgiveyou？PhilosophicalDictionary：CharlatanCHARLATANTHEarticleentitledCharlatanintheEncyclopedicDictionaryisfilledwithusefultruthsagreeablypresented。TheChevalierdeJaucourthastherepresentedthecharlatanryofmedicine。
Wewilltakethelibertyofaddinghereafewreflections。Theabodeofthedoctorsisinthelargetowns。therearebarelyanydoctorsinthecountry。Itisinthegreattownsthattherichinvalidsare。debauchery，theexcessesofthetable，thepassions，arethecauseoftheirmaladies。
Dumoulin，notthelawyer，thedoctor，whowasasgoodapracticianastheother，saidashewasdying，thathelefttwogreatdoctorsbehindhim，dietandriverwater。
In1728，inthetimeofLaw，themostfamouscharlatanofthefirstspecies，another，Villarsbyname，confidedtosomefriendsthathisunclewhohadlivednearlyahundredyears，andwhodiedonlybyaccident，hadlefthimthesecretofawaterwhichcouldeasilyprolonglifetoahundredandfiftyyears，providedamanwastemperate。Whenhesawafuneralpass，heshruggedhisshouldersinpity。ifthedefunct，heobserved，haddrunkmywater，hewouldnotbewhereheis。Hisfriendstowhomhegavegenerouslyofthewater，andwhoobservedtheprescribedregimeinsomedegree，thrivedonitandpraisedit。Hethensoldthebottleforsixfrancs。thesalewasprodigious。ItwaswaterfromtheSeinewithalittlenitre。Thosewhotookitandwhosubjectedthemselvestoacertainamountofregime，aboveallthosewhowerebornwithagoodconstitution，recoveredperfecthealthinafewdays。Hesaidtotheothers：Itisyourfaultifyouarenotentirelycured：correctthesetwovicesandyouwillliveatleastahundredandfiftyyears。Someofthemreformed。thisgoodcharlatan’sfortuneincreasedlikehisreputation。TheAbbedePons，theenthusiast，puthimfarabovetheMarechaldeVillars：TheMarechalkillsmen，hesaidtohim，butyoumakethemlive。
PeoplelearnedatlastthatVillarsWaterwasonlyriverwater。theywouldhavenomoreofit。andwenttoothercharlatans。
Itiscertainthathehaddonegood，andthattheonlyreproachonecouldmakeagainsthimwasthathehadsoldSeinewateralittletoodear。
HeledmentotemperancebywhichfacthewassuperiortotheapothecaryArnoult，whostuffedEuropewithhissatchetsagainstapoplexy，withoutrecommendinganyvirtue。
IknewinLondonadoctornamedBrown，whopractisedinBarbadoes。Hehadasugarrefineryandnegroes。hewasrobbedofaconsiderablesum。
heassembledhisnegroes：Mylads，hesaidtothem，thegreatserpentappearedtomeduringthenight，hetoldmethatthethiefwouldatthismomenthaveaparrot’sfeatherontheendofhisnose。Theguiltymanpromptlyputhishandtohisnose。Itisyouwhorobbedme，saidthemaster。thegreatserpenthasjusttoldmeso。Andheregainedhismoney。
Onecanhardlycondemnsuchacharlatanry。butonemustbedealingwithnegroes。
ScipioAfricanus，thisgreatScipioverydifferentotherwisefromDr。
Brown，willinglymadehissoldiersbelievethathewasinspiredbythegods。Thisgreatcharlatanrywaslongthecustom。CanoneblameScipiotohaveavailedhimselfofit？hewasthemanwhoperhapsdidmosthonourtotheRomanRepublic。butwhydidthegodsinspirehimnottorenderhisaccounts？
Numadidbetter。itwasnecessarytopolicesomebrigandsandasenatewhichwasthemostdifficultsectionofthesebrigandstogovern。Ifhehadproposedhislawstotheassembledtribes，theassassinsofhispredecessorwouldhavemadeathousanddifficulties。HeaddressedhimselftothegoddessEgeria，whogavehimsomepandectsfromJupiter。hewasobeyedwithoutcontradiction，andhereignedhappily。Hisinstructionsweregood，hischarlatanrydidgood。butifsomesecretenemyhaddiscoveredtheimposture，ifhehadsaid：Exterminateanimpostorwhoprostitutesthenameofthegodsinordertodeceivemen，NumarantheriskofbeingsenttoheavenwithRomulus。
ItisprobablethatNumatookhismeasuresverycarefully，andthathedeceivedtheRomansfortheirbenefit，withadexteritysuitabletothetime，theplace，theintelligenceoftheearlyRomans。
Mahometwastwentytimesonthepointoffailing，buthesucceededatlastwiththeArabsofMedina。andpeoplebelievedthathewastheintimatefriendoftheArchangelGabriel。Ifto-daysomeonecametoConstantinopletoannouncethathewasthefavouriteoftheArchangelRaphael，farsuperiortoGabrielindignity，andthatitwasinhimalonepeopleshouldbelieve，hewouldbeimpaledinthepublicplace。Itisforcharlatanstochoosetheirtimewell。
WastherenotalittlecharlatanryinSocrateswithhisfamiliardemon，andApollo’sprecisedeclarationwhichproclaimedhimthewisestofallmen？HowcanRollin，inhishistory，reasonfromthisoracle？Howisitthathedoesnotlettheyoungideaknowthatitwaspurecharlatanry？
Socrateschosehistimebadly。Ahundredyearsearlier，maybe，hewouldhavegovernedAthens。
Allleadersofsectsinphilosophyhavebeensomewhatcharlatans：butthegreatestofallhavebeenthosewhohaveaspiredtodomination。Cromwellwasthemostterribleofallourcharlatans。Heappearedatpreciselytheonlytimehecouldsucceed：underElizabethhewouldhavebeenhanged。
underCharlesII。hewouldhavebeenmerelyridiculous。Hecamehappilyatatimewhenpeopleweredisgustedwithkings。andhisson，atatimewhenpeoplewerewearyofaprotector。OFCHARLATANRYINSCIENCEANDLITERATURE
Thesciencescanbarelybewithoutcharlatanry。Peoplewishtohavetheiropinionsaccepted。thequibblingdoctorwishestoeclipsetheangelicdoctor。thereconditedoctorwishestoreignalone。Eachbuildshissystemofphysics，metaphysics，scholastictheology。itisacompetitioninturningone’smerchandisetoaccount。Youhaveagentswhoextolit，foolswhobelieveyou，protectorswhosupportyou。
Isthereagreatercharlatanrythanthatofsubstitutingwordsforthings，andofwantingotherstobelievewhatyoudonotbelieveyourself？
Oneestablisheswhirlwindsofsubtlematter，ramous，globulous，striated，channelled。theotherelementsofmatterwhicharenotmatteratall，andapre-establishedharmonywhichmakestheclockofthebodysoundthehour，whentheclockofthesoulshowsitwithitshand。Thesechimerasfindpartisansforafewyears。Whenthisrubbishhaspassedoutoffashion，newfanaticsappearontheitineranttheatre。theybanishgermsfromtheworld，theysaythattheseaproducedthemountains，andthatmenwereoncefish。
Howmuchcharlatanryhasbeenputintohistory，eitherbyastonishingthereaderwithprodigies，bytitillatinghumanmalignitywithsatire，orbyflatteringthefamiliesoftyrantswithinfamouseulogy？
Thewretchedspeciesthatwritesforalivingischarlataninanotherway。Apoormanwhohasnotrade，whohashadthemisfortunetogotocollege，andwhothinksheknowshowtowrite，goestopayhiscourttoabookseller，andaskshimforwork。Thebooksellerknowsthatthemajorityofmostpeoplewholiveinhouseswanttohavelittlelibraries，thattheyneedabridgmentsandnewtitles。heordersfromthewriteranabridgmentoftheHistorybyRapin-Thoyras，anabridgmentoftheHistoryoftheChurch，aCollectionofWittySayingsdrawnfromtheMenagiana，aDictionaryofGreatMen，
whereanunknownpedantisplacedbesideCicero，andasonettieroofItalynearVirgil。
Anotherbooksellerordersnovels，ortranslationsofnovels。Ifyouhavenoimagination，hesaystotheworkman，youwilltakeafewoftheadventuresin’Cyrus，’in’Gusmand’Alfarache，’inthe’SecretMemoirsofaGentlemanofQuality，’or’OfaLadyofQuality’。andfromthetotalyouwillprepareavolumeoffourhundredpagesattwentysousthesheet。
Anotherbooksellergivesthegazettesandalmanacsfortenyearspasttoamanofgenius。Youwillmakemeanextractofallthat，andyouwillbringitmebackinthreemonthsunderthenameof’FaithfulHistoryoftheTimes，’bytheChevalierdeTroisEtoiles，LieutenantoftheNavy，employedintheMinistryofForeignAffairs。
OfthiskindofbookthereareaboutfiftythousandinEurope。anditallpassesjustlikethesecretofwhiteningtheskin，ofdarkeningthehair，andtheuniversalpanacea。PhilosophicalDictionary：CivilLawsCIVILLAWSEXTRACTFROMSOMENOTESFOUNDAMONGALAWYER’SPAPERS，WHICHMAYBE
MERITEXAMINATION。
LETthepunishmentsofcriminalsbeuseful。Ahangedmanisgoodfornothing，andamancondemnedtopublicworksstillservesthecountry，andisalivinglesson。
Letalllawsbeclear，uniformandprecise：tointerpretlawsisalmostalwaystocorruptthem。
Letnothingbeinfamoussavevice。
Lettaxesbealwaysproportional。
Letthelawneverbecontradictorytocustom：forifthecustombegood，thelawisworthless。PhilosophicalDictionary：ClimateCLIMATECLIMATEinfluencesreligionasregardscustomsandceremonies。AlegislatorwillnothavehaddifficultyinmakingtheIndiansbatheintheGangesatcertainseasonsofthemoon。itisagreatpleasureforthem。HewouldhavebeenstonedifhehadproposedthesamebathtothepeopleswhodwellonthebanksoftheDwinanearArchangel。ForbidpigtoanArabwhowouldhaveleprosyifheateofthisfleshwhichisverybadanddisgustinginhiscountry，hewillobeyyoujoyfully。IssuethesamevetotoaWestphalianandhewillbetemptedtofightyou。
AbstinencefromwineisagoodreligiouspreceptinArabiawhereorangewater，lemonwater，limewaterarenecessarytohealth。MohammedwouldnothaveforbiddenwineinSwitzerlandperhaps，especiallybeforegoingtobattle。
Therearecustomsofpurefantasy。WhydidthepriestsofEgyptimaginecircumcision？itisnotforhealth。Cambyseswhotreatedthemastheydeserved，theyandtheirbullApis，Cambyses’courtiers，Cambyses’soldiers，hadnothadtheirprepuceslopped，andwereverywell。Climatedoesnothingtoapriest’sgenitals。Oneofferedone’sprepucetoIsis，probablyasonepresentedeverywherethefirstfruitsoftheearth。Itwasofferingthefirstfruitsoflife。
Religionshavealwaysrolledontwopivots。observanceandcreed：observancedependslargelyonclimate。creednotatall。Onecouldaseasilymakeadogmaacceptedontheequatorasthepolarcircle。ItwouldlaterberejectedequallyatBataviaandintheOrkneys，whileitwouldbemaintainedunguibusetrostroatSalamanca。Thatdependsinnowayonthesoilandtheatmosphere，butsolelyonopinion，thatficklequeenoftheworld。
Certainlibationsofwinewillbepreceptinavinegrowingcountry，anditwillnotoccurtoalegislator’smindtoinstituteinNorwaysacredmysterieswhichcannotbeperformedwithoutwine。
ItwillbeexpresslyorderedtoburnincenseintheparvisofatemplewherebeastsareslaughteredintheDeity’shonour，andforthepriests’
supper。Thisbutcher’sshopcalledtemplewouldbeaplaceofabominableinfectionifitwerenotcontinuallypurified：andwithouttheassistanceofaromatics，thereligionoftheancientswouldhavecausedtheplague。
Eventheinteriorofthetempleswasdeckedwithfestoonsofflowersinordertomaketheairsweeter。
NocowwillbesacrificedintheburninglandoftheIndianpeninsula。
becausethisanimalwhichfurnishesnecessarymilkisveryrareinanaridcountry，itsfleshisdry，tough，containsverylittlenourishment，andtheBrahminswouldliveverybadly。Onthecontrary，thecowwillbecomesacred，inviewofitsrarityandutility。
OnewillonlyenterbarefootthetempleofJupiterAmmonwheretheheatisexcessive：onemustbewellshodtoperformone’sdevotionsinCopenhagen。
Itisnotsowithdogma。Peoplehavebelievedinpolytheisminallclimates。
anditisaseasyforaCrimeanTartarasforaninhabitantofMeccatorecognizeasingleGod，incommunicable，non-begetting，non-begotten。Itisthroughitsdogmastillmorethanthroughitsritesthatareligionisspreadfromoneclimatetoanother。ThedogmaoftheunityofGodsoonpassedfromMedinatotheCaucasus。thentheclimatecedestoopinion。
TheArabssaidtotheTurks：WehadourselvescircumcisedinArabiawithoutreallyknowingwhy。itwasanoldfashionofthepriestsofEgypttooffertoOshirethorOsirisalittlepartofwhattheyheldmostprecious。
WehadadoptedthiscustomthreethousandyearsbeforewebecameMohammedans。
Youwillbecircumcisedlikeus。likeusyouwillbeobligedtosleepwithoneofyourwiveseveryFriday，andtogiveeachyeartwoandahalfpercentofyourincometothepoor。Wedrinkonlywaterandsherbet。allintoxicatingliquorisforbiddenus。inArabiaitispernicious。Youwillembracethisregimealthoughyoulovewinepassionately，andalthoughitmayevenbeoftennecessaryforyoutogoonthebanksofthePhasisandAraxes。Lastly，ifyouwanttogotoHeaven，andbewellplacedthere，youwilltaketheroadtoMecca。
TheinhabitantsofthenorthoftheCaucasussubmittotheselaws，andembracethroughoutthecountryareligionwhichwasnotmadeforthem。
InEgyptthesymbolicworshipofanimalssucceededthedogmasofThaut。
ThegodsoftheRomanslatersharedEgyptwiththedogs，thecatsandthecrocodiles。TotheRomanreligionsucceededChristianity。itwasentirelydrivenoutbyMohammedanism，whichperhapswillcedeitsplacetoanewreligion。
Inallthesevicissitudesclimatehascountedfornothing：governmenthasdoneeverything。Weareconsideringheresecondcausesonly，withoutraisingprofaneeyestotheProvidencewhichdirectsthem。TheChristianreligion，borninSyria，havingreceiveditsprincipaldevelopmentinAlexandria，inhabitsto-daythelandswhereTeutate，Irminsul，Frida，Odinwereworshipped。
Therearepeopleswhosereligionhasbeenmadebyneitherclimatenorgovernment。WhatcausedetachedthenorthofGermany，Denmark，three-quartersofSwitzerland，Holland，England，Scotland，Ireland，fromtheRomancommunion？
Poverty。Indulgencesanddeliverancefrompurgatoryweresoldtoodeartosoulswhosebodieshadatthattimeverylittlemoney。Theprelates，themonksdevouredaprovince’swholerevenue。Peopletookacheaperreligion。
Atlast，aftertwentycivilwars，peoplebelievedthatthePope’sreligionwasverygoodforgreatlords，andthereformedreligionforcitizens。
TimewillshowwhethertheCreekreligionortheTurkishreligionwillprevailbytheAegeanSeaandthePont-Euxine。PhilosophicalDictionary：CommonSenseCOMMONSENSETHEREaresometimesincommonexpressionsanimageofwhatpassesinthedepthsofallmen’shearts。AmongtheRomanssensuscommunissignifiednotonlycommonsense，buthumanity，sensibility。AswearenotasgoodastheRomans，thiswordsignifiesamongusonlyhalfofwhatitsignifiedamongthem。Itmeansonlygoodsense，plainreason，reasonsetinoperation，afirstnotionofordinarythings，astatemidwaybetweenstupidityandintelligence。Thismanhasnocommonsenseisagreatinsult。
Acommon-sensemanisaninsultlikewise。itmeansthatheisnotentirelystupid，andthathelackswhatiscalledwitandunderstanding。Butwhencecomesthisexpressioncommonsense，unlessitbefromthesenses？
Men，whentheyinventedthisword，avowedthatnothingenteredthesoulsavethroughthesenses。otherwise，wouldtheyhaveusedthewordsensetosignifycommonreasoning？
Peoplesaysometimes-Commonsenseisveryrare。Whatdoesthisphrasesignify？thatinmanymenreasonsetinoperationisstoppedinitsprogressbyprejudices，thatsuchandsuchmanwhojudgesverysanelyinonematter，willalwaysbevastlydeceivedinanother。ThisArab，whowillbeagoodcalculator，alearnedchemist，anexactastronomer，willbelieveneverthelessthatMohammedputhalfthemooninhissleeve。
WhywillhegobeyondcommonsenseinthethreesciencesofwhichI
speak，andwhywillhebebeneathcommonsensewhenthereisquestionofthishalfmoon？Becauseinthefirstcaseshehasseenwithhiseyes，hehasperfectedhisintelligence。andinthesecond，hehasseenwithotherpeople’seyes，hehasclosedhisown，hehaspervertedthecommonsensewhichisinhim。
Howhasthisstrangementalalienationbeenabletooperate？Howcantheideaswhichmovewithsoregularandsofirmastepinthebrainonagreatnumberofsubjectslimpsowretchedlyonanotherathousandtimesmorepalpableandeasytocomprehend？Thismanalwayshasinsidehimthesameprinciplesofintelligence。hemusthavesomeorganvitiatedthen，justasithappenssometimesthatthefinestgourmetmayhaveadepravedtasteasregardsaparticularkindoffood。
HowistheorganofthisArab，whoseeshalfthemooninMohammed’ssleeve，vitiated？Itisthroughfear。Hehasbeentoldthatifhedidnotbelieveinthissleeve，hissoul，immediatelyafterhisdeath，whenpassingoverthepointedbridge，wouldfallforeverintotheabyss。Hehasbeentoldevenworsethings：Ifeveryouhavedoubtsaboutthissleeve，onedervishwilltreatyouasimpious。anotherwillprovetoyouthatyouareaninsensatefoolwho，havingallpossiblemotivesforbelieving，havenotwishedtosubordinateyoursuperbreasontotheevidence。athirdwillreportyoutothelittledivanofalittleprovince，andyouwillbelegallyimpaled。
AllthisterrifiesthegoodArab，hiswife，hissister，allhislittlefamilyintoastateofpanic。Theyhavegoodsenseabouteverythingelse，butonthisarticletheirimaginationiswounded，aswastheimaginationofPascal，whocontinuallysawaprecipicebesidehisarmchair。ButdoesourArabbelieveinfactinMohammed’ssleeve？No。Hemakeseffortstobelieve。hesaysitisimpossible，butthatitistrue。hebelieveswhathedoesnotbelieve。Onthesubjectofthissleeveheformsinhisheadachaosofideaswhichheisafraidtodisentangle。andthisveritablyisnottohavecommonsense。PhilosophicalDictionary：ConcatenationofEventsCONCATENATIONOFEVENTSTHEpresentisdelivered，itissaid，ofthefuture。Eventsarelinkedtoeachotherbyaninvinciblefatality：itisDestinywhich，inHomer，isaboveevenJupiter。ThismasterofgodsandmendeclaresroundlythathecannotstophissonSarpedondyinginhisappointedtime。Sarpedonwasbornatthemomentwhenhehadtobeborn，andcouldnotbebornatanothermoment。hecouldnotdieotherwisethanbeforeTroy。hecouldnotbeburiedelsewherethaninLycia。hadattheappointedtimetoproducevegetableswhichhadtobechangedintothesubstanceofafewLycians。hisheirshadtoestablishaneworderinhisstates。thisneworderhadtoexertaninfluenceovertheneighbouringkingdoms。fromitresultedanewarrangementofwarandpeacewiththeneighboursoftheneighboursofLycia：thus，stepbystep，thedestinyofthewholeworldhasbeendependentonSarpedon’sdeath，whichdependedonHelenbeingcarriedoff。andthiscarryingoffwasnecessarilylinkedtoHecuba’smarriage，whichbytracingbacktoothereventswaslinkedtotheoriginofthings。
Ifonlyoneofthesefactshadbeenarrangeddifferently，anotheruniversewouldhaveresulted：butitwasnotpossibleforthepresentuniversenottoexist。thereforeitwasnotpossibleforJupitertosavehisson’slife，forallthathewasJupiter。
ThissystemofnecessityandfatalityhasbeeninventedinourtimebyLeibnitz，accordingtowhatpeoplesay，underthenameofself-sufficientreason。itis，however，veryancient：thatthereisnoeffectwithoutacause，andthatoftenthesmallestcauseproducesthegreatesteffects，doesnotdatefromto-day。
LordBolingbrokeavowsthatthelittlequarrelsofMadameMarlboroughandMadameMashamgavebirthtohischanceofmakingQueenAnne’sprivatetreatywithLouisXIV……thistreatyledtothePeaceofUtrecht。thisPeaceofUtrechtestablishedPhilipV。onthethroneofSpain。PhilipV。tookNaplesandSicilyfromthehouseofAustria。theSpanishprincewhoisto-dayKingofNaplesclearlyoweshiskingdomtomyladyMasham：andhewouldnothavehadit，hewouldnotperhapsevenhavebeenborn，iftheDuchessofMarlboroughhadbeenmorecomplaisanttowardstheQueenofEngland。
HisexistenceatNaplesdependedononefoolishnessmoreorlessatthecourtofLondon。
Examinethepositionofallthepeoplesoftheuniverse。theyareestablishedlikethisonasequenceoffactswhichappeartobeconnectedwithnothingandwhichareconnectedwitheverything。Everythingiscog，pulley，cord，spring，inthisvastmachine。
Itislikewiseinthephysicalsphere。AwindwhichblowsfromthedepthsofAfricaandtheaustralseas，bringsaportionoftheAfricanatmosphere，whichfallsinraininthevalleysoftheAlps。theserainsfertilizeourlands。ournorthwindinitsturnsendsourvapoursamongthenegroes。
wedogoodtoGuinea，andGuineadoesgoodtous。Thechainstretchesfromoneendoftheuniversetotheother。
Butitseemstomethatastrangeabuseismadeofthetruthofthisprinciple。Fromitsomepeopleconcludethatthereisnotasoleminuteatomwhosemovementhasnotexerteditsinfluenceinthepresentarrangementoftheworld。thatthereisnotasingleminuteaccident，amongeithermenoranimals，whichisnotanessentiallinkinthegreatchainoffate。
Letusunderstandeachother：everyeffectclearlyhasitscause，goingbackfromcausetocauseintheabyssofeternity。buteverycausehasnotitseffectgoingforwardtotheendofthecenturies。Alleventsareproducedbyeachother，Iadmit。ifthepastisdeliveredofthepresent，thepresentisdeliveredofthefuture。everythinghasfather，buteverythinghasnotalwayschildren。Hereitispreciselyaswithagenealogicaltree。
eachhousegoesback，aswesay，toAdam。butinthefamilytherearemanypersonswhohavediedwithoutleavingissue。
Thereisagenealogicaltreeoftheeventsofthisworld。ItisincontestablethattheinhabitantsofGaulandSpainaredescendedfromGomer，andtheRussiansfromMagog，hisyoungerbrother：onefindsthisgenealogyinsomanyfatbooks！OnthisbasisonecannotdenythattheGreatTurk，whoisalsodescendedfromMagog，wasnotboundtobewellbeatenin1769byCatherineII。，EmpressofRussia。Thisadventureisclearlyconnectedwithothergreatadventures。ButthatMagogspattorightorleft，nearMountCaucasus，andthathemadetwocirclesinawellorthree，thathesleptontheleftsideorontheright。Idonotseethatthathashadmuchinfluenceonpresentaffairs。
Onemustthinkthateverythingisnotcompleteinnature，asNewtonhasdemonstrated，andthateverymovementisnotcommunicatedstepbystepuntilitmakesacircuitoftheworld，ashehasdemonstratedstillfurther。
Throwintowaterabodyoflikedensity，youcalculateeasilythatafterashorttimethemovementofthisbody，andthemovementithascommunicatedtothewater，aredestroyed。themovementdisappearsandiseffaced。thereforethemovementthatMagogmightproducebyspittinginawellcannotinfluencewhatispassingto-dayinMoldaviaandWallachia。thereforepresenteventsarenotthechildrenofallpastevents：theyhavetheirdirectlines。
butathousandlittlecollaterallinesdonotservethematall。Oncemore，everybeinghasafather，buteverybeinghasnotchildren。PhilosophicalDictionary：ContradictionsCONTRADICTIONSIFsomeliterarysocietywishestoundertakethedictionaryofcontradictions，Isubscribefortwentyfoliovolumes。
Theworldcanexistonlybycontradictions：whatisneededtoabolishthem？toassemblethestatesofthehumanrace。Butfromthemannerinwhichmenaremade，itwouldbeafreshcontradictioniftheyweretoagree。
Assemblealltherabbitsoftheuniverse，therewillnotbetwodifferentopinionsamongthem。
Iknowonlytwokindsofimmutablebeingsontheearth，mathematiciansandanimals。theyareledbytwoinvariablerules，demonstrationandinstinct：
andeventhemathematicianshavehadsomedisputes，buttheanimalshavenevervaried。
Thecontrasts，thelightandshadeinwhichpublicmenarerepresentedinhistory，arenotcontradictions，theyarefaithfulportraitsofhumannature。
EverydaypeoplecondemnandadmireAlexanderthemurdererofClitus，buttheavengerofGreece，theconquerorofthePersians，andthefounderofAlexandria。
Caesarthedebauchee，whorobsthepublictreasuryofRometoreducehiscountrytodependence。butwhoseclemencyequalshisvalour，andwhoseintelligenceequalshiscourage。
Mohammed，impostor，brigand。butthesolereligiouslegislatorwhohadcourage，andwhofoundedagreatempire。
Cromwelltheenthusiast，arogueinhisfanaticismeven，judicialassassinofhisking，butasprofoundpoliticianasbravewarrior。
Athousandcontrastsfrequentlycrowdtogether，andthesecontrastsareinnature。theyarenomoreastonishingthanafinedayfollowedbystorm。
Menareequallymadeverywhere。theyhavemadethelawslittlebylittle，asgapsarerepairedinawall。Hereeldestsonshavetakenalltheycouldfromyoungersons，thereyoungersonsshareequally。SometimestheChurchhascommandedtheduel，sometimesshehasanathematizedit。ThepartisansandtheenemiesofAristotlehaveeachbeenexcommunicatedintheirturn，ashavethosewhoworelonghairandthosewhoworeshort。Inthisworldwehaveperfectlawonlytoruleaspeciesofmadnesscalledgaming。Therulesofgamingaretheonlyoneswhichadmitneitherexception，relaxation，varietynortyranny。Amanwhohasbeenalackey，ifheplayatlansquenetwithkings，ispaidwithoutdifficultyifhewin。everywhereelsethelawisaswordwithwhichthestrongercuttheweakerinpieces。
Nevertheless，thisworldexistsasifeverythingwerewellordered。
theirregularityisofournature。ourpoliticalworldislikeourglobe，amisshapenthingwhichalwayspreservesitself。Itwouldbemadtowishthatthemountains，theseas，therivers，weretracedinbeautifulregularforms。itwouldbestillmoremadtoaskperfectwisdomofmen。itwouldbewishingtogivewingstodogsorhornstoeagles。PhilosophicalDictionary：CornCORNTHEGaulshadcorninCaesar’stime：oneiscurioustoknowwheretheyandtheTeutonsfoundittosow。PeopleansweryouthattheTyrianshadbroughtitintoSpain，theSpaniardsintoGaul，theGaulsintoGermany。
AndwheredidtheTyriansgetthiscorn？AmongtheGreeksprobably，fromwhomtheyreceiveditinexchangefortheiralphabet。
WhohadmadethispresenttotheGreeks？ItwasformerlyCereswithoutadoubt。andwhenonehasgonebacktoCeresonecanhardlygofarther。
Ceresmusthavecomedownonpurposefromtheskytogiveuswheat，rye，barley，etc。
ButasthecreditofCereswhogavethecorntotheGreeks，andthatofIshethorIsiswhobestoweditontheEgyptians，isverymuchfalleninthesedays，weremaininuncertaintyastotheoriginofcorn。
SanchoniathonaffirmsthatDagonorDagan，oneofthegrandsonsofThaut，hadthecontrolofcorninPhoenicia。Well，hisThautisofaboutthesametimeasourJared。Fromthisitresultsthatcornisveryold，andthatitisofthesameantiquityasgrass。PerhapsthisDagonwasthefirstmantomakebread，butthatisnotdemonstrated。
Strangething！weknowpositivelythatitistoNoahthatweareunderanobligationforwine，andwedonotknowtowhomweowebread。And，stillmorestrangething，wearesoungratefultoNoah，thatwehavemorethantwothousandsongsinhonourofBacchus，andwechantbarelyoneinhonourofNoahourbenefactor。
AJewhasassuredmethatcorncamebyitselfinMesopotamia，liketheapples，wildpears，chestnuts，medlarsintheWest。IwanttobelieveituntilIamsureofthecontrary。forcornmustcertainlygrowsomewhere。
Ithasbecometheordinaryandindispensablefoodinthegoodclimates，andthroughouttheNorth。
SomegreatphilosopherswhosetalentsweesteemandwhosesystemswedonotfollowBuffonhaveclaimedonpage195oftheNaturalHistoryoftheDog，thatmankindhasmadecorn。thatourfathersbyvirtueofsowingloliumandgraminachangedthemintowheat。Asthesephilosophersarenotofouropinionaboutshells，theywillpermitusnottobeoftheirsaboutcorn。Wedonotbelievethatonehasevermadetulipsgrowfromjasmin。
Wefindthatthegermofcornisquitedifferentfromthatoflolium，andwedonotbelieveinanytransmutation。Whensomebodyshowsittouswewillretract。
Cornassuredlyisnotthefoodofthegreaterpartoftheworld。Maize，tapioca，feedthewholeofAmerica。Wehaveentireprovinceswherethepeasantseatnothingbutchestnutbread，morenourishingandofbetterflavourthanthatofryeandbarleywhichsomanypeopleeat，andwhichismuchbetterthantherationbreadwhichisgiventothesoldier。ThewholeofsouthernAfricadoesnotknowofbread。TheimmensearchipelagooftheIndies，Siam，Laos，Pegu，CochinChina，Tonkin，apartofChina，Japan，thecoastofMalabarandCoromandel，thebanksoftheGangesfurnisharice，thecultivationofwhichismucheasierthanthatofwheat，andwhichcausesittobeneglected。CornisabsolutelyunknownforthespaceoffifteenhundredleaguesonthecoastsoftheGlacialSea。Thisfood，towhichweareaccustomed，isamongussopreciousthatthefearofseeingadearthofitalonecausesriotsamongthemostsubjugatedpeoples。Thecorntradeiseverywhereoneofthegreatobjectsofgovernment。itisapartofourbeing，andyetthisessentialcommodityissometimessquanderedridiculously。Thepowdermerchantsusethebestflourforcoveringtheheadsofouryoungmenandwomen。Butoverthree-quartersoftheearthbreadisnoteatenatall。PeoplemaintainthattheEthiopiansmockedattheEgyptianswholivedonbread。Butsinceitisourchieffood，cornhasbecomeoneofthegreatobjectsoftradeandpolitics。Somuchhasbeenwrittenonthissubject，thatifahusbandmansowedasmuchcornastheweightofthevolumeswehaveaboutthiscommodity，hemighthopefortheamplestharvest，andbecomericherthanthosewhointheirgildedandlacquereddrawing-roomsignorehisexceedinglabourandwretchedness。PhilosophicalDictionary：Cromwell，part1CROMWELL，SECTIONICROMWELLispaintedasamanwhowasanimpostorallhislife。Ihavedifficultyinbelievingit。Ithinkthatfirstofallhewasanenthusiast，andthatlaterhemadeevenhisfanaticismservehisgreatness。Anovicewhoisferventattheageoftwentyoftenbecomesaskilfulrogueatforty。
Inthegreatgameofhumanlifeonebeginsbybeingadupe，andonefinishesbybeingarogue。Astatesmantakesasalmoneramonksteepedinthepettinessesofhismonastery，devout，credulous，clumsy，quitenewtotheworld：themonklearns，formshimself，intrigues，andsupplantshismaster。
Cromwelldidnotknowatfirstwhetherhewouldbeanecclesiasticorasoldier。Hewasboth。In1622heservedacampaigninthearmyofFrederickHenryPrinceofOrange，agreatman，brotheroftwogreatmen。andwhenhereturnedtoEngland，hewentintotheserviceofBishopWilliams，andwashisgrace’stheologian，whilehisgracepassedashiswife’slover。
HisprincipleswerethoseofthePuritans。thushehadtohateabishopwithallhisheart，andnothavealikingforkings。HewasdrivenfromBishopWilliams’housebecausehewasaPuritan。andthereistheoriginofhisfortune。TheEnglishParliamentdeclareditselfagainstthethroneandagainsttheepiscopacy。someofhisfriendsinthisparliamentprocuredthenominationofavillageforhim。Onlyatthistimedidhebegintoexist，andhewasmorethanfortybeforehehadevermadehimselftalkedof。InvainwasheconversantwithHolyWrit，invaindidheargueabouttherightsofpriestsanddeacons，andpreachafewpoorsermonsandlibels，hewasignored。Ihaveseenoneofhissermonswhichisveryinsipid，andwhichbearssufficientresemblancetothepredicationsofthequakers。
assuredlythereistobefoundtherenotraceofthatpersuasiveeloquencewithwhichlaterhecarriedtheparliamentsaway。ThereasonisthatinfacthewasmuchmoresuitedtopublicaffairsthantotheChurch。Itwasaboveallinhistoneandinhisairthathiseloquenceconsisted。agestureofthathandthathadwonsomanybattlesandkilledsomanyroyalists，wasmorepersuasivethantheperiodsofCicero。Itmustbeavowedthatitwashisincomparablebraverywhichmadehimknown，andwhichledhimbydegreestothepinnacleofgreatness。
Hebeganbylaunchingoutasavolunteerwhowishedtomakehisfortune，inthetownofHull，besiegedbytheking。Therehedidmanyfineandhappyactions，forwhichhereceivedagratificationofaboutsixthousandfrancsfromtheparliament。Thispresentmadebytheparliamenttoanadventurermadeitclearthattherebelpartymustprevail。Thekingwasnotinapositiontogivetohisgeneralofficerswhattheparliamentgavetovolunteers。
Withmoneyandfanaticismoneisboundinthelongruntobemasterofeverything。Cromwellwasmadecolonel。ThenhisgreattalentsforwardevelopedtothepointthatwhentheparliamentcreatedtheCountofManchestergeneralofitsarmies，itmadeCromwelllieutenant-general，withouthishavingpassedthroughtheotherranks。Neverdidmanappearmoreworthyofcommanding。
neverweremoreactivityandprudence，moreboldnessandmoreresourceseenthaninCromwell。HeiswoundedatthebattleofYork。andwhilethefirstdressingisbeingputonhiswound，helearnsthathisgeneral，Manchester，isretiring，andthatthebattleislost。HehastenstoManchester’sside。
hefindshimfleeingwithsomeofficers。hetakeshimbythearm，andsaystohimwithanairofconfidenceandgrandeur：Youaremistaken，mylord。
itisnotonthissidethattheenemyis。Heleadshimbacknearthebattlefield，ralliesduringthenightmorethantwelvethousandmen，speakstotheminthenameofGod，quotesMoses，GideonandJoshua，atdaybreakrecommencesthebattleagainstthevictoriousroyalarmy，anddefeatsitcompletely。
Suchamanhadtoperishorbemaster。NearlyalltheofficersofhisarmywereenthusiastswhocarriedtheNewTestamentattheirsaddle-bow：inthearmyasintheparliamentmenspokeonlyofmakingBabylonfall，ofestablishingthereligioninJerusalem，ofshatteringthecolossus。AmongsomanymadmenCromwellceasedtobemad，andthoughtthatitwasbettertogovernthemthantobegovernedbythem。Thehabitofpreachingasthoughhewereinspiredremainedtohim。Pictureafakirwhohasputanironbeltroundhiswaistasapenitence，andwhothentakesoffhisbelttobeattheotherfakirs’ears：thereyouhaveCromwell。Hebecomesasintriguingashewasintrepid。heassociateshimselfwithallthecolonelsofthearmy，andthusformsamongthetroopsarepublicwhichforcesthecommander-in-chieftoresign。Anothercommander-in-chiefisnominated，hedisgustshim。Hegovernsthearmy，andbyithegovernstheparliament。heputsthisparliamentinthenecessityofmakinghimcommander-in-chiefatlast。Allthiswasagreatdeal。butwhatisessentialisthathewinsallthebattlesheengagesininEngland，ScotlandandIreland。andhewinsthem，notinwatchingthefightingandintakingcareofhimself，butalwaysbychargingtheenemy，rallyinghistroops，rushingeverywhere，oftenwounded，killingmanyroyalistofficerswithhisownhand，likeadesperateandinfuriatedgrenadier。
AmidthisfrightfulwarCromwellmadelove。hewent，hisBibleunderhisarm，tosleepwiththewifeofhismajor-general，Lambert。ShelovedtheCountofHolland，whowasservingintheking’sarmy。Cromwelltookhimprisonerinabattle，andenjoyedthepleasureofhavinghisrival’sheadcutoff。Hismaximwastoshedthebloodofeveryimportantenemy，eitheronthefieldofbattle，orbytheexecutioner’shand。Healwaysincreasedhispower，byalwaysdaringtoabuseit。theprofundityofhisplanstookawaynothingfromhisferociousimpetuosity。HegoesintotheHouseofParliamentand，takinghiswatch，whichhethrewonthegroundandwhichheshatteredtoatoms：Iwillbreakyou，hesaid，likethiswatch。Hereturnstheresometimeafter，drivesallthemembersoutoneaftertheother，makingthemdefilebeforehim。Eachisobliged，ashepasses，tomakehimadeepbow：oneofthempasseswithhishatonhishead。Cromwelltakeshishatfromhimandthrowsitontheground：Learntorespectme，hesays。
Whenhehadoutragedallkingsbyhavinghisownlegitimateking’sheadcutoff，andwhenhestartedtoreignhimself，hesenthisportraittoacrownedhead。itwastoChristine，QueenofSweden。Marvell，afamousEnglishpoet，whowroteverygoodLatinverse，accompaniedthisportraitwithsixverseswherehemadeCromwellhimselfspeak。Cromwellcorrectedthelasttwoasfollows：
Attibisubmittitfrontemreverentiorumbrq，Nonsunthivultusregibususquetruces。
Thisqueenwasthefirsttorecognizehimassoonashewasprotectorofthethreekingdoms。AlmostallthesovereignsofEuropesenttheirambassadorstotheirbrotherCromwell，tothisbishop’sservant，whohadjustcausedasovereign，theirownkin，toperishatthehandoftheexecutioner。
Theyviedwitheachinsolicitinghisalliance。CardinalMazarin，topleasehim，droveoutofFrancethetwosonsofCharlesI。，thetwograndsonsofHenryIV。，thetwofirstcousinsofLouisXIV。FranceconqueredDunkirkforhim，andsenthimthekeys。Afterhisdeath，LouisXIV。andallhiscourtworemourning，exceptingMademoiselle，whohadthecouragetocometothecompanyinacolouredhabit，andalonemaintainedthehonourofherrace。
Neverwasakingmoreabsolutethanhewas。Hesaidthathehadpreferredgoverningunderthenameofprotectorratherthanunderthatofking，becausetheEnglishknewthepointtowhichaKingofEngland’sprerogativeextended，anddidnotknowtowhatpointaprotector’smightgo。Thatwastounderstandmen，whoaregovernedbyopinion，andwhoseopiniondependsonaname。Hehadconceivedaprofoundscornforthereligionwhichhadservedtohisfortune。ThereisacertainanecdotepreservedinthehouseofSt。John，whichprovessufficientlythelittleaccountwhichCromwellmadeoftheinstrumentwhichhadproducedsuchgreateffectsinhishands。HewasdrinkingonedaywithIreton，FleetwoodandSt。John，great-grandfatherofthecelebratedLordBolingbroke。theywishedtouncorkabottle，andthecorkscrewfellunderthetable。theyalllookedforitanddidnotfindit。MeanwhileadeputationfromthePresbyterianchurcheswaswaitingintheantechamber，andanushercametoannouncethem。Tellthem，saidCromwell，thatIhaveretired，andthatIamseekingtheLord。Itwastheexpressionwhichthefanaticsusedwhentheyweresayingtheirprayers。Whenhehadthusdismissedthebandofministers，hesaidtheseverywordstohisconfidants：ThosepuppiesthinkthatweareseekingtheLord，andweareonlyseekingthecorkscrew。
ThereisbarelyanexampleinEuropeofanymanwho，comefromsolow，raisedhimselfsohigh。Butwhatwasabsolutelyessentialtohimwithallhistalents？Fortune。Hehadthisfortune。butwashehappy？Helivedpoorlyandanxiouslyuntilhewasforty-three。fromthattimehebathedhimselfinblood，passedhislifeinturmoil，anddiedbeforehistimeattheageoffifty-seven。LetuscomparethislifewiththatofNewton，wholivedeighty-fouryears，alwaystranquil，alwayshonoured，alwaysthelightofallthinkingbeings，seeingincreaseeachdayhisrenown，hisreputation，hisfortune，withouteverhavingeithercareorremorse。andletusjudgewhichofthetwohadthebetterpart。PhilosophicalDictionary：Cromwell，Part2CROMWELL，SECTIONIIOliverCromwellwasregardedwithadmirationbythePuritansandindependentsofEngland。heisstilltheirhero。butRichardCromwell，hisson，ismyman。
Thefirstisafanaticwhowouldbehissedto-dayintheHouseofCommons，ifheutteredthereonesingleoneoftheunintelligibleabsurditieswhichhegaveoutwithsomuchconfidencebeforeotherfanaticswholistenedtohimopen-mouthedandwide-eyed，inthenameoftheLord。IfhesaidthatonemustseektheLord，andfighttheLord’sbattles。ifheintroducedtheJewishjargonintotheparliamentofEngland，totheeternalshameofthehumanintelligence，hewouldbenearertobeingledtoBedlamthantobeingchosentocommandarmies。
Hewasbravewithoutadoubt。soarewolves。thereareevenmonkeysasfierceastigers。Frombeingafanatichebecameanadroitpolitician，thatistosaythatfromawolfhebecamefox，climbedbyimposturefromthefirststepswheretheinfuriatedenthusiasmofthetimeshadplacedhim，righttothepinnacleofgreatness。andtheimpostorwalkedontheheadsoftheprostratedfanatics。Hereigned，buthelivedinthehorrorsofanxiety。Heknewneitherserenedaysnortranquilnights。Theconsolationsoffriendshipandsocietyneverapproachedhim。hediedbeforehistime，moreworthy，withoutadoubt，ofexecutionthanthekingwhomhehadconductedfromawindowofhisownpalacetothescaffold。
RichardCromwell，onthecontrary，bornwithagentle，wisespirit，refusedtokeephisfather’scrownatthepriceofthebloodoftwoorthreerebelswhomhecouldsacrificetohisambition。Hepreferredtobereducedtoprivateliferatherthanbeanomnipotentassassin。Helefttheprotectoratewithoutregrettoliveasacitizen。Freeandtranquilinthecountry，heenjoyedhealththere，andtheredidhepossesshissoulinpeaceforeighty-sixyears，lovedbyhisneighbours，towhomhewasarbiterandfather。
Readers，giveyourverdict。Ifyouhadtochoosebetweenthedestinyofthefatherandthatoftheson，whichwouldyoutake？PhilosophicalDictionary：CustomsCUSTOMSCONTEMPTIBLECUSTOMSDONOTALWAYSSUPPOSEACONTEMPTIBLENATION
THEREarecaseswhereonemustnotjudgeanationbyitscustomsandpopularsuperstitions。IsupposethatCaesar，havingconqueredEgypt，wantingtomaketradeflourishintheRomanEmpire，hassentanembassytoChina，bytheportofArsinoe，theRedSea，andtheIndianOcean。TheEmperorYventi，firstofhisname，wasthenreigning。theannalsofChinarepresenthimasaverywiseandlearnedprince。AfterreceivingCaesar’sambassadorswithalltheChinesepoliteness，heinformshimselfsecretlythroughhisinterpretersofthecustoms，scienceandreligionofthisRomanpeople，ascelebratedintheWestastheChinesepeopleisintheEast。Helearnsfirstofallthatthispeople’spontiffshavearrangedtheiryearinsoabsurdafashionthatthesunhasalreadytheheavenlysignsofspringwhentheRomansarecelebratingthefirstfestivalsofwinter。
Helearnsthatthisnationsupportsatgreatcostacollegeofpriestswhoknowexactlythetimewhenoneshouldsetsailandwhenoneshouldgivebattle，byinspectinganox’sliver，orbythewayinwhichthechickenseatbarley。ThissacredSciencewasbroughtformerlytotheRomansbyalittlegodnamedTages，whoemergedfromtheearthinTuscany。ThesepeoplesworshiponesupremeGodwhomtheyalwayscalltheverygreatandverygoodGod。Nevertheless，theyhavebuiltatempletoacourtesannamedFlora。
andalmostallthegoodwomenofRomehaveintheirhomeslittlehouseholdgodsfourorfiveincheshigh。Oneoftheselittledivinitiesisthegoddessofthebreasts。theotherthegoddessofthebuttocks。ThereisahouseholdgodwhoiscalledthegodPet。TheemperorYventistartslaughing：thetribunalsofNankinthinkfirstofallwithhimthattheRomanambassadorsaremadmenorimpostorswhohavetakenthetitleofenvoysoftheRomanRepublic。butastheemperorisasjustasheispolite，hehasprivatetalkswiththeambassadors。HelearnsthattheRomanpontiffshavebeenveryignorant，butthatCaesarisnowreformingthecalendar。theyadmittohimthatthecollegeofaugurswasestablishedinearlybarbaroustimes。
thatthisridiculousinstitution，becomedeartoapeoplelonguncivilized，hasbeenallowedtosubsist。thatallhonestpeoplelaughattheaugurs。
thatCaesarhasneverconsultedthem。thataccordingtoaverygreatmannamedCato，neverhasanaugurbeenabletospeaktohiscomradewithoutlaughter。andthatfinallyCicero，thegreatestoratorandthebestphilosopherinRome，hasjustwrittenagainsttheaugursalittleworkentitledOfDivination，inwhichhecommitstoeternalridiculeallthesoothsayers，allthepredictions，andallthesorceryofwhichtheworldisinfatuated。