Theartofwar，however，asitiscertainlythenoblestofallarts，sointheprogressofimprovementitnecessarilybecomesoneofthemostcomplicatedamongthem。Thestateofthemechanical，aswellasofsomeotherarts，withwhichitisnecessarilyconnected，determinesthedegreeofperfectiontowhichitiscapableofbeingcarriedatanyparticulartime。Butinordertocarryittothisdegreeofperfection，itisnecessarythatitshouldbecomethesoleorprincipaloccupationofaparticularclassofcitizens，andthedivisionoflabourisasnecessaryfortheimprovementofthis，asofeveryotherart。
Intootherartsthedivisionoflabourisnaturallyintroducedbytheprudenceofindividuals，whofindthattheypromotetheirprivateinterestbetterbyconfiningthemselvestoaparticulartradethanbyexercisingagreatnumber。Butitisthewisdomofthestateonlywhichcanrenderthetradeofasoldieraparticulartradeseparateanddistinctfromallothers。Aprivatecitizenwho，intimeofprofoundpeace，andwithoutanyparticularencouragementfromthepublic，shouldspendthegreaterpartofhistimeinmilitaryexercises，might，nodoubt，bothimprovehimselfverymuchinthem，andamusehimselfverywell;buthecertainlywouldnotpromotehisowninterest。Itisthewisdomofthestateonlywhichcanrenderitforhisinteresttogiveupthegreaterpartofhistimetothispeculiaroccupation:andstateshavenotalwayshadthiswisdom，evenwhentheircircumstanceshadbecomesuchthatthepreservationoftheirexistencerequiredthattheyshouldhaveit。
Ashepherdhasagreatdealofleisure;ahusbandman，intherudestateofhusbandry，hassome;anartificerormanufacturerhasnoneatall。Thefirstmay，withoutanyloss，employagreatdealofhistimeinmartialexercises;thesecondmayemploysomepartofit;butthelastcannotemployasinglehourinthemwithoutsomeloss，andhisattentiontohisowninterestnaturallyleadshimtoneglectthemaltogether。Theseimprovementsinhusbandrytoo，whichtheprogressofartsandmanufacturesnecessarilyintroduces，leavethehusbandmanaslittleleisureastheartificer。Militaryexercisescometobeasmuchneglectedbytheinhabitantsofthecountryasbythoseofthetown，andthegreatbodyofthepeoplebecomesaltogetherunwarlike。Thatwealth，atthesametime，whichalwaysfollowstheimprovementsofagricultureandmanufactures，andwhichinrealityisnomorethantheaccumulatedproduceofthoseimprovements，provokestheinvasionofalltheirneighbours。Anindustrious，anduponthataccountawealthynation，isofallnationsthemostlikelytobeattacked;andunlessthestatetakessomenewmeasuresforthepublicdefence，thenaturalhabitsofthepeoplerenderthemaltogetherincapableofdefendingthemselves。
Inthesecircumstancesthereseemtobebuttwomethodsbywhichthestatecanmakeanytolerableprovisionforthepublicdefence。
Itmayeither，first，bymeansofaveryrigorouspolice，andinspiteofthewholebentoftheinterest，genius，andinclinationsofthepeople，enforcethepracticeofmilitaryexercises，andobligeeitherallthecitizensofthemilitaryage，oracertainnumberofthem，tojoininsomemeasurethetradeofasoldiertowhateverothertradeorprofessiontheymayhappentocarryon。
Or，secondly，bymaintainingandemployingacertainnumberofcitizensintheconstantpracticeofmilitaryexercises，itmayrenderthetradeofasoldieraparticulartrade，separateanddistinctfromallothers。
Ifthestatehasrecoursetothefirstofthosetwoexpedients，itsmilitaryforceissaidtoconsistinamilitia;
iftothesecond，itissaidtoconsistinastandingarmy。Thepracticeofmilitaryexercisesisthesoleorprincipaloccupationofthesoldiersofastandingarmy，andthemaintenanceorpaywhichthestateaffordsthemistheprincipalandordinaryfundoftheirsubsistence。Thepracticeofmilitaryexercisesisonlytheoccasionaloccupationofthesoldiersofamilitia，andtheyderivetheprincipalandordinaryfundoftheirsubsistencefromsomeotheroccupation。Inamilitia，thecharacterofthelabourer，artificer，ortradesman，predominatesoverthatofthesoldier;inastandingarmy，thatofthesoldierpredominatesovereveryothercharacter:andinthisdistinctionseemstoconsisttheessentialdifferencebetweenthosetwodifferentspeciesofmilitaryforce。
Militiashavebeenofseveraldifferentkinds。Insomecountriesthecitizensdestinedfordefendingthestatesseemtohavebeenexercisedonly，withoutbeing，ifImaysayso，regimented;thatis，withoutbeingdividedintoseparateanddistinctbodiesoftroops，eachofwhichperformeditsexercisesunderitsownproperandpermanentofficers。IntherepublicsofancientGreeceandRome，eachcitizen，aslongasheremainedathome，seemstohavepractisedhisexerciseseitherseparatelyandindependently，orwithsuchofhisequalsashelikedbest，andnottohavebeenattachedtoanyparticularbodyoftroopstillhewasactuallycalledupontotakethefield。Inothercountries，themilitiahasnotonlybeenexercised，butregimented。InEngland，inSwitzerland，and，Ibelieve，ineveryothercountryofmodernEuropewhereanyimperfectmilitaryforceofthiskindhasbeenestablished，everymilitiamanis，evenintimeofpeace，attachedtoaparticularbodyoftroops，whichperformsitsexercisesunderitsownproperandpermanentofficers。
Beforetheinventionoffirearms，thatarmywassuperiorinwhichthesoldiershad，eachindividually，thegreatestskillanddexterityintheuseoftheirarms。Strengthandagilityofbodywereofthehighestconsequence，andcommonlydeterminedthestateofbattles。Butthisskillanddexterityintheuseoftheirarmscouldbeacquiredonly，inthesamemannerasfencingisatpresent，bypractising，notingreatbodies，buteachmanseparately，inaparticularschool，underaparticularmaster，orwithhisownparticularequalsandcompanions。Sincetheinventionoffirearms，strengthandagilityofbody，orevenextraordinarydexterityandskillintheuseofarms，thoughtheyarefarfrombeingofnoconsequence，are，however，oflessconsequence。Thenatureoftheweapon，thoughitbynomeansputstheawkwarduponalevelwiththeskilful，putshimmorenearlysothanheeverwasbefore。Allthedexterityandskill，itissupposed，whicharenecessaryforusingit，canbewellenoughacquiredbypractisingingreatbodies。
Regularity，order，andpromptobediencetocommandarequalitieswhich，inmodernarmies，areofmoreimportancetowardsdeterminingthefateofbattlesthanthedexterityandskillofthesoldiersintheuseoftheirarms。Butthenoiseoffirearms，thesmoke，andtheinvisibledeathtowhicheverymanfeelshimselfeverymomentexposedassoonashecomeswithincannon—shot，andfrequentlyalongtimebeforethebattlecanbewellsaidtobeengaged，mustrenderitverydifficulttomaintainanyconsiderabledegreeofthisregularity，order，andpromptobedience，eveninthebeginningofamodernbattle。Inanancientbattletherewasnonoisebutwhatarosefromthehumanvoice;therewasnosmoke，therewasnoinvisiblecauseofwoundsordeath。Everyman，tillsomemortalweaponactuallydidapproachhim，sawclearlythatnosuchweaponwasnearhim。Inthesecircumstances，andamongtroopswhohadsomeconfidenceintheirownskillanddexterityintheuseoftheirarms，itmusthavebeenagooddeallessdifficulttopreservesomedegreeregularityandorder，notonlyinthebeginning，butthroughthewholeprogressofanancientbattle，andtilloneofthetwoarmieswasfairlydefeated。Butthehabitsofregularity，order，andpromptobediencetocommandcanbeacquiredonlybytroopswhichareexercisedingreatbodies。
Amilitia，however，inwhatevermanneritmaybeeitherdisciplinedorexercised，mustalwaysbemuchinferiortoawell—disciplinedandwell—exercisedstandingarmy。
Thesoldierswhoareexercisedonlyonceaweek，oronceamonth，canneverbesoexpertintheuseoftheirarmsasthosewhoareexercisedeveryday，oreveryotherday;andthoughthiscircumstancemaynotbeofsomuchconsequenceinmodernasitwasinancienttimes，yettheacknowledgedsuperiorityofthePrussiantroops，owing，itissaid，verymuchtotheirsuperiorexpertnessintheirexercise，maysatisfyusthatitis，evenatthisday，ofveryconsiderableconsequence。
Thesoldierswhoareboundtoobeytheirofficeronlyonceaweekoronceamonth，andwhoareatallothertimesatlibertytomanagetheirownaffairstheirownway，withoutbeinginanyrespectaccountabletohim，canneverbeunderthesameaweinhispresence，canneverhavethesamedispositiontoreadyobedience，withthosewhosewholelifeandconductareeverydaydirectedbyhim，andwhoeverydayevenriseandgotobed，oratleastretiretotheirquarters，accordingtohisorders。Inwhatiscalleddiscipline，orinthehabitofreadyobedience，amilitiamustalwaysbestillmoreinferiortoastandingarmythanitmaysometimesbeinwhatiscalledthemanualexercise，orinthemanagementanduseofitsarms。Butinmodernwarthehabitofreadyandinstantobedienceisofmuchgreaterconsequencethanaconsiderablesuperiorityinthemanagementofarms。
Thosemilitiaswhich，liketheTartarorArabmilitia，gotowarunderthesamechieftainswhomtheyareaccustomedtoobeyinpeacearebyfarthebest。Inrespectfortheirofficers，inthehabitofreadyobedience，theyapproachnearesttostandingarmies。Thehighlandmilitia，whenitservedunderitsownchieftains，hadsomeadvantageofthesamekind。Asthehighlanders，however，werenotwandering，butstationaryshepherds，astheyhadallafixedhabitation，andwerenot，inpeaceabletimes，accustomedtofollowtheirchieftainfromplacetoplace，sointimeofwartheywerelesswillingtofollowhimtoanyconsiderabledistance，ortocontinueforanylongtimeinthefield。Whentheyhadacquiredanybootytheywereeagertoreturnhome，andhisauthoritywasseldomsufficienttodetainthem。InpointofobediencetheywerealwaysmuchinferiortowhatisreportedoftheTartarsandArabs。Asthehighlanderstoo，fromtheirstationarylife，spendlessoftheirtimeintheopenair，theywerealwayslessaccustomedtomilitaryexercises，andwerelessexpertintheuseoftheirarmsthantheTartarsandArabsaresaidtobe。
Amilitiaofanykind，itmustbeobserved，however，whichhasservedforseveralsuccessivecampaignsinthefield，becomesineveryrespectastandingarmy。Thesoldiersareeverydayexercisedintheuseoftheirarms，and，beingconstantlyunderthecommandoftheirofficers，arehabituatedtothesamepromptobediencewhichtakesplaceinstandingarmies。Whattheywerebeforetheytookthefieldisoflittleimportance。Theynecessarilybecomeineveryrespectastandingarmyaftertheyhavepassedafewcampaignsinit。ShouldthewarinAmericadragoutthroughanothercampaign，theAmericanmilitiamaybecomeineveryrespectamatchforthatstandingarmyofwhichthevalourappeared，inthelastwar，atleastnotinferiortothatofthehardiestveteransofFranceandSpain。
Thisdistinctionbeingwellunderstood，thehistoryofallages，itwillbefound，bearstestimonytotheirresistiblesuperioritywhichawell—regulatedstandingarmyhasoveramilitia。
Oneofthefirststandingarmiesofwhichwehaveanydistinctaccount，inanywellauthenticatedhistory，isthatofPhilipofMacedon。HisfrequentwarswiththeThracians，Illyrians，Thessalians，andsomeoftheGreekcitiesintheneighbourhoodofMacedon，graduallyformedhistroops，whichinthebeginningwereprobablymilitia，totheexactdisciplineofastandingarmy。Whenhewasatpeace，whichhewasveryseldom，andneverforanylongtimetogether，hewascarefulnottodisbandthatarmy。Itvanquishedandsubdued，afteralongandviolentstruggle，indeed，thegallantandwellexercisedmilitiasoftheprincipalrepublicsofancientGreece，andafterwards，withverylittlestruggle，theeffeminateandill—exercisedmilitiaofthegreatPersianempire。ThefalloftheGreekrepublicsandofthePersianempirewastheeffectoftheirresistiblesuperioritywhichastandingarmyhasovereverysortofmilitia。Itisthefirstgreatrevolutionintheaffairsofmankindofwhichhistoryhaspreservedanydistinctorcircumstantialaccount。
ThefallofCarthage，andtheconsequentelevationofRome，isthesecond。Allthevarietiesinthefortuneofthosetwofamousrepublicsmayverywellbeaccountedforfromthesamecause。
FromtheendofthefirsttothebeginningofthesecondCarthaginianwarthearmiesofCarthagewerecontinuallyinthefield，andemployedunderthreegreatgenerals，whosucceededoneanotherinthecommand:Hamilcar，hisson—in—lawHasdrubal，andhissonHannibal;firstinchastisingtheirownrebelliousslaves，afterwardsinsubduingtherevoltednationsofAfrica，and，lastly，inconqueringthegreatkingdomofSpain。ThearmywhichHanniballedfromSpainintoItalymustnecessarily，inthosedifferentwars，havebeengraduallyformedtotheexactdisciplineofastandingarmy。TheRomans，inthemeantime，thoughtheyhadnotbeenaltogetheratpeace，yettheyhadnot，duringthisperiod，beenengagedinanywarofverygreatconsequence，andtheirmilitarydiscipline，itisgenerallysaid，wasagooddealrelaxed。TheRomanarmieswhichHannibalencounteredatTrebia，Thrasymenus，andCannaeweremilitiaopposedtoastandingarmy。Thiscircumstance，itisprobable，contributedmorethananyothertodeterminethefateofthosebattles。
ThestandingarmywhichHanniballeftbehindhiminSpainhadthelikesuperiorityoverthemilitiawhichtheRomanssenttoopposeit，andinafewyears，underthecommandofhisbrother，theyoungerHasdrubal，expelledthemalmostentirelyfromthatcountry。
Hannibalwasillsuppliedfromhome。TheRomanmilitia，beingcontinuallyinthefield，becameintheprogressofthewarawelldisciplinedandwell—exercisedstandingarmy，andthesuperiorityofHannibalgreweverydaylessandless。Hasdrubaljudgeditnecessarytoleadthewhole，oralmostthewholeofthestandingarmywhichhecommandedinSpain，totheassistanceofhisbrotherinItaly。Inthismarchheissaidtohavebeenmisledbyhisguides，andinacountrywhichhedidnotknow，wassurprisedandattackedbyanotherstandingarmy，ineveryrespectequalorsuperiortohisown，andwasentirelydefeated。
WhenHasdrubalhadleftSpain，thegreatScipiofoundnothingtoopposehimbutamilitiainferiortohisown。Heconqueredandsubduedthatmilitia，and，inthecourseofthewar，hisownmilitianecessarilybecameawell—disciplinedandwell—exercisedstandingarmy。ThatstandingarmywasafterwardscarriedtoAfrica，whereitfoundnothingbutamilitiatoopposeit。InordertodefendCarthageitbecamenecessarytorecallthestandingarmyofHannibal。ThedisheartenedandfrequentlydefeatedAfricanmilitiajoinedit，and，atthebattleofZama，composedthegreaterpartofthetroopsofHannibal。Theeventofthatdaydeterminedthefateofthetworivalrepublics。
FromtheendofthesecondCarthaginianwartillthefalloftheRomanrepublic，thearmiesofRomewereineveryrespectstandingarmies。ThestandingarmyofMacedonmadesomeresistancetotheirarms。Intheheightoftheirgrandeuritcostthemtwogreatwars，andthreegreatbattles，tosubduethatlittlekingdom，ofwhichtheconquestwouldprobablyhavebeenstillmoredifficulthaditnotbeenforthecowardiceofitslastking。Themilitiasofallthecivilisednationsoftheancientworld，ofGreece，ofSyria，andofEgypt，madebutafeebleresistancetothestandingarmiesofRome。Themilitiasofsomebarbarousnationsdefendedthemselvesmuchbetter。TheScythianorTartarmilitia，whichMithridatesdrewfromthecountriesnorthoftheEuxineandCaspianseas，werethemostformidableenemieswhomtheRomanshadtoencounterafterthesecondCarthaginianwar。TheParthianandGermanmilitias，too，werealwaysrespectable，anduponseveraloccasionsgainedveryconsiderableadvantagesovertheRomanarmies。Ingeneral，however，andwhentheRomanarmieswerewellcommanded，theyappeartohavebeenverymuchsuperior;andiftheRomansdidnotpursuethefinalconquesteitherofParthiaorGermany，itwasprobablybecausetheyjudgedthatitwasnotworthwhiletoaddthosetwobarbarouscountriestoanempirewhichwasalreadytoolarge。TheancientParthiansappeartohavebeenanationofScythianorTartarextraction，andtohavealwaysretainedagooddealofthemannersoftheirancestors。TheancientGermanswere，liketheScythiansorTartars，anationofwanderingshepherds，whowenttowarunderthesamechiefswhomtheywereaccustomedtofollowinpeace。TheirmilitiawasexactlyofthesamekindwiththatoftheScythiansorTartars，fromwhom，too，theywereprobablydescended。
ManydifferentcausescontributedtorelaxthedisciplineoftheRomanarmies。Itsextremeseveritywas，perhaps，oneofthosecauses。Inthedaysoftheirgrandeur，whennoenemyappearedcapableofopposingthem，theirheavyarmourwaslaidasideasunnecessarilyburdensome，theirlabouriousexerciseswereneglectedasunnecessarilytoilsome。UndertheRomanemperors，besides，thestandingarmiesofRome，thoseparticularlywhichguardedtheGermanandPannonianfrontiers，becamedangeroustotheirmasters，againstwhomtheyusedfrequentlytosetuptheirowngenerals。Inordertorenderthemlessformidable，accordingtosomeauthors，Dioclesian，accordingtoothers，Constantine，firstwithdrewthemfromthefrontier，wheretheyhadalwaysbeforebeenencampedingreatbodies，generallyoftwoorthreelegionseach，anddispersedtheminsmallbodiesthroughthedifferentprovincialtowns，fromwhencetheywerescarceeverremovedbutwhenitbecamenecessarytorepelaninvasion。Smallbodiesofsoldiersquartered，intradingandmanufacturingtowns，andseldomremovedfromthosequarters，becamethemselvestradesmen，artificers，andmanufacturers。Thecivilcametopredominateoverthemilitarycharacter，andthestandingarmiesofRomegraduallydegeneratedintoacorrupt，neglected，andundisciplinedmilitia，incapableofresistingtheattackoftheGermanandScythianmilitias，whichsoonafterwardsinvadedthewesternempire。Itwasonlybyhiringthemilitiaofsomeofthosenationstoopposetothatofothersthattheemperorswereforsometimeabletodefendthemselves。Thefallofthewesternempireisthethirdgreatrevolutionintheaffairsofmankindofwhichancienthistoryhaspreservedanydistinctorcircumstantialaccount。Itwasbroughtaboutbytheirresistiblesuperioritywhichthemilitiaofabarbaroushasoverthatofacivilisednation;whichthemilitiaofanationofshepherdshasoverthatofanationofhusbandmen，artificers，andmanufacturers。Thevictorieswhichhavebeengainedbymilitiashavegenerallybeen，notoverstandingarmies，butoverothermilitiasinexerciseanddisciplineinferiortothemselves。SuchwerethevictorieswhichtheGreekmilitiagainedoverthatofthePersianempire;andsuchtoowerethosewhichinlatertimestheSwissmilitiagainedoverthatoftheAustriansandBurgundians。
ThemilitaryforceoftheGermanandScythiannationswhoestablishedthemselvesupontheruinsofthewesternempirecontinuedforsometimetobeofthesamekindintheirnewsettlementsasithadbeenintheiroriginalcountry。Itwasamilitiaofshepherdsandhusbandmen，which，intimeofwar，tookthefieldunderthecommandofthesamechieftainswhomitwasaccustomedtoobeyinpeace。Itwas，therefore，tolerablywellexercised，andtolerablywelldisciplined。Asartsandindustryadvanced，however，theauthorityofthechieftainsgraduallydecayed，andthegreatbodyofthepeoplehadlesstimetospareformilitaryexercises。Boththedisciplineandtheexerciseofthefeudalmilitia，therefore，wentgraduallytoruin，andstandingarmiesweregraduallyintroducedtosupplytheplaceofit。Whentheexpedientofastandingarmy，besides，hadoncebeenadoptedbyonecivilisednation，itbecamenecessarythatallitsneighboursshouldfollowtheirexample。Theysoonfoundthattheirsafetydependedupontheirdoingso，andthattheirownmilitiawasaltogetherincapableofresistingtheattackofsuchanarmy。
Thesoldiersofastandingarmy，thoughtheymayneverhaveseenanenemy，yethavefrequentlyappearedtopossessallthecourageofveterantroopsandtheverymomentthattheytookthefieldtohavebeenfittofacethehardiestandmostexperiencedveterans。In1756，whentheRussianarmymarchedintoPoland，thevalouroftheRussiansoldiersdidnotappearinferiortothatofthePrussians，atthattimesupposedtobethehardiestandmostexperiencedveteransinEurope。TheRussianempire，however，hadenjoyedaprofoundpeaceforneartwentyyearsbefore，andcouldatthattimehaveveryfewsoldierswhohadeverseenanenemy。
WhentheSpanishwarbrokeoutin1739，Englandhadenjoyedaprofoundpeaceforabouteight—and—twentyyears。Thevalourofhersoldiers，however，farfrombeingcorruptedbythatlongpeace，wasnevermoredistinguishedthanintheattemptuponCarthagena，thefirstunfortunateexploitofthatunfortunatewar。Inalongpeacethegenerals，perhaps，maysometimesforgettheirskill;but，whereawell—regulatedstandingarmyhasbeenkeptup，thesoldiersseemnevertoforgettheirvalour。
Whenacivilisednationdependsforitsdefenceuponamilitia，itisatalltimesexposedtobeconqueredbyanybarbarousnationwhichhappenstobeinitsneighbourhood。ThefrequentconquestsofallthecivilisedcountriesinAsiabytheTartarssufficientlydemonstratesthenaturalsuperioritywhichthemilitiaofabarbaroushasoverthatofacivilisednation。A
well—regulatedstandingarmyissuperiortoeverymilitia。Suchanarmy，asitcanbestbemaintainedbyanopulentandcivilisednation，soitcanalonedefendsuchanationagainsttheinvasionofapoorandbarbarousneighbour。Itisonlybymeansofastandingarmy，therefore，thatthecivilizationofanycountrycanbeperpetuated，orevenpreservedforanyconsiderabletime。
Asitisonlybymeansofawell—regulatedstandingarmythatacivilisedcountrycanbedefended，soitisonlybymeansofitthatabarbarouscountrycanbesuddenlyandtolerablycivilised。Astandingarmyestablishes，withanirresistibleforce，thelawofthesovereignthroughtheremotestprovincesoftheempire，andmaintainssomedegreeofregulargovernmentincountrieswhichcouldnototherwiseadmitofany。Whoeverexamines，withattention，theimprovementswhichPetertheGreatintroducedintotheRussianempire，willfindthattheyalmostallresolvethemselvesintotheestablishmentofawellregulatedstandingarmy。Itistheinstrumentwhichexecutesandmaintainsallhisotherregulations。Thatdegreeoforderandinternalpeacewhichthatempirehaseversinceenjoyedisaltogetherowingtotheinfluenceofthatarmy。
Menofrepublicanprincipleshavebeenjealousofastandingarmyasdangeroustoliberty。Itcertainlyissowherevertheinterestofthegeneralandthatoftheprincipalofficersarenotnecessarilyconnectedwiththesupportoftheconstitutionofthestate。ThestandingarmyofCaesardestroyedtheRomanrepublic。ThestandingarmyofCromwellturnedtheLongParliamentoutofdoors。Butwherethesovereignishimselfthegeneral，andtheprincipalnobilityandgentryofthecountrythechiefofficersofthearmy，wherethemilitaryforceisplacedunderthecommandofthosewhohavethegreatestinterestinthesupportofthecivilauthority，becausetheyhavethemselvesthegreatestshareofthatauthority，astandingarmycanneverbedangeroustoliberty。Onthecontrary，itmayinsomecasesbefavourabletoliberty。Thesecuritywhichitgivestothesovereignrendersunnecessarythattroublesomejealousy，which，insomemodernrepublics，seemstowatchovertheminutestactions，andtobeatalltimesreadytodisturbthepeaceofeverycitizen。Wherethesecurityofthemagistrate，thoughsupportedbytheprincipalpeopleofthecountry，isendangeredbyeverypopulardiscontent;whereasmalltumultiscapableofbringingaboutinafewhoursagreatrevolution，thewholeauthorityofgovernmentmustbeemployedtosuppressandpunisheverymurmurandcomplaintagainstit。Toasovereign，onthecontrary，whofeelshimselfsupported，notonlybythenaturalaristocracyofthecountry，butbyawell—regulatedstandingarmy，therudest，themostgroundless，andthemostlicentiousremonstrancescangivelittledisturbance。Hecansafelypardonorneglectthem，andhisconsciousnessofhisownsuperioritynaturallydisposeshimtodoso。Thatdegreeoflibertywhichapproachestolicentiousnesscanbetoleratedonlyincountrieswherethesovereignissecuredbyawell—regulatedstandingarmy。
Itisinsuchcountriesonlythatthepublicsafetydoesnotrequirethatthesovereignshouldbetrustedwithanydiscretionarypowerforsuppressingeventheimpertinentwantonnessofthislicentiousliberty。
Thefirstdutyofthesovereign，therefore，thatofdefendingthesocietyfromtheviolenceandinjusticeofotherindependentsocieties，growsgraduallymoreandmoreexpensiveasthesocietyadvancesincivilization。Themilitaryforceofthesociety，whichoriginallycostthesovereignnoexpenseeitherintimeofpeaceorintimeofwar，must，intheprogressofimprovement，firstbemaintainedbyhimintimeofwar，andafterwardsevenintimeofpeace。
Thegreatchangeintroducedintotheartofwarbytheinventionoffirearmshasenhancedstillfurtherboththeexpenseofexercisinganddisciplininganyparticularnumberofsoldiersintimeofpeace，andthatofemployingthemintimeofwar。Boththeirarmsandtheirammunitionarebecomemoreexpensive。A
musketisamoreexpensivemachinethanajavelinorabowandarrows;acannonoramortarthanabalistaoracatapulta。Thepowderwhichisspentinamodernreviewislostirrecoverably，andoccasionsaveryconsiderableexpense。Thejavelineandarrowswhichwerethrownorshotinanancientonecouldeasilybepickedupagain，andwerebesidesofverylittlevalue。Thecannonandthemortararenotonlymuchdearer，butmuchheaviermachinesthanthebalistaorcatapulta，andrequireagreaterexpense，notonlytopreparethemforthefield，buttocarrythemtoit。Asthesuperiorityofthemodernartillerytoooverthatoftheancientsisverygreat，ithasbecomemuchmoredifficult，andconsequentlymuchmoreexpensive，tofortifyatownsoastoresistevenforafewweekstheattackofthatsuperiorartillery。Inmoderntimesmanydifferentcausescontributetorenderthedefenceofthesocietymoreexpensive。
Theunavoidableeffectsofthenaturalprogressofimprovementhave，inthisrespect，beenagooddealenhancedbyagreatrevolutionintheartofwar，towhichamereaccident，theinventionofgunpowder，seemstohavegivenoccasion。
Inmodernwarthegreatexpenseoffirearmsgivesanevidentadvantagetothenationwhichcanbestaffordthatexpense，andconsequentlytoanopulentandcivilisedoverapoorandbarbarousnation。Inancienttimestheopulentandcivilisedfounditdifficulttodefendthemselvesagainstthepoorandbarbarousnations。Inmoderntimesthepoorandbarbarousfinditdifficulttodefendthemselvesagainsttheopulentandcivilised。
Theinventionoffirearms，aninventionwhichatfirstsightappearstobesopernicious，iscertainlyfavourablebothtothepermanencyandtotheextensionofcivilization。
PART2
OftheExpenseofJusticeTHEseconddutyofthesovereign，thatofprotecting，asfaraspossible，everymemberofthesocietyfromtheinjusticeoroppressionofeveryothermemberofit，orthedutyofestablishinganexactadministrationofjustice，requires，too，verydifferentdegreesofexpenseinthedifferentperiodsofsociety。
Amongnationsofhunters，asthereisscarceanyproperty，oratleastnonethatexceedsthevalueoftwoorthreedays’
labour，sothereisseldomanyestablishedmagistrateoranyregularadministrationofjustice。Menwhohavenopropertycaninjureoneanotheronlyintheirpersonsorreputations。Butwhenonemankills，wounds，beats，ordefamesanother，thoughhetowhomtheinjuryisdonesuffers，hewhodoesitreceivesnobenefit。Itisotherwisewiththeinjuriestoproperty。Thebenefitofthepersonwhodoestheinjuryisoftenequaltothelossofhimwhosuffersit。Envy，malice，orresentmentaretheonlypassionswhichcanpromptonemantoinjureanotherinhispersonorreputation。Butthegreaterpartofmenarenotveryfrequentlyundertheinfluenceofthosepassions，andtheveryworstofmenaresoonlyoccasionally。Astheirgratificationtoo，howagreeablesoeveritmaybetocertaincharacters，isnotattendedwithanyrealorpermanentadvantage，itisinthegreaterpartofmencommonlyrestrainedbyprudentialconsiderations。Menmaylivetogetherinsocietywithsometolerabledegreeofsecurity，thoughthereisnocivilmagistratetoprotectthemfromtheinjusticeofthosepassions。Butavariceandambitionintherich，inthepoorthehatredoflabourandtheloveofpresenteaseandenjoyment，arethepassionswhichprompttoinvadeproperty，passionsmuchmoresteadyintheiroperation，andmuchmoreuniversalintheirinfluence。Whereverthereisgreatpropertythereisgreatinequality。Foroneveryrichmantheremustbeatleastfivehundredpoor，andtheaffluenceofthefewsupposestheindigenceofthemany。Theaffluenceoftherichexcitestheindignationofthepoor，whoareoftenbothdrivenbywant，andpromptedbyenvy，toinvadehispossessions。Itisonlyundertheshelterofthecivilmagistratethattheownerofthatvaluableproperty，whichisacquiredbythelabourofmanyyears，orperhapsofmanysuccessivegenerations，cansleepasinglenightinsecurity。Heisatalltimessurroundedbyunknownenemies，whom，thoughheneverprovoked，hecanneverappease，andfromwhoseinjusticehecanbeprotectedonlybythepowerfularmofthecivilmagistratecontinuallyhelduptochastiseit。Theacquisitionofvaluableandextensiveproperty，therefore，necessarilyrequirestheestablishmentofcivilgovernment。Wherethereisnoproperty，oratleastnonethatexceedsthevalueoftwoorthreedays’
labour，civilgovernmentisnotsonecessary。
Civilgovernmentsupposesacertainsubordination。Butasthenecessityofcivilgovernmentgraduallygrowsupwiththeacquisitionofvaluableproperty，sotheprincipalcauseswhichnaturallyintroducesubordinationgraduallygrowupwiththegrowthofthatvaluableproperty。
Thecausesorcircumstanceswhichnaturallyintroducesubordination，orwhichnaturally，andantecedenttoanycivilinstitution，givesomemensomesuperiorityoverthegreaterpartoftheirbrethren，seemtobefourinnumber。
Thefirstofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityofpersonalqualifications，ofstrength，beauty，andagilityofbody;ofwisdomandvirtue，ofprudence，justice，fortitude，andmoderationofmind。Thequalificationsofthebody，unlesssupportedbythoseofthemind，cangivelittleauthorityinanyperiodofsociety。Heisaverystrongman，who，bymerestrengthofbody，canforcetwoweakonestoobeyhim。
Thequalificationsofthemindcanalonegiveaverygreatauthority。Theyare，however，invisiblequalities;alwaysdisputable，andgenerallydisputed。Nosociety，whetherbarbarousorcivilised，haseverfounditconvenienttosettletherulesofprecedencyofrankandsubordinationaccordingtothoseinvisiblequalities;butaccordingtosomethingthatismoreplainandpalpable。
Thesecondofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityofage。Anoldman，providedhisageisnotsofaradvancedastogivesuspicionofdotage，iseverywheremorerespectedthanayoungmanofequalrank，fortune，andabilities。
Amongnationsofhunters，suchasthenativetribesofNorthAmerica，ageisthesolefoundationofrankandprecedency。Amongthem，fatheristheappellationofasuperior;brother，ofanequal;andson，ofaninferior。Inthemostopulentandcivilisednations，ageregulatesrankamongthosewhoareineveryotherrespectequal，andamongwhom，therefore，thereisnothingelsetoregulateit。Amongbrothersandamongsisters，theeldestalwaystakesplace;andinthesuccessionofthepaternalestateeverythingwhichcannotbedivided，butmustgoentiretooneperson，suchasatitleofhonour，isinmostcasesgiventotheeldest。Ageisaplainandpalpablequalitywhichadmitsofnodispute。
Thethirdofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityoffortune。Theauthorityofriches，however，thoughgreatineveryageofsociety，isperhapsgreatestintherudestageofsocietywhichadmitsofanyconsiderableinequalityoffortune。ATartarchief，theincreaseofwhoseherdsandstocksissufficienttomaintainathousandmen，cannotwellemploythatincreaseinanyotherwaythaninmaintainingathousandmen。Therudestateofhissocietydoesnotaffordhimanymanufacturedproduce，anytrinketsorbaublesofanykind，forwhichhecanexchangethatpartofhisrudeproducewhichisoverandabovehisownconsumption。Thethousandmenwhomhethusmaintains，dependingentirelyuponhimfortheirsubsistence，mustbothobeyhisordersinwar，andsubmittohisjurisdictioninpeace。Heisnecessarilyboththeirgeneralandtheirjudge，andhischieftainshipisthenecessaryeffectofthesuperiorityofhisfortune。Inanopulentandcivilisedsociety，amanmaypossessamuchgreaterfortuneandyetnotbeabletocommandadozenpeople。Thoughtheproduceofhisestatemaybesufficienttomaintain，andmayperhapsactuallymaintain，morethanathousandpeople，yetasthosepeoplepayforeverythingwhichtheygetfromhim，ashegivesscarceanythingtoanybodybutinexchangeforanequivalent，thereisscarceanybodywhoconsidershimselfasentirelydependentuponhim，andhisauthorityextendsonlyoverafewmenialservants。Theauthorityoffortune，however，isverygreateveninanopulentandcivilisedsociety。Thatitismuchgreaterthanthateitherofageorofpersonalqualitieshasbeentheconstantcomplaintofeveryperiodofsocietywhichadmittedofanyconsiderableinequalityoffortune。Thefirstperiodofsociety，thatofhunters，admitsofnosuchinequality。
Universalpovertyestablishestheiruniversalequality，andthesuperiorityeitherofageorofpersonalqualitiesarethefeeblebutthesolefoundationsofauthorityandsubordination。Thereisthereforelittleornoauthorityorsubordinationinthisperiodofsociety。Thesecondperiodofsociety，thatofshepherds，admitsofverygreatinequalitiesoffortune，andthereisnoperiodinwhichthesuperiorityoffortunegivessogreatauthoritytothosewhopossessit。Thereisnoperiodaccordinglyinwhichauthorityandsubordinationaremoreperfectlyestablished。TheauthorityofanArabiansherifisverygreat;
thatofaTartarkhanaltogetherdespotical。
Thefourthofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityofbirth。Superiorityofbirthsupposesanancientsuperiorityoffortuneinthefamilyofthepersonwhoclaimsit。
Allfamiliesareequallyancient;andtheancestorsoftheprince，thoughtheymaybebetterknown，cannotwellbemorenumerousthanthoseofthebeggar。Antiquityoffamilymeanseverywheretheantiquityeitherofwealth，orofthatgreatnesswhichiscommonlyeitherfoundeduponwealth，oraccompaniedwithit。Upstartgreatnessiseverywherelessrespectedthanancientgreatness。Thehatredofusurpers，theloveofthefamilyofanancientmonarch，are，inagreatmeasure，foundeduponthecontemptwhichmennaturallyhavefortheformer，andupontheirvenerationforthelatter。Asamilitaryofficersubmitswithoutreluctancetotheauthorityofasuperiorbywhomhehasalwaysbeencommanded，butcannotbearthathisinferiorshouldbesetoverhishead，someneasilysubmittoafamilytowhomtheyandtheirancestorshavealwayssubmitted;butarefiredwithindignationwhenanotherfamily，inwhomtheyhadneveracknowledgedanysuchsuperiority，assumesadominionoverthem。