Theartofwar,however,asitiscertainlythenoblestofallarts,sointheprogressofimprovementitnecessarilybecomesoneofthemostcomplicatedamongthem。Thestateofthemechanical,aswellasofsomeotherarts,withwhichitisnecessarilyconnected,determinesthedegreeofperfectiontowhichitiscapableofbeingcarriedatanyparticulartime。Butinordertocarryittothisdegreeofperfection,itisnecessarythatitshouldbecomethesoleorprincipaloccupationofaparticularclassofcitizens,andthedivisionoflabourisasnecessaryfortheimprovementofthis,asofeveryotherart。
Intootherartsthedivisionoflabourisnaturallyintroducedbytheprudenceofindividuals,whofindthattheypromotetheirprivateinterestbetterbyconfiningthemselvestoaparticulartradethanbyexercisingagreatnumber。Butitisthewisdomofthestateonlywhichcanrenderthetradeofasoldieraparticulartradeseparateanddistinctfromallothers。Aprivatecitizenwho,intimeofprofoundpeace,andwithoutanyparticularencouragementfromthepublic,shouldspendthegreaterpartofhistimeinmilitaryexercises,might,nodoubt,bothimprovehimselfverymuchinthem,andamusehimselfverywell;buthecertainlywouldnotpromotehisowninterest。Itisthewisdomofthestateonlywhichcanrenderitforhisinteresttogiveupthegreaterpartofhistimetothispeculiaroccupation:andstateshavenotalwayshadthiswisdom,evenwhentheircircumstanceshadbecomesuchthatthepreservationoftheirexistencerequiredthattheyshouldhaveit。
Ashepherdhasagreatdealofleisure;ahusbandman,intherudestateofhusbandry,hassome;anartificerormanufacturerhasnoneatall。Thefirstmay,withoutanyloss,employagreatdealofhistimeinmartialexercises;thesecondmayemploysomepartofit;butthelastcannotemployasinglehourinthemwithoutsomeloss,andhisattentiontohisowninterestnaturallyleadshimtoneglectthemaltogether。Theseimprovementsinhusbandrytoo,whichtheprogressofartsandmanufacturesnecessarilyintroduces,leavethehusbandmanaslittleleisureastheartificer。Militaryexercisescometobeasmuchneglectedbytheinhabitantsofthecountryasbythoseofthetown,andthegreatbodyofthepeoplebecomesaltogetherunwarlike。Thatwealth,atthesametime,whichalwaysfollowstheimprovementsofagricultureandmanufactures,andwhichinrealityisnomorethantheaccumulatedproduceofthoseimprovements,provokestheinvasionofalltheirneighbours。Anindustrious,anduponthataccountawealthynation,isofallnationsthemostlikelytobeattacked;andunlessthestatetakessomenewmeasuresforthepublicdefence,thenaturalhabitsofthepeoplerenderthemaltogetherincapableofdefendingthemselves。
Inthesecircumstancesthereseemtobebuttwomethodsbywhichthestatecanmakeanytolerableprovisionforthepublicdefence。
Itmayeither,first,bymeansofaveryrigorouspolice,andinspiteofthewholebentoftheinterest,genius,andinclinationsofthepeople,enforcethepracticeofmilitaryexercises,andobligeeitherallthecitizensofthemilitaryage,oracertainnumberofthem,tojoininsomemeasurethetradeofasoldiertowhateverothertradeorprofessiontheymayhappentocarryon。
Or,secondly,bymaintainingandemployingacertainnumberofcitizensintheconstantpracticeofmilitaryexercises,itmayrenderthetradeofasoldieraparticulartrade,separateanddistinctfromallothers。
Ifthestatehasrecoursetothefirstofthosetwoexpedients,itsmilitaryforceissaidtoconsistinamilitia;
iftothesecond,itissaidtoconsistinastandingarmy。Thepracticeofmilitaryexercisesisthesoleorprincipaloccupationofthesoldiersofastandingarmy,andthemaintenanceorpaywhichthestateaffordsthemistheprincipalandordinaryfundoftheirsubsistence。Thepracticeofmilitaryexercisesisonlytheoccasionaloccupationofthesoldiersofamilitia,andtheyderivetheprincipalandordinaryfundoftheirsubsistencefromsomeotheroccupation。Inamilitia,thecharacterofthelabourer,artificer,ortradesman,predominatesoverthatofthesoldier;inastandingarmy,thatofthesoldierpredominatesovereveryothercharacter:andinthisdistinctionseemstoconsisttheessentialdifferencebetweenthosetwodifferentspeciesofmilitaryforce。
Militiashavebeenofseveraldifferentkinds。Insomecountriesthecitizensdestinedfordefendingthestatesseemtohavebeenexercisedonly,withoutbeing,ifImaysayso,regimented;thatis,withoutbeingdividedintoseparateanddistinctbodiesoftroops,eachofwhichperformeditsexercisesunderitsownproperandpermanentofficers。IntherepublicsofancientGreeceandRome,eachcitizen,aslongasheremainedathome,seemstohavepractisedhisexerciseseitherseparatelyandindependently,orwithsuchofhisequalsashelikedbest,andnottohavebeenattachedtoanyparticularbodyoftroopstillhewasactuallycalledupontotakethefield。Inothercountries,themilitiahasnotonlybeenexercised,butregimented。InEngland,inSwitzerland,and,Ibelieve,ineveryothercountryofmodernEuropewhereanyimperfectmilitaryforceofthiskindhasbeenestablished,everymilitiamanis,evenintimeofpeace,attachedtoaparticularbodyoftroops,whichperformsitsexercisesunderitsownproperandpermanentofficers。
Beforetheinventionoffirearms,thatarmywassuperiorinwhichthesoldiershad,eachindividually,thegreatestskillanddexterityintheuseoftheirarms。Strengthandagilityofbodywereofthehighestconsequence,andcommonlydeterminedthestateofbattles。Butthisskillanddexterityintheuseoftheirarmscouldbeacquiredonly,inthesamemannerasfencingisatpresent,bypractising,notingreatbodies,buteachmanseparately,inaparticularschool,underaparticularmaster,orwithhisownparticularequalsandcompanions。Sincetheinventionoffirearms,strengthandagilityofbody,orevenextraordinarydexterityandskillintheuseofarms,thoughtheyarefarfrombeingofnoconsequence,are,however,oflessconsequence。Thenatureoftheweapon,thoughitbynomeansputstheawkwarduponalevelwiththeskilful,putshimmorenearlysothanheeverwasbefore。Allthedexterityandskill,itissupposed,whicharenecessaryforusingit,canbewellenoughacquiredbypractisingingreatbodies。
Regularity,order,andpromptobediencetocommandarequalitieswhich,inmodernarmies,areofmoreimportancetowardsdeterminingthefateofbattlesthanthedexterityandskillofthesoldiersintheuseoftheirarms。Butthenoiseoffirearms,thesmoke,andtheinvisibledeathtowhicheverymanfeelshimselfeverymomentexposedassoonashecomeswithincannon—shot,andfrequentlyalongtimebeforethebattlecanbewellsaidtobeengaged,mustrenderitverydifficulttomaintainanyconsiderabledegreeofthisregularity,order,andpromptobedience,eveninthebeginningofamodernbattle。Inanancientbattletherewasnonoisebutwhatarosefromthehumanvoice;therewasnosmoke,therewasnoinvisiblecauseofwoundsordeath。Everyman,tillsomemortalweaponactuallydidapproachhim,sawclearlythatnosuchweaponwasnearhim。Inthesecircumstances,andamongtroopswhohadsomeconfidenceintheirownskillanddexterityintheuseoftheirarms,itmusthavebeenagooddeallessdifficulttopreservesomedegreeregularityandorder,notonlyinthebeginning,butthroughthewholeprogressofanancientbattle,andtilloneofthetwoarmieswasfairlydefeated。Butthehabitsofregularity,order,andpromptobediencetocommandcanbeacquiredonlybytroopswhichareexercisedingreatbodies。
Amilitia,however,inwhatevermanneritmaybeeitherdisciplinedorexercised,mustalwaysbemuchinferiortoawell—disciplinedandwell—exercisedstandingarmy。
Thesoldierswhoareexercisedonlyonceaweek,oronceamonth,canneverbesoexpertintheuseoftheirarmsasthosewhoareexercisedeveryday,oreveryotherday;andthoughthiscircumstancemaynotbeofsomuchconsequenceinmodernasitwasinancienttimes,yettheacknowledgedsuperiorityofthePrussiantroops,owing,itissaid,verymuchtotheirsuperiorexpertnessintheirexercise,maysatisfyusthatitis,evenatthisday,ofveryconsiderableconsequence。
Thesoldierswhoareboundtoobeytheirofficeronlyonceaweekoronceamonth,andwhoareatallothertimesatlibertytomanagetheirownaffairstheirownway,withoutbeinginanyrespectaccountabletohim,canneverbeunderthesameaweinhispresence,canneverhavethesamedispositiontoreadyobedience,withthosewhosewholelifeandconductareeverydaydirectedbyhim,andwhoeverydayevenriseandgotobed,oratleastretiretotheirquarters,accordingtohisorders。Inwhatiscalleddiscipline,orinthehabitofreadyobedience,amilitiamustalwaysbestillmoreinferiortoastandingarmythanitmaysometimesbeinwhatiscalledthemanualexercise,orinthemanagementanduseofitsarms。Butinmodernwarthehabitofreadyandinstantobedienceisofmuchgreaterconsequencethanaconsiderablesuperiorityinthemanagementofarms。
Thosemilitiaswhich,liketheTartarorArabmilitia,gotowarunderthesamechieftainswhomtheyareaccustomedtoobeyinpeacearebyfarthebest。Inrespectfortheirofficers,inthehabitofreadyobedience,theyapproachnearesttostandingarmies。Thehighlandmilitia,whenitservedunderitsownchieftains,hadsomeadvantageofthesamekind。Asthehighlanders,however,werenotwandering,butstationaryshepherds,astheyhadallafixedhabitation,andwerenot,inpeaceabletimes,accustomedtofollowtheirchieftainfromplacetoplace,sointimeofwartheywerelesswillingtofollowhimtoanyconsiderabledistance,ortocontinueforanylongtimeinthefield。Whentheyhadacquiredanybootytheywereeagertoreturnhome,andhisauthoritywasseldomsufficienttodetainthem。InpointofobediencetheywerealwaysmuchinferiortowhatisreportedoftheTartarsandArabs。Asthehighlanderstoo,fromtheirstationarylife,spendlessoftheirtimeintheopenair,theywerealwayslessaccustomedtomilitaryexercises,andwerelessexpertintheuseoftheirarmsthantheTartarsandArabsaresaidtobe。
Amilitiaofanykind,itmustbeobserved,however,whichhasservedforseveralsuccessivecampaignsinthefield,becomesineveryrespectastandingarmy。Thesoldiersareeverydayexercisedintheuseoftheirarms,and,beingconstantlyunderthecommandoftheirofficers,arehabituatedtothesamepromptobediencewhichtakesplaceinstandingarmies。Whattheywerebeforetheytookthefieldisoflittleimportance。Theynecessarilybecomeineveryrespectastandingarmyaftertheyhavepassedafewcampaignsinit。ShouldthewarinAmericadragoutthroughanothercampaign,theAmericanmilitiamaybecomeineveryrespectamatchforthatstandingarmyofwhichthevalourappeared,inthelastwar,atleastnotinferiortothatofthehardiestveteransofFranceandSpain。
Thisdistinctionbeingwellunderstood,thehistoryofallages,itwillbefound,bearstestimonytotheirresistiblesuperioritywhichawell—regulatedstandingarmyhasoveramilitia。
Oneofthefirststandingarmiesofwhichwehaveanydistinctaccount,inanywellauthenticatedhistory,isthatofPhilipofMacedon。HisfrequentwarswiththeThracians,Illyrians,Thessalians,andsomeoftheGreekcitiesintheneighbourhoodofMacedon,graduallyformedhistroops,whichinthebeginningwereprobablymilitia,totheexactdisciplineofastandingarmy。Whenhewasatpeace,whichhewasveryseldom,andneverforanylongtimetogether,hewascarefulnottodisbandthatarmy。Itvanquishedandsubdued,afteralongandviolentstruggle,indeed,thegallantandwellexercisedmilitiasoftheprincipalrepublicsofancientGreece,andafterwards,withverylittlestruggle,theeffeminateandill—exercisedmilitiaofthegreatPersianempire。ThefalloftheGreekrepublicsandofthePersianempirewastheeffectoftheirresistiblesuperioritywhichastandingarmyhasovereverysortofmilitia。Itisthefirstgreatrevolutionintheaffairsofmankindofwhichhistoryhaspreservedanydistinctorcircumstantialaccount。
ThefallofCarthage,andtheconsequentelevationofRome,isthesecond。Allthevarietiesinthefortuneofthosetwofamousrepublicsmayverywellbeaccountedforfromthesamecause。
FromtheendofthefirsttothebeginningofthesecondCarthaginianwarthearmiesofCarthagewerecontinuallyinthefield,andemployedunderthreegreatgenerals,whosucceededoneanotherinthecommand:Hamilcar,hisson—in—lawHasdrubal,andhissonHannibal;firstinchastisingtheirownrebelliousslaves,afterwardsinsubduingtherevoltednationsofAfrica,and,lastly,inconqueringthegreatkingdomofSpain。ThearmywhichHanniballedfromSpainintoItalymustnecessarily,inthosedifferentwars,havebeengraduallyformedtotheexactdisciplineofastandingarmy。TheRomans,inthemeantime,thoughtheyhadnotbeenaltogetheratpeace,yettheyhadnot,duringthisperiod,beenengagedinanywarofverygreatconsequence,andtheirmilitarydiscipline,itisgenerallysaid,wasagooddealrelaxed。TheRomanarmieswhichHannibalencounteredatTrebia,Thrasymenus,andCannaeweremilitiaopposedtoastandingarmy。Thiscircumstance,itisprobable,contributedmorethananyothertodeterminethefateofthosebattles。
ThestandingarmywhichHanniballeftbehindhiminSpainhadthelikesuperiorityoverthemilitiawhichtheRomanssenttoopposeit,andinafewyears,underthecommandofhisbrother,theyoungerHasdrubal,expelledthemalmostentirelyfromthatcountry。
Hannibalwasillsuppliedfromhome。TheRomanmilitia,beingcontinuallyinthefield,becameintheprogressofthewarawelldisciplinedandwell—exercisedstandingarmy,andthesuperiorityofHannibalgreweverydaylessandless。Hasdrubaljudgeditnecessarytoleadthewhole,oralmostthewholeofthestandingarmywhichhecommandedinSpain,totheassistanceofhisbrotherinItaly。Inthismarchheissaidtohavebeenmisledbyhisguides,andinacountrywhichhedidnotknow,wassurprisedandattackedbyanotherstandingarmy,ineveryrespectequalorsuperiortohisown,andwasentirelydefeated。
WhenHasdrubalhadleftSpain,thegreatScipiofoundnothingtoopposehimbutamilitiainferiortohisown。Heconqueredandsubduedthatmilitia,and,inthecourseofthewar,hisownmilitianecessarilybecameawell—disciplinedandwell—exercisedstandingarmy。ThatstandingarmywasafterwardscarriedtoAfrica,whereitfoundnothingbutamilitiatoopposeit。InordertodefendCarthageitbecamenecessarytorecallthestandingarmyofHannibal。ThedisheartenedandfrequentlydefeatedAfricanmilitiajoinedit,and,atthebattleofZama,composedthegreaterpartofthetroopsofHannibal。Theeventofthatdaydeterminedthefateofthetworivalrepublics。
FromtheendofthesecondCarthaginianwartillthefalloftheRomanrepublic,thearmiesofRomewereineveryrespectstandingarmies。ThestandingarmyofMacedonmadesomeresistancetotheirarms。Intheheightoftheirgrandeuritcostthemtwogreatwars,andthreegreatbattles,tosubduethatlittlekingdom,ofwhichtheconquestwouldprobablyhavebeenstillmoredifficulthaditnotbeenforthecowardiceofitslastking。Themilitiasofallthecivilisednationsoftheancientworld,ofGreece,ofSyria,andofEgypt,madebutafeebleresistancetothestandingarmiesofRome。Themilitiasofsomebarbarousnationsdefendedthemselvesmuchbetter。TheScythianorTartarmilitia,whichMithridatesdrewfromthecountriesnorthoftheEuxineandCaspianseas,werethemostformidableenemieswhomtheRomanshadtoencounterafterthesecondCarthaginianwar。TheParthianandGermanmilitias,too,werealwaysrespectable,anduponseveraloccasionsgainedveryconsiderableadvantagesovertheRomanarmies。Ingeneral,however,andwhentheRomanarmieswerewellcommanded,theyappeartohavebeenverymuchsuperior;andiftheRomansdidnotpursuethefinalconquesteitherofParthiaorGermany,itwasprobablybecausetheyjudgedthatitwasnotworthwhiletoaddthosetwobarbarouscountriestoanempirewhichwasalreadytoolarge。TheancientParthiansappeartohavebeenanationofScythianorTartarextraction,andtohavealwaysretainedagooddealofthemannersoftheirancestors。TheancientGermanswere,liketheScythiansorTartars,anationofwanderingshepherds,whowenttowarunderthesamechiefswhomtheywereaccustomedtofollowinpeace。TheirmilitiawasexactlyofthesamekindwiththatoftheScythiansorTartars,fromwhom,too,theywereprobablydescended。
ManydifferentcausescontributedtorelaxthedisciplineoftheRomanarmies。Itsextremeseveritywas,perhaps,oneofthosecauses。Inthedaysoftheirgrandeur,whennoenemyappearedcapableofopposingthem,theirheavyarmourwaslaidasideasunnecessarilyburdensome,theirlabouriousexerciseswereneglectedasunnecessarilytoilsome。UndertheRomanemperors,besides,thestandingarmiesofRome,thoseparticularlywhichguardedtheGermanandPannonianfrontiers,becamedangeroustotheirmasters,againstwhomtheyusedfrequentlytosetuptheirowngenerals。Inordertorenderthemlessformidable,accordingtosomeauthors,Dioclesian,accordingtoothers,Constantine,firstwithdrewthemfromthefrontier,wheretheyhadalwaysbeforebeenencampedingreatbodies,generallyoftwoorthreelegionseach,anddispersedtheminsmallbodiesthroughthedifferentprovincialtowns,fromwhencetheywerescarceeverremovedbutwhenitbecamenecessarytorepelaninvasion。Smallbodiesofsoldiersquartered,intradingandmanufacturingtowns,andseldomremovedfromthosequarters,becamethemselvestradesmen,artificers,andmanufacturers。Thecivilcametopredominateoverthemilitarycharacter,andthestandingarmiesofRomegraduallydegeneratedintoacorrupt,neglected,andundisciplinedmilitia,incapableofresistingtheattackoftheGermanandScythianmilitias,whichsoonafterwardsinvadedthewesternempire。Itwasonlybyhiringthemilitiaofsomeofthosenationstoopposetothatofothersthattheemperorswereforsometimeabletodefendthemselves。Thefallofthewesternempireisthethirdgreatrevolutionintheaffairsofmankindofwhichancienthistoryhaspreservedanydistinctorcircumstantialaccount。Itwasbroughtaboutbytheirresistiblesuperioritywhichthemilitiaofabarbaroushasoverthatofacivilisednation;whichthemilitiaofanationofshepherdshasoverthatofanationofhusbandmen,artificers,andmanufacturers。Thevictorieswhichhavebeengainedbymilitiashavegenerallybeen,notoverstandingarmies,butoverothermilitiasinexerciseanddisciplineinferiortothemselves。SuchwerethevictorieswhichtheGreekmilitiagainedoverthatofthePersianempire;andsuchtoowerethosewhichinlatertimestheSwissmilitiagainedoverthatoftheAustriansandBurgundians。
ThemilitaryforceoftheGermanandScythiannationswhoestablishedthemselvesupontheruinsofthewesternempirecontinuedforsometimetobeofthesamekindintheirnewsettlementsasithadbeenintheiroriginalcountry。Itwasamilitiaofshepherdsandhusbandmen,which,intimeofwar,tookthefieldunderthecommandofthesamechieftainswhomitwasaccustomedtoobeyinpeace。Itwas,therefore,tolerablywellexercised,andtolerablywelldisciplined。Asartsandindustryadvanced,however,theauthorityofthechieftainsgraduallydecayed,andthegreatbodyofthepeoplehadlesstimetospareformilitaryexercises。Boththedisciplineandtheexerciseofthefeudalmilitia,therefore,wentgraduallytoruin,andstandingarmiesweregraduallyintroducedtosupplytheplaceofit。Whentheexpedientofastandingarmy,besides,hadoncebeenadoptedbyonecivilisednation,itbecamenecessarythatallitsneighboursshouldfollowtheirexample。Theysoonfoundthattheirsafetydependedupontheirdoingso,andthattheirownmilitiawasaltogetherincapableofresistingtheattackofsuchanarmy。
Thesoldiersofastandingarmy,thoughtheymayneverhaveseenanenemy,yethavefrequentlyappearedtopossessallthecourageofveterantroopsandtheverymomentthattheytookthefieldtohavebeenfittofacethehardiestandmostexperiencedveterans。In1756,whentheRussianarmymarchedintoPoland,thevalouroftheRussiansoldiersdidnotappearinferiortothatofthePrussians,atthattimesupposedtobethehardiestandmostexperiencedveteransinEurope。TheRussianempire,however,hadenjoyedaprofoundpeaceforneartwentyyearsbefore,andcouldatthattimehaveveryfewsoldierswhohadeverseenanenemy。
WhentheSpanishwarbrokeoutin1739,Englandhadenjoyedaprofoundpeaceforabouteight—and—twentyyears。Thevalourofhersoldiers,however,farfrombeingcorruptedbythatlongpeace,wasnevermoredistinguishedthanintheattemptuponCarthagena,thefirstunfortunateexploitofthatunfortunatewar。Inalongpeacethegenerals,perhaps,maysometimesforgettheirskill;but,whereawell—regulatedstandingarmyhasbeenkeptup,thesoldiersseemnevertoforgettheirvalour。
Whenacivilisednationdependsforitsdefenceuponamilitia,itisatalltimesexposedtobeconqueredbyanybarbarousnationwhichhappenstobeinitsneighbourhood。ThefrequentconquestsofallthecivilisedcountriesinAsiabytheTartarssufficientlydemonstratesthenaturalsuperioritywhichthemilitiaofabarbaroushasoverthatofacivilisednation。A
well—regulatedstandingarmyissuperiortoeverymilitia。Suchanarmy,asitcanbestbemaintainedbyanopulentandcivilisednation,soitcanalonedefendsuchanationagainsttheinvasionofapoorandbarbarousneighbour。Itisonlybymeansofastandingarmy,therefore,thatthecivilizationofanycountrycanbeperpetuated,orevenpreservedforanyconsiderabletime。
Asitisonlybymeansofawell—regulatedstandingarmythatacivilisedcountrycanbedefended,soitisonlybymeansofitthatabarbarouscountrycanbesuddenlyandtolerablycivilised。Astandingarmyestablishes,withanirresistibleforce,thelawofthesovereignthroughtheremotestprovincesoftheempire,andmaintainssomedegreeofregulargovernmentincountrieswhichcouldnototherwiseadmitofany。Whoeverexamines,withattention,theimprovementswhichPetertheGreatintroducedintotheRussianempire,willfindthattheyalmostallresolvethemselvesintotheestablishmentofawellregulatedstandingarmy。Itistheinstrumentwhichexecutesandmaintainsallhisotherregulations。Thatdegreeoforderandinternalpeacewhichthatempirehaseversinceenjoyedisaltogetherowingtotheinfluenceofthatarmy。
Menofrepublicanprincipleshavebeenjealousofastandingarmyasdangeroustoliberty。Itcertainlyissowherevertheinterestofthegeneralandthatoftheprincipalofficersarenotnecessarilyconnectedwiththesupportoftheconstitutionofthestate。ThestandingarmyofCaesardestroyedtheRomanrepublic。ThestandingarmyofCromwellturnedtheLongParliamentoutofdoors。Butwherethesovereignishimselfthegeneral,andtheprincipalnobilityandgentryofthecountrythechiefofficersofthearmy,wherethemilitaryforceisplacedunderthecommandofthosewhohavethegreatestinterestinthesupportofthecivilauthority,becausetheyhavethemselvesthegreatestshareofthatauthority,astandingarmycanneverbedangeroustoliberty。Onthecontrary,itmayinsomecasesbefavourabletoliberty。Thesecuritywhichitgivestothesovereignrendersunnecessarythattroublesomejealousy,which,insomemodernrepublics,seemstowatchovertheminutestactions,andtobeatalltimesreadytodisturbthepeaceofeverycitizen。Wherethesecurityofthemagistrate,thoughsupportedbytheprincipalpeopleofthecountry,isendangeredbyeverypopulardiscontent;whereasmalltumultiscapableofbringingaboutinafewhoursagreatrevolution,thewholeauthorityofgovernmentmustbeemployedtosuppressandpunisheverymurmurandcomplaintagainstit。Toasovereign,onthecontrary,whofeelshimselfsupported,notonlybythenaturalaristocracyofthecountry,butbyawell—regulatedstandingarmy,therudest,themostgroundless,andthemostlicentiousremonstrancescangivelittledisturbance。Hecansafelypardonorneglectthem,andhisconsciousnessofhisownsuperioritynaturallydisposeshimtodoso。Thatdegreeoflibertywhichapproachestolicentiousnesscanbetoleratedonlyincountrieswherethesovereignissecuredbyawell—regulatedstandingarmy。
Itisinsuchcountriesonlythatthepublicsafetydoesnotrequirethatthesovereignshouldbetrustedwithanydiscretionarypowerforsuppressingeventheimpertinentwantonnessofthislicentiousliberty。
Thefirstdutyofthesovereign,therefore,thatofdefendingthesocietyfromtheviolenceandinjusticeofotherindependentsocieties,growsgraduallymoreandmoreexpensiveasthesocietyadvancesincivilization。Themilitaryforceofthesociety,whichoriginallycostthesovereignnoexpenseeitherintimeofpeaceorintimeofwar,must,intheprogressofimprovement,firstbemaintainedbyhimintimeofwar,andafterwardsevenintimeofpeace。
Thegreatchangeintroducedintotheartofwarbytheinventionoffirearmshasenhancedstillfurtherboththeexpenseofexercisinganddisciplininganyparticularnumberofsoldiersintimeofpeace,andthatofemployingthemintimeofwar。Boththeirarmsandtheirammunitionarebecomemoreexpensive。A
musketisamoreexpensivemachinethanajavelinorabowandarrows;acannonoramortarthanabalistaoracatapulta。Thepowderwhichisspentinamodernreviewislostirrecoverably,andoccasionsaveryconsiderableexpense。Thejavelineandarrowswhichwerethrownorshotinanancientonecouldeasilybepickedupagain,andwerebesidesofverylittlevalue。Thecannonandthemortararenotonlymuchdearer,butmuchheaviermachinesthanthebalistaorcatapulta,andrequireagreaterexpense,notonlytopreparethemforthefield,buttocarrythemtoit。Asthesuperiorityofthemodernartillerytoooverthatoftheancientsisverygreat,ithasbecomemuchmoredifficult,andconsequentlymuchmoreexpensive,tofortifyatownsoastoresistevenforafewweekstheattackofthatsuperiorartillery。Inmoderntimesmanydifferentcausescontributetorenderthedefenceofthesocietymoreexpensive。
Theunavoidableeffectsofthenaturalprogressofimprovementhave,inthisrespect,beenagooddealenhancedbyagreatrevolutionintheartofwar,towhichamereaccident,theinventionofgunpowder,seemstohavegivenoccasion。
Inmodernwarthegreatexpenseoffirearmsgivesanevidentadvantagetothenationwhichcanbestaffordthatexpense,andconsequentlytoanopulentandcivilisedoverapoorandbarbarousnation。Inancienttimestheopulentandcivilisedfounditdifficulttodefendthemselvesagainstthepoorandbarbarousnations。Inmoderntimesthepoorandbarbarousfinditdifficulttodefendthemselvesagainsttheopulentandcivilised。
Theinventionoffirearms,aninventionwhichatfirstsightappearstobesopernicious,iscertainlyfavourablebothtothepermanencyandtotheextensionofcivilization。
PART2
OftheExpenseofJusticeTHEseconddutyofthesovereign,thatofprotecting,asfaraspossible,everymemberofthesocietyfromtheinjusticeoroppressionofeveryothermemberofit,orthedutyofestablishinganexactadministrationofjustice,requires,too,verydifferentdegreesofexpenseinthedifferentperiodsofsociety。
Amongnationsofhunters,asthereisscarceanyproperty,oratleastnonethatexceedsthevalueoftwoorthreedays’
labour,sothereisseldomanyestablishedmagistrateoranyregularadministrationofjustice。Menwhohavenopropertycaninjureoneanotheronlyintheirpersonsorreputations。Butwhenonemankills,wounds,beats,ordefamesanother,thoughhetowhomtheinjuryisdonesuffers,hewhodoesitreceivesnobenefit。Itisotherwisewiththeinjuriestoproperty。Thebenefitofthepersonwhodoestheinjuryisoftenequaltothelossofhimwhosuffersit。Envy,malice,orresentmentaretheonlypassionswhichcanpromptonemantoinjureanotherinhispersonorreputation。Butthegreaterpartofmenarenotveryfrequentlyundertheinfluenceofthosepassions,andtheveryworstofmenaresoonlyoccasionally。Astheirgratificationtoo,howagreeablesoeveritmaybetocertaincharacters,isnotattendedwithanyrealorpermanentadvantage,itisinthegreaterpartofmencommonlyrestrainedbyprudentialconsiderations。Menmaylivetogetherinsocietywithsometolerabledegreeofsecurity,thoughthereisnocivilmagistratetoprotectthemfromtheinjusticeofthosepassions。Butavariceandambitionintherich,inthepoorthehatredoflabourandtheloveofpresenteaseandenjoyment,arethepassionswhichprompttoinvadeproperty,passionsmuchmoresteadyintheiroperation,andmuchmoreuniversalintheirinfluence。Whereverthereisgreatpropertythereisgreatinequality。Foroneveryrichmantheremustbeatleastfivehundredpoor,andtheaffluenceofthefewsupposestheindigenceofthemany。Theaffluenceoftherichexcitestheindignationofthepoor,whoareoftenbothdrivenbywant,andpromptedbyenvy,toinvadehispossessions。Itisonlyundertheshelterofthecivilmagistratethattheownerofthatvaluableproperty,whichisacquiredbythelabourofmanyyears,orperhapsofmanysuccessivegenerations,cansleepasinglenightinsecurity。Heisatalltimessurroundedbyunknownenemies,whom,thoughheneverprovoked,hecanneverappease,andfromwhoseinjusticehecanbeprotectedonlybythepowerfularmofthecivilmagistratecontinuallyhelduptochastiseit。Theacquisitionofvaluableandextensiveproperty,therefore,necessarilyrequirestheestablishmentofcivilgovernment。Wherethereisnoproperty,oratleastnonethatexceedsthevalueoftwoorthreedays’
labour,civilgovernmentisnotsonecessary。
Civilgovernmentsupposesacertainsubordination。Butasthenecessityofcivilgovernmentgraduallygrowsupwiththeacquisitionofvaluableproperty,sotheprincipalcauseswhichnaturallyintroducesubordinationgraduallygrowupwiththegrowthofthatvaluableproperty。
Thecausesorcircumstanceswhichnaturallyintroducesubordination,orwhichnaturally,andantecedenttoanycivilinstitution,givesomemensomesuperiorityoverthegreaterpartoftheirbrethren,seemtobefourinnumber。
Thefirstofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityofpersonalqualifications,ofstrength,beauty,andagilityofbody;ofwisdomandvirtue,ofprudence,justice,fortitude,andmoderationofmind。Thequalificationsofthebody,unlesssupportedbythoseofthemind,cangivelittleauthorityinanyperiodofsociety。Heisaverystrongman,who,bymerestrengthofbody,canforcetwoweakonestoobeyhim。
Thequalificationsofthemindcanalonegiveaverygreatauthority。Theyare,however,invisiblequalities;alwaysdisputable,andgenerallydisputed。Nosociety,whetherbarbarousorcivilised,haseverfounditconvenienttosettletherulesofprecedencyofrankandsubordinationaccordingtothoseinvisiblequalities;butaccordingtosomethingthatismoreplainandpalpable。
Thesecondofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityofage。Anoldman,providedhisageisnotsofaradvancedastogivesuspicionofdotage,iseverywheremorerespectedthanayoungmanofequalrank,fortune,andabilities。
Amongnationsofhunters,suchasthenativetribesofNorthAmerica,ageisthesolefoundationofrankandprecedency。Amongthem,fatheristheappellationofasuperior;brother,ofanequal;andson,ofaninferior。Inthemostopulentandcivilisednations,ageregulatesrankamongthosewhoareineveryotherrespectequal,andamongwhom,therefore,thereisnothingelsetoregulateit。Amongbrothersandamongsisters,theeldestalwaystakesplace;andinthesuccessionofthepaternalestateeverythingwhichcannotbedivided,butmustgoentiretooneperson,suchasatitleofhonour,isinmostcasesgiventotheeldest。Ageisaplainandpalpablequalitywhichadmitsofnodispute。
Thethirdofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityoffortune。Theauthorityofriches,however,thoughgreatineveryageofsociety,isperhapsgreatestintherudestageofsocietywhichadmitsofanyconsiderableinequalityoffortune。ATartarchief,theincreaseofwhoseherdsandstocksissufficienttomaintainathousandmen,cannotwellemploythatincreaseinanyotherwaythaninmaintainingathousandmen。Therudestateofhissocietydoesnotaffordhimanymanufacturedproduce,anytrinketsorbaublesofanykind,forwhichhecanexchangethatpartofhisrudeproducewhichisoverandabovehisownconsumption。Thethousandmenwhomhethusmaintains,dependingentirelyuponhimfortheirsubsistence,mustbothobeyhisordersinwar,andsubmittohisjurisdictioninpeace。Heisnecessarilyboththeirgeneralandtheirjudge,andhischieftainshipisthenecessaryeffectofthesuperiorityofhisfortune。Inanopulentandcivilisedsociety,amanmaypossessamuchgreaterfortuneandyetnotbeabletocommandadozenpeople。Thoughtheproduceofhisestatemaybesufficienttomaintain,andmayperhapsactuallymaintain,morethanathousandpeople,yetasthosepeoplepayforeverythingwhichtheygetfromhim,ashegivesscarceanythingtoanybodybutinexchangeforanequivalent,thereisscarceanybodywhoconsidershimselfasentirelydependentuponhim,andhisauthorityextendsonlyoverafewmenialservants。Theauthorityoffortune,however,isverygreateveninanopulentandcivilisedsociety。Thatitismuchgreaterthanthateitherofageorofpersonalqualitieshasbeentheconstantcomplaintofeveryperiodofsocietywhichadmittedofanyconsiderableinequalityoffortune。Thefirstperiodofsociety,thatofhunters,admitsofnosuchinequality。
Universalpovertyestablishestheiruniversalequality,andthesuperiorityeitherofageorofpersonalqualitiesarethefeeblebutthesolefoundationsofauthorityandsubordination。Thereisthereforelittleornoauthorityorsubordinationinthisperiodofsociety。Thesecondperiodofsociety,thatofshepherds,admitsofverygreatinequalitiesoffortune,andthereisnoperiodinwhichthesuperiorityoffortunegivessogreatauthoritytothosewhopossessit。Thereisnoperiodaccordinglyinwhichauthorityandsubordinationaremoreperfectlyestablished。TheauthorityofanArabiansherifisverygreat;
thatofaTartarkhanaltogetherdespotical。
Thefourthofthosecausesorcircumstancesisthesuperiorityofbirth。Superiorityofbirthsupposesanancientsuperiorityoffortuneinthefamilyofthepersonwhoclaimsit。
Allfamiliesareequallyancient;andtheancestorsoftheprince,thoughtheymaybebetterknown,cannotwellbemorenumerousthanthoseofthebeggar。Antiquityoffamilymeanseverywheretheantiquityeitherofwealth,orofthatgreatnesswhichiscommonlyeitherfoundeduponwealth,oraccompaniedwithit。Upstartgreatnessiseverywherelessrespectedthanancientgreatness。Thehatredofusurpers,theloveofthefamilyofanancientmonarch,are,inagreatmeasure,foundeduponthecontemptwhichmennaturallyhavefortheformer,andupontheirvenerationforthelatter。Asamilitaryofficersubmitswithoutreluctancetotheauthorityofasuperiorbywhomhehasalwaysbeencommanded,butcannotbearthathisinferiorshouldbesetoverhishead,someneasilysubmittoafamilytowhomtheyandtheirancestorshavealwayssubmitted;butarefiredwithindignationwhenanotherfamily,inwhomtheyhadneveracknowledgedanysuchsuperiority,assumesadominionoverthem。