Thetermduringwhichsuchaleasecanbegranted,aswillbevalidagainsteveryfuturepurchaserorproprietoroftheland,hasbeenprolongedfromninetotwenty—sevenyears。Theancientprovincialrestraintsuponthetransportationofcornfromoneprovinceofthekingdomtoanotherhavebeenentirelytakenaway,andthelibertyofexportingittoallforeigncountrieshasbeenestablishedasthecommonlawofthekingdominallordinarycases。Thissect,intheirworks,whichareverynumerous,andwhichtreatnotonlyofwhatisproperlycalledPoliticalEconomy,orofthenatureandcausesofthewealthofnations,butofeveryotherbranchofthesystemofcivilgovernment,allfollowimplicitlyandwithoutanysensiblevariation,thedoctrineofMr。Quesnai。Thereisuponthisaccountlittlevarietyinthegreaterpartoftheirworks。ThemostdistinctandbestconnectedaccountofthisdoctrineistobefoundinalittlebookwrittenbyMr。MercierdelaRiviere,sometimeintendantofMartinico,entitled,TheNaturalandEssentialOrderofPoliticalSocieties。Theadmirationofthiswholesectfortheirmaster,whowashimselfamanofthegreatestmodestyandsimplicity,isnotinferiortothatofanyoftheancientphilosophersforthefoundersoftheirrespectivesystems。\"Therehavebeen,sincetheworldbegan,\"saysaverydiligentandrespectableauthor,theMarquisdeMirabeau,\"threegreatinventionswhichhaveprincipallygivenstabilitytopoliticalsocieties,independentofmanyotherinventionswhichhaveenrichedandadornedthem。Thefirstistheinventionofwriting,whichalonegiveshumannaturethepoweroftransmitting,withoutalteration,itslaws,itscontracts,itsannals,anditsdiscoveries。Thesecondistheinventionofmoney,whichbindstogetheralltherelationsbetweencivilisedsocieties。ThethirdistheEconomicalTable,theresultoftheothertwo,whichcompletesthembothbyperfectingtheirobject;thegreatdiscoveryofourage,butofwhichourposteritywillreapthebenefit。\"
AsthepoliticaleconomyofthenationsofmodernEuropehasbeenmorefavourabletomanufacturesandforeigntrade,theindustryofthetowns,thantoagriculture,theindustryofthecountry;sothatofothernationshasfollowedadifferentplan,andhasbeenmorefavourabletoagriculturethantomanufacturesandforeigntrade。
ThepolicyofChinafavoursagriculturemorethanallotheremployments。InChinatheconditionofalabourerissaidtobeasmuchsuperiortothatofanartificerasinmostpartsofEuropethatofanartificeristothatofalabourer。InChina,thegreatambitionofeverymanistogetpossessionofsomelittlebitofland,eitherinpropertyorinlease;andleasesaretheresaidtobegranteduponverymoderateterms,andtobesufficientlysecuredtothelessees。TheChinesehavelittlerespectforforeigntrade。Yourbeggarlycommerce!wasthelanguageinwhichtheMandarinsofPekinusedtotalktoMr。deLange,theRussianenvoy,concerningit。ExceptwithJapan,theChinesecarryon,themselves,andintheirownbottoms,littleornoforeigntrade;anditisonlyintooneortwoportsoftheirkingdomthattheyevenadmittheshipsofforeignnations。
Foreigntradethereforeis,inChina,everywayconfinedwithinamuchnarrowercirclethanthattowhichitwouldnaturallyextenditself,ifmorefreedomwasallowedtoit,eitherintheirownships,orinthoseofforeignnations。
Manufactures,asinasmallbulktheyfrequentlycontainagreatvalue,andcanuponthataccountbetransportedatlessexpensefromonecountrytoanotherthanmostpartsofrudeproduce,are,inalmostallcountries,theprincipalsupportofforeigntrade。Incountries,besides,lessextensiveandlessfavourablycircumstancedforinferiorcommercethanChina,theygenerallyrequirethesupportofforeigntrade。Withoutanextensiveforeignmarkettheycouldnotwellflourish,eitherincountriessomoderatelyextensiveastoaffordbutanarrowhomemarketorincountrieswherethecommunicationbetweenoneprovinceandanotherwassodifficultastorenderitimpossibleforthegoodsofanyparticularplacetoenjoythewholeofthathomemarketwhichthecountrycouldafford。Theperfectionofmanufacturingindustry,itmustberemembered,dependsaltogetheruponthedivisionoflabour;andthedegreetowhichthedivisionoflabourcanbeintroducedintoanymanufactureisnecessarilyregulated,ithasalreadybeenshown,bytheextentofthemarket。ButthegreatextentoftheempireofChina,thevastmultitudeofitsinhabitants,thevarietyofclimate,andconsequentlyofproductionsinitsdifferentprovinces,andtheeasycommunicationbymeansofwatercarriagebetweenthegreaterpartofthem,renderthehomemarketofthatcountryofsogreatextentastobealonesufficienttosupportverygreatmanufactures,andtoadmitofveryconsiderablesubdivisionsoflabour。ThehomemarketofChinais,perhaps,inextent,notmuchinferiortothemarketofallthedifferentcountriesofEuropeputtogether。Amoreextensiveforeigntrade,however,whichtothisgreathomemarketaddedtheforeignmarketofalltherestoftheworld—especiallyifanyconsiderablepartofthistradewascarriedoninChineseships—couldscarcefailtoincreaseverymuchthemanufacturesofChina,andtoimproveverymuchtheproductivepowersofitsmanufacturingindustry。Byamoreextensivenavigation,theChinesewouldnaturallylearntheartofusingandconstructingthemselvesallthedifferentmachinesmadeuseofinothercountries,aswellastheotherimprovementsofartandindustrywhicharepractisedinallthedifferentpartsoftheworld。UpontheirpresentplantheyhavelittleopportunityexceptthatoftheJapanese。
ThepolicyofancientEgypttoo,andthatoftheGentoogovernmentofIndostan,seemtohavefavouredagriculturemorethanallotheremployments。
BothinancientEgyptandIndostanthewholebodyofthepeoplewasdividedintodifferentcastesortribes,eachofwhichwasconfined,fromfathertoson,toaparticularemploymentorclassofemployments。Thesonofapriestwasnecessarilyapriest;thesonofasoldier,asoldier;thesonofalabourer,alabourer;thesonofaweaver,aweaver;thesonofatailor,atailor,etc。Inbothcountries,thecasteofthepriestsheldthehighestrank,andthatofthesoldiersthenext;andinbothcountries,thecasteofthefarmersandlabourerswassuperiortothecastesofmerchantsandmanufacturers。
Thegovernmentofbothcountrieswasparticularlyattentivetotheinterestofagriculture。TheworksconstructedbytheancientsovereignsofEgyptfortheproperdistributionofthewatersoftheNilewerefamousinantiquity;andtheruinedremainsofsomeofthemarestilltheadmirationoftravellers。
ThoseofthesamekindwhichwereconstructedbytheancientsovereignsofIndostanfortheproperdistributionofthewatersoftheGangesaswellasofmanyotherrivers,thoughtheyhavebeenlesscelebrated,seemtohavebeenequallygreat。Bothcountries,accordingly,thoughsubjectoccasionallytodearths,havebeenfamousfortheirgreatfertility。Thoughbothwereextremelypopulous,yet,inyearsofmoderateplenty,theywerebothabletoexportgreatquantitiesofgraintotheirneighbours。
TheancientEgyptianshadasuperstitiousaversiontothesea;andastheGentooreligiondoesnotpermititsfollowerstolightafire,norconsequentlytodressanyvictualsuponthewater,itineffectprohibitsthemfromalldistantseavoyages。
BoththeEgyptiansandIndiansmusthavedependedalmostaltogetheruponthenavigationofothernationsfortheexportationoftheirsurplusproduce;andthisdependency,asitmusthaveconfinedthemarket,soitmusthavediscouragedtheincreaseofthissurplusproduce。Itmusthavediscouraged,too,theincreaseofthemanufacturedproducemorethanthatoftherudeproduce。Manufacturesrequireamuchmoreextensivemarketthanthemostimportantpartsoftherudeproduceoftheland。A
singleshoemakerwillmakemorethanthreehundredpairsofshoesintheyear;andhisownfamilywillnot,perhaps,wearoutsixpairs。Unlessthereforehehasthecustomofatleastfiftysuchfamiliesashisown,hecannotdisposeofthewholeproduceofhisownlabour。Themostnumerousclassofartificerswillseldom,inalargecountry,makemorethanoneinfiftyoroneinahundredofthewholenumberoffamiliescontainedinit。ButinsuchlargecountriesasFranceandEngland,thenumberofpeopleemployedinagriculturehasbysomeauthorsbeencomputedatahalf,byothersatathird,andbynoauthorthatIknowof,atlessthanafifthofthewholeinhabitantsofthecountry。ButastheproduceoftheagricultureofbothFranceandEnglandis,thefargreaterpartofit,consumedathome,eachpersonemployedinitmust,accordingtothesecomputations,requirelittlemorethanthecustomofone,two,oratmost,offoursuchfamiliesashisowninordertodisposeofthewholeproduceofhisownlabour。Agriculture,therefore,cansupportitselfunderthediscouragementofaconfinedmarketmuchbetterthanmanufactures。InbothancientEgyptandIndostan,indeed,theconfinementoftheforeignmarketwasinsomemeasurecompensatedbytheconveniencyofmanyinlandnavigations,whichopened,inthemostadvantageousmanner,thewholeextentofthehomemarkettoeverypartoftheproduceofeverydifferentdistrictofthosecountries。ThegreatextentofIndostan,too,renderedthehomemarketofthatcountryverygreat,andsufficienttosupportagreatvarietyofmanufactures。ButthesmallextentofancientEgypt,whichwasneverequaltoEngland,mustatalltimeshaverenderedthehomemarketofthatcountrytoonarrowforsupportinganygreatvarietyofmanufactures。Bengal,accordingly,theprovinceofIndostan,whichcommonlyexportsthegreatestquantityofrice,hasalwaysbeenmoreremarkablefortheexportationofagreatvarietyofmanufacturesthanforthatofitsgrain。AncientEgypt,onthecontrary,thoughitexportedsomemanufactures,finelineninparticular,aswellassomeothergoods,wasalwaysmostdistinguishedforitsgreatexportationofgrain。ItwaslongthegranaryoftheRomanempire。
ThesovereignsofChina,ofancientEgypt,andofthedifferentkingdomsintowhichIndostanhasatdifferenttimesbeendivided,havealwaysderivedthewhole,orbyfarthemostconsiderablepart,oftheirrevenuefromsomesortoflandtaxorlandrent。Thislandtaxorlandrent,likethetitheinEurope,consistedinacertainproportion,afifth,itissaid,oftheproduceoftheland,whichwaseitherdeliveredinkind,orpaidinmoney,accordingtoacertainvaluation,andwhichthereforevariedfromyeartoyearaccordingtoallthevariationsoftheproduce。Itwasnaturalthereforethatthesovereignsofthosecountriesshouldbeparticularlyattentivetotheinterestsofagriculture,upontheprosperityordeclensionofwhichimmediatelydependedtheyearlyincreaseordiminutionoftheirownrevenue。
ThepolicyoftheancientrepublicsofGreece,andthatofRome,thoughithonouredagriculturemorethanmanufacturesorforeigntrade,yetseemsrathertohavediscouragedthelatteremploymentsthantohavegivenanydirectorintentionalencouragementtotheformer。InseveraloftheancientstatesofGreece,foreigntradewasprohibitedaltogether;andinseveralotherstheemploymentsofartificersandmanufacturerswereconsideredashurtfultothestrengthandagilityofthehumanbody,asrenderingitincapableofthosehabitswhichtheirmilitaryandgymnasticexercisesendeavouredtoforminit,andastherebydisqualifyingitmoreorlessforundergoingthefatiguesandencounteringthedangersofwar。Suchoccupationswereconsideredasfitonlyforslaves,andthefreecitizensofthestatewereprohibitedfromexercisingthem。Eveninthosestateswherenosuchprohibitiontookplace,asinRomeandAthens,thegreatbodyofthepeoplewereineffectexcludedfromallthetradeswhichare,nowcommonlyexercisedbythelowersortoftheinhabitantsoftowns。Suchtradeswere,atAthensandRome,alloccupiedbytheslavesoftherich,whoexercisedthemforthebenefitoftheirmasters,whosewealth,power,andprotectionmadeitalmostimpossibleforapoorfreemantofindamarketforhiswork,whenitcameintocompetitionwiththatoftheslavesoftherich。Slaves,however,areveryseldominventive;andallthemostimportantimprovements,eitherinmachinery,orinthearrangementanddistributionofworkwhichfacilitateandabridgelabour,havebeenthediscoveriesoffreemen。Shouldaslaveproposeanyimprovementofthiskind,hismasterwouldbeveryapttoconsidertheproposalasthesuggestionoflaziness,andadesiretosavehisownlabouratthemaster’sexpense。Thepoorslave,insteadofreward,wouldprobablymeetwithmuchabuse,perhapswithsomepunishment。Inthemanufacturescarriedonbyslaves,therefore,morelabourmustgenerallyhavebeenemployedtoexecutethesamequantityofworkthaninthosecarriedonbyfreemen。Theworkoftheformermust,uponthataccount,generallyhavebeendearerthanthatofthelatter。TheHungarianmines,itisremarkedbyMr。
Montesquieu,thoughnotricher,havealwaysbeenwroughtwithlessexpense,andthereforewithmoreprofit,thantheTurkishminesintheirneighbourhood。TheTurkishminesarewroughtbyslaves;andthearmsofthoseslavesaretheonlymachineswhichtheTurkshaveeverthoughtofemploying。TheHungarianminesarewroughtbyfreemen,whoemployagreatdealofmachinery,bywhichtheyfacilitateandabridgetheirownlabour。FromtheverylittlethatisknownaboutthepriceofmanufacturesinthetimesoftheGreeksandRomans,itwouldappearthatthoseofthefinersortwereexcessivelydear。Silksoldforitsweightingold。Itwasnot,indeed,inthosetimesaEuropeanmanufacture;andasitwasallbroughtfromtheEastIndies,thedistanceofthecarriagemayinsomemeasureaccountforthegreatnessofprice。
Theprice,however,whichalady,itissaid,wouldsometimespayforapieceofveryfinelinen,seemstohavebeenequallyextravagant;andaslinenwasalwayseitheraEuropean,oratfarthest,anEgyptianmanufacture,thishighpricecanbeaccountedforonlybythegreatexpenseofthelabourwhichmusthavebeenemployedaboutit,andtheexpenseofthislabouragaincouldarisefromnothingbuttheawkwardnessofthemachinerywhichitmadeuseof。Thepriceoffinewoollenstoo,thoughnotquitesoextravagant,seemshowevertohavebeenmuchabovethatofthepresenttimes。Somecloths,wearetoldbyPliny,dyedinaparticularmanner,costahundreddenarii,orthreepoundssixshillingsandeightpencethepoundweight。Othersdyedinanothermannercostathousanddenariithepoundweight,orthirty—threepoundssixshillingsandeightpence。TheRomanpound,itmustberemembered,containedonlytwelveofouravoirdupoisounces。Thishighprice,indeed,seemstohavebeenprincipallyowingtothedye。Buthadnottheclothsthemselvesbeenmuchdearerthananywhicharemadeinthepresenttimes,soveryexpensiveadyewouldnotprobablyhavebeenbestoweduponthem。Thedisproportionwouldhavebeentoogreatbetweenthevalueoftheaccessoryandthatoftheprincipal。ThepricementionedbythesameauthorofsomeTriclinaria,asortofwoollenpillowsorcushionsmadeuseoftoleanuponastheyreclinedupontheircouchesattable,passesallcredibility;someofthembeingsaidtohavecostmorethanthirtythousand,othersmorethanthreehundredthousandpounds。Thishighprice,too,isnotsaidtohavearisenfromthedye。Inthedressofthepeopleoffashionofbothsexesthereseemstohavebeenmuchlessvariety,itisobservedbyDoctorArbuthnot,inancientthaninmoderntimes;
andtheverylittlevarietywhichwefindinthatoftheancientstatuesconfirmshisobservation。Heinfersfromthisthattheirdressmustuponthewholehavebeencheaperthanours;buttheconclusiondoesnotseemtofollow。Whentheexpenseoffashionabledressisverygreat,thevarietymustbeverysmall。
Butwhen,bytheimprovementsintheproductivepowersofmanufacturingartandindustry,theexpenseofanyonedresscomestobeverymoderate,thevarietywillnaturallybeverygreat。Therich,notbeingabletodistinguishthemselvesbytheexpenseofanyonedress,willnaturallyendeavourtodosobythemultitudeandvarietyoftheirdresses。
Thegreatestandmostimportantbranchofthecommerceofeverynation,ithasalreadybeenobserved,isthatwhichiscarriedonbetweentheinhabitantsofthetownandthoseofthecountry。Theinhabitantsofthetowndrawfromthecountrytherudeproducewhichconstitutesboththematerialsoftheirworkandthefundoftheirsubsistence;andtheypayforthisrudeproducebysendingbacktothecountryacertainportionofitmanufacturedandpreparedforimmediateuse。Thetradewhichiscarriedonbetweenthesetwodifferentsetsofpeopleconsistsultimatelyinacertainquantityofrudeproduceexchangedforacertainquantityofmanufacturedproduce。Thedearerthelatter,therefore,thecheapertheformer;andwhatevertendsinanycountrytoraisethepriceofmanufacturedproducetendstolowerthatoftherudeproduceoftheland,andtherebytodiscourageagriculture。Thesmallerthequantityofmanufacturedproducewhichinanygivenquantityofrudeproduce,or,whatcomestothesamething,whichthepriceofanygivenquantityofrudeproduceiscapableofpurchasing,thesmallertheexchangeablevalueofthatgivenquantityofrudeproduce,thesmallertheencouragementwhicheitherthelandlordhastoincreaseitsquantitybyimprovingorthefarmerbycultivatingtheland。
Whatever,besides,tendstodiminishinanycountrythenumberofartificersandmanufacturers,tendstodiminishthehomemarket,themostimportantofallmarketsfortherudeproduceoftheland,andtherebystillfurthertodiscourageagriculture。
Thosesystems,therefore,which,preferringagriculturetoallotheremployments,inordertopromoteit,imposerestraintsuponmanufacturesandforeigntrade,actcontrarytotheveryendwhichtheypropose,andindirectlydiscouragethatveryspeciesofindustrywhichtheymeantopromote。Theyaresofar,perhaps,moreinconsistentthaneventhemercantilesystem。Thatsystem,byencouragingmanufacturesandforeigntrademorethanagriculture,turnsacertainportionofthecapitalofthesocietyfromsupportingamoreadvantageous,tosupportalessadvantageousspeciesofindustry。Butstillitreallyandintheendencouragesthatspeciesofindustrywhichitmeanstopromote。Thoseagriculturalsystems,onthecontrary,reallyandintheenddiscouragetheirownfavouritespeciesofindustry。
Itisthusthateverysystemwhichendeavours,eitherbyextraordinaryencouragementstodrawtowardsaparticularspeciesofindustryagreatershareofthecapitalofthesocietythanwhatwouldnaturallygotoit,or,byextraordinaryrestraints,forcefromaparticularspeciesofindustrysomeshareofthecapitalwhichwouldotherwisebeemployedinit,isinrealitysubversiveofthegreatpurposewhichitmeanstopromote。Itretards,insteadofaccelerating,theprogressofthesocietytowardsrealwealthandgreatness;anddiminishes,insteadofincreasing,therealvalueoftheannualproduceofitslandandlabour。
Allsystemseitherofpreferenceorofrestraint,therefore,beingthuscompletelytakenaway,theobviousandsimplesystemofnaturallibertyestablishesitselfofitsownaccord。Everyman,aslongashedoesnotviolatethelawsofjustice,isleftperfectlyfreetopursuehisowninteresthisownway,andtobringbothhisindustryandcapitalintocompetitionwiththoseofanyotherman,ororderofmen。Thesovereigniscompletelydischargedfromaduty,intheattemptingtoperformwhichhemustalwaysbeexposedtoinnumerabledelusions,andfortheproperperformanceofwhichnohumanwisdomorknowledgecouldeverbesufficient;thedutyofsuperintendingtheindustryofprivatepeople,andofdirectingittowardstheemploymentsmostsuitabletotheinterestofthesociety。Accordingtothesystemofnaturalliberty,thesovereignhasonlythreedutiestoattendto;threedutiesofgreatimportance,indeed,butplainandintelligibletocommonunderstandings:first,thedutyofprotectingthesocietyfromviolenceandinvasionofotherindependentsocieties;secondly,thedutyofprotecting,asfaraspossible,everymemberofthesocietyfromtheinjusticeoroppressionofeveryothermemberofit,orthedutyofestablishinganexactadministrationofjustice;and,thirdly,thedutyoferectingandmaintainingcertainpublicworksandcertainpublicinstitutionswhichitcanneverbefortheinterestofanyindividual,orsmallnumberofindividuals,toerectandmaintain;becausetheprofitcouldneverrepaytheexpensetoanyindividualorsmallnumberofindividuals,thoughitmayfrequentlydomuchmorethanrepayittoagreatsociety。
Theproperperformanceofthoseseveraldutiesofthesovereignnecessarilysupposesacertainexpense;andthisexpenseagainnecessarilyrequiresacertainrevenuetosupportit。Inthefollowingbook,therefore,Ishallendeavourtoexplain,first,whatarethenecessaryexpensesofthesovereignorcommonwealth;andwhichofthoseexpensesoughttobedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety;andwhichofthembythatofsomeparticularpartonly,orofsomeparticularmembersofthesociety;secondly,whatarethedifferentmethodsinwhichthewholesocietymaybemadetocontributetowardsdefrayingtheexpensesincumbentonthewholesociety,andwhataretheprincipaladvantagesandinconveniencesofeachofthosemethods;andthirdly,whatarethereasonsandcauseswhichhaveinducedalmostallmoderngovernmentstomortgagesomepartofthisrevenue,ortocontractdebts,andwhathavebeentheeffectsofthosedebtsupontherealwealth,theannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。Thefollowingbook,therefore,willnaturallybedividedintothreechapters。
ANINQUIRYINTOTHENATUREANDCAUSESOFTHEWEALTHOFNATIONS
byAdamSmith1776
BOOKFIVE
OFTHEREVENUEOFTHESOVEREIGNORCOMMONWEALTH
CHAPTERI
OftheExpensesoftheSovereignorCommonwealthPART1
OftheExpenseofDefenceTHEfirstdutyofthesovereign,thatofprotectingthesocietyfromtheviolenceandinvasionofotherindependentsocieties,canbeperformedonlybymeansofamilitaryforce。
Buttheexpensebothofpreparingthismilitaryforceintimeofpeace,andofemployingitintimeofwar,isverydifferentinthedifferentstatesofsociety,inthedifferentperiodsofimprovement。
Amongnationsofhunters,thelowestandrudeststateofsociety,suchaswefinditamongthenativetribesofNorthAmerica,everymanisawarrioraswellasahunter。Whenhegoestowar,eithertodefendhissocietyortorevengetheinjurieswhichhavebeendonetoitbyothersocieties,hemaintainshimselfbyhisownlabourinthesamemanneraswhenhelivesathome。Hissociety,forinthisstateofthingsthereisproperlyneithersovereignnorcommonwealth,isatnosortofexpense,eithertopreparehimforthefield,ortomaintainhimwhileheisinit。
Amongnationsofshepherds,amoreadvancedstateofsociety,suchaswefinditamongtheTartarsandArabs,everymanis,inthesamemanner,awarrior。Suchnationshavecommonlynofixedhabitation,butliveeitherintentsorinasortofcoveredwaggonswhichareeasilytransportedfromplacetoplace。
Thewholetribeornationchangesitssituationaccordingtothedifferentseasonsoftheyear,aswellasaccordingtootheraccidents。Whenitsherdsandflockshaveconsumedtheforageofonepartofthecountry,itremovestoanother,andfromthattoathird。Inthedryseasonitcomesdowntothebanksoftherivers;inthewetseasonitretirestotheuppercountry。Whensuchanationgoestowar,thewarriorswillnottrusttheirherdsandflockstothefeebledefenceoftheiroldmen,theirwomenandchildren;andtheiroldmen,theirwomenandchildren,willnotbeleftbehindwithoutdefenceandwithoutsubsistence。
Thewholenation,besides,beingaccustomedtoawanderinglife,evenintimeofpeace,easilytakesthefieldintimeofwar。
Whetheritmarchesasanarmy,ormovesaboutasacompanyofherdsmen,thewayoflifeisnearlythesame,thoughtheobjectproposedbyitbeverydifferent。Theyallgotowartogether,therefore,andeveryonedoesaswellashecan。AmongtheTartars,eventhewomenhavebeenfrequentlyknowntoengageinbattle。Iftheyconquer,whateverbelongstothehostiletribeistherecompenseofthevictory。Butiftheyarevanquished,allislost,andnotonlytheirherdsandflocks,buttheirwomenandchildren,becomethebootyoftheconqueror。Eventhegreaterpartofthosewhosurvivetheactionareobligedtosubmittohimforthesakeofimmediatesubsistence。Therestarecommonlydissipatedanddispersedinthedesert。
Theordinarylife,theordinaryexercisesofaTartarorArab,preparehimsufficientlyforwar。Running,wrestling,cudgel—playing,throwingthejavelin,drawingthebow,etc。,arethecommonpastimesofthosewholiveintheopenair,andareallofthemtheimagesofwar。WhenaTartarorArabactuallygoestowar,heismaintainedbyhisownherdsandflockswhichhecarrieswithhiminthesamemannerasinpeace。Hischieforsovereign,forthosenationshaveallchiefsorsovereigns,isatnosortofexpenseinpreparinghimforthefield;andwhenheisinitthechanceofplunderistheonlypaywhichheeitherexpectsorrequires。
Anarmyofhunterscanseldomexceedtwoorthreehundredmen。Theprecarioussubsistencewhichthechaseaffordscouldseldomallowagreaternumbertokeeptogetherforanyconsiderabletime。Anarmyofshepherds,onthecontrary,maysometimesamounttotwoorthreehundredthousand。Aslongasnothingstopstheirprogress,aslongastheycangoonfromonedistrict,ofwhichtheyhaveconsumedtheforage,toanotherwhichisyetentire,thereseemstobescarceanylimittothenumberwhocanmarchontogether。Anationofhunterscanneverbeformidabletothecivilisednationsintheirneighbourhood。A
nationofshepherdsmay。NothingcanbemorecontemptiblethananIndianwarinNorthAmerica。Nothing,onthecontrary,canbemoredreadfulthanTartarinvasionhasfrequentlybeeninAsia。
ThejudgmentofThucydides,thatbothEuropeandAsiacouldnotresisttheScythiansunited,hasbeenverifiedbytheexperienceofallages。TheinhabitantsoftheextensivebutdefencelessplainsofScythiaorTartaryhavebeenfrequentlyunitedunderthedominionofthechiefofsomeconqueringhordeorclan,andthehavocanddevastationofAsiahavealwayssignalizedtheirunion。TheinhabitantsoftheinhospitabledesertsofArabia,theothergreatnationofshepherds,haveneverbeenunitedbutonce;
underMahometandhisimmediatesuccessors。Theirunion,whichwasmoretheeffectofreligiousenthusiasmthanofconquest,wassignalizedinthesamemanner。IfthehuntingnationsofAmericashouldeverbecomeshepherds,theirneighbourhoodwouldbemuchmoredangeroustotheEuropeancoloniesthanitisatpresent。
Inayetmoreadvancedstateofsociety,amongthosenationsofhusbandmenwhohavelittleforeigncommerce,andnoothermanufacturesbutthosecoarseandhouseholdoneswhichalmosteveryprivatefamilypreparesforitsownuse,everyman,inthesamemanner,eitherisawarriororeasilybecomessuch。Theywholivebyagriculturegenerallypassthewholedayintheopenair,exposedtoalltheinclemenciesoftheseasons。Thehardinessoftheirordinarylifepreparesthemforthefatiguesofwar,tosomeofwhichtheirnecessaryoccupationsbearagreatanalogy。
Thenecessaryoccupationofaditcherprepareshimtoworkinthetrenches,andtofortifyacampaswellastoencloseafield。
Theordinarypastimesofsuchhusbandmenarethesameasthoseofshepherds,andareinthesamemannertheimagesofwar。Butashusbandmenhavelessleisurethanshepherds,theyarenotsofrequentlyemployedinthosepastimes。Theyaresoldiers,butsoldiersnotquitesomuchmastersoftheirexercise。Suchastheyare,however,itseldomcoststhesovereignorcommonwealthanyexpensetopreparethemforthefield。
Agriculture,eveninitsrudestandloweststate,supposesasettlement:somesortoffixedhabitationwhichcannotbeabandonedwithoutgreatloss。Whenanationofmerehusbandmen,therefore,goestowar,thewholepeoplecannottakethefieldtogether。Theoldmen,thewomenandchildren,atleast,mustremainathometotakecareofthehabitation。Allthemenofthemilitaryage,however,maytakethefield,and,insmallnationsofthiskind,havefrequentlydoneso。Ineverynationthemenofthemilitaryagearesupposedtoamounttoaboutafourthorafifthpartofthewholebodyofthepeople。Ifthecampaign,shouldbeginafterseed—time,andendbeforeharvest,boththehusbandmanandhisprincipallabourerscanbesparedfromthefarmwithoutmuchloss。Hetruststhattheworkwhichmustbedoneinthemeantimecanbewellenoughexecutedbytheoldmen,thewomen,andthechildren。Heisnotunwilling,therefore,toservewithoutpayduringashortcampaign,anditfrequentlycoststhesovereignorcommonwealthaslittletomaintainhiminthefieldastopreparehimforit。ThecitizensofallthedifferentstatesofancientGreeceseemtohaveservedinthismannertillafterthesecondPersianwar;andthepeopleofPeloponnesustillafterthePeloponnesianwar。ThePeloponnesians,Thucydidesobserves,generallyleftthefieldinthesummer,andreturnedhometoreaptheharvest。TheRomanpeopleundertheirkings,andduringthefirstagesoftherepublic,servedinthesamemanner。ItwasnottillthesiegeofVeiithattheywhostayedathomebegantocontributesomethingtowardsmaintainingthosewhowenttowar。IntheEuropeanmonarchies,whichwerefoundedupontheruinsoftheRomanempire,bothbeforeandforsometimeaftertheestablishmentofwhatisproperlycalledthefeudallaw,thegreatlords,withalltheirimmediatedependents,usedtoservethecrownattheirownexpense。Inthefield,inthesamemannerasathome,theymaintainedthemselvesbytheirownrevenue,andnotbyanystipendorpaywhichtheyreceivedfromthekinguponthatparticularoccasion。
Inamoreadvancedstateofsociety,twodifferentcausescontributetorenderitaltogetherimpossiblethattheywhotakethefieldshouldmaintainthemselvesattheirownexpense。Thosetwocausesare,theprogressofmanufactures,andtheimprovementintheartofwar。
Thoughahusbandmanshouldbeemployedinanexpedition,provideditbeginsafterseed—timeandendsbeforeharvest,theinterruptionofhisbusinesswillnotalwaysoccasionanyconsiderablediminutionofhisrevenue。Withouttheinterventionofhislabour,naturedoesherselfthegreaterpartoftheworkwhichremainstobedone。Butthemomentthatanartificer,asmith,acarpenter,oraweaver,forexample,quitshisworkhouse,thesolesourceofhisrevenueiscompletelydriedup。
Naturedoesnothingforhim,hedoesallforhimself。Whenhetakesthefield,therefore,indefenceofthepublic,ashehasnorevenuetomaintainhimself,hemustnecessarilybemaintainedbythepublic。Butinacountryofwhichagreatpartoftheinhabitantsareartificersandmanufacturers,agreatpartofthepeoplewhogotowarmustbedrawnfromthoseclasses,andmustthereforebemaintainedbythepublicaslongastheyareemployedinitsservice。
Whentheartofwar,too,hasgraduallygrownuptobeaveryintricateandcomplicatedscience,whentheeventofwarceasestobedetermined,asinthefirstagesofsociety,byasingleirregularskirmishorbattle,butwhenthecontestisgenerallyspunoutthroughseveraldifferentcampaigns,eachofwhichlastsduringthegreaterpartoftheyear,itbecomesuniversallynecessarythatthepublicshouldmaintainthosewhoservethepublicinwar,atleastwhiletheyareemployedinthatservice。Whateverintimeofpeacemightbetheordinaryoccupationofthosewhogotowar,soverytediousandexpensiveaservicewouldotherwisebefartooheavyaburdenuponthem。
AfterthesecondPersianwar,accordingly,thearmiesofAthensseemtohavebeengenerallycomposedofmercenarytroops,consisting,indeed,partlyofcitizens,butpartlytooofforeigners,andallofthemequallyhiredandpaidattheexpenseofthestate。FromthetimeofthesiegeofVeii,thearmiesofRomereceivedpayfortheirserviceduringthetimewhichtheyremainedinthefield。Underthefeudalgovernmentsthemilitaryservicebothofthegreatlordsandoftheirimmediatedependantswas,afteracertainperiod,universallyexchangedforapaymentinmoney,whichwasemployedtomaintainthosewhoservedintheirstead。
Thenumberofthosewhocangotowar,inproportiontothewholenumberofthepeople,isnecessarilymuchsmallerinacivilisedthaninarudestateofsociety。Inacivilisedsociety,asthesoldiersaremaintainedaltogetherbythelabourofthosewhoarenotsoldiers,thenumberoftheformercanneverexceedwhatthelattercanmaintain,overandabovemaintaining,inamannersuitabletotheirrespectivestations,boththemselvesandtheotherofficersofgovernmentandlawwhomtheyareobligedtomaintain。InthelittleagrarianstatesofancientGreece,afourthorafifthpartofthewholebodyofthepeopleconsideredthemselvesassoldiers,andwouldsometimes,itissaid,takeafield。AmongthecivilisednationsofmodernEurope,itiscommonlycomputedthatnotmorethanone—hundredthpartoftheinhabitantsinanycountrycanbeemployedassoldierswithoutruintothecountrywhichpaystheexpensesoftheirservice。
Theexpenseofpreparingthearmyforthefieldseemsnottohavebecomeconsiderableinanynationtilllongafterthatofmaintainingitinthefieldhaddevolvedentirelyuponthesovereignorcommonwealth。InallthedifferentrepublicsofancientGreece,tolearnhismilitaryexerciseswasanecessarypartofeducationimposedbythestateuponeveryfreecitizen。
Ineverycitythereseemstohavebeenapublicfield,inwhich,undertheprotectionofthepublicmagistrate,theyoungpeopleweretaughttheirdifferentexercisesbydifferentmasters。InthisverysimpleinstitutionconsistedthewholeexpensewhichanyGrecianstateseemsevertohavebeenatinpreparingitscitizensforwar。InancientRometheexercisesoftheCampusMartiusansweredthesamepurposewiththoseoftheGymnasiuminancientGreece。Underthefeudalgovernments,themanypublicordinancesthatthecitizensofeverydistrictshouldpractisearcheryaswellasseveralothermilitaryexerciseswereintendedforpromotingthesamepurpose,butdonotseemtohavepromoteditsowell。Eitherfromwantofinterestintheofficersentrustedwiththeexecutionofthoseordinances,orfromsomeothercause,theyappeartohavebeenuniversallyneglected;andintheprogressofallthosegovernments,militaryexercisesseemtohavegonegraduallyintodisuseamongthegreatbodyofthepeople。
IntherepublicsofancientGreeceandRome,duringthewholeperiodoftheirexistence,andunderthefeudalgovernmentsforaconsiderabletimeaftertheirfirstestablishment,thetradeofasoldierwasnotaseparate,distincttrade,whichconstitutedthesoleorprincipaloccupationofaparticularclassofcitizens。Everysubjectofthestate,whatevermightbetheordinarytradeoroccupationbywhichhegainedhislivelihood,consideredhimself,uponallordinaryoccasions,asfitlikewisetoexercisethetradeofasoldier,anduponmanyextraordinaryoccasionsasboundtoexerciseit。