Thecultivatorsorfarmerscontributetotheannualproducebywhatareinthissystemcalledtheoriginalandannualexpenses（depensesprimitivesetdepensesannuelles）whichtheylayoutuponthecultivationoftheland。Theoriginalexpensesconsistintheinstrumentsofhusbandry，inthestockofcattle，intheseed，andinthemaintenanceofthefarmer’sfamily，servants，andcattleduringatleastagreatpartofthefirstyearofhisoccupancy，ortillhecanreceivesomereturnfromtheland。Theannualexpensesconsistintheseed，inthewearandtearoftheinstrumentsofhusbandry，andintheannualmaintenanceofthefarmer’sservantsandcattle，andofhisfamilytoo，sofarasanypartofthemcanbeconsideredasservantsemployedincultivation。Thatpartoftheproduceofthelandwhichremainstohimafterpayingtherentoughttobesufficient，first，toreplacetohimwithinareasonabletime，atleastduringthetermofhisoccupancy，thewholeofhisoriginalexpenses，togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsofstock;and，secondly，toreplacetohimannuallythewholeofhisannualexpenses，togetherlikewisewiththeorderingprofitsofstock。
Thosetwosortsofexpensesaretwocapitalswhichthefarmeremploysincultivation;andunlesstheyareregularlyrestoredtohim，togetherwithareasonableprofit，hecannotcarryonhisemploymentuponalevelwithotheremployments;but，fromaregardtohisowninterest，mustdesertitassoonaspossibleandseeksomeother。Thatpartoftheproduceofthelandwhichisthusnecessaryforenablingthefarmertocontinuehisbusinessoughttobeconsideredasafundsacredtocultivation，which，ifthelandlordviolates，henecessarilyreducestheproduceofhisownland，andinafewyearsnotonlydisablesthefarmerfrompayingthisrackedrent，butfrompayingthereasonablerentwhichhemightotherwisehavegotforhisland。
Therentwhichproperlybelongstothelandlordisnomorethanthenetproducewhichremainsafterpayinginthecompletestmannerallthenecessaryexpenseswhichmustbepreviouslylaidoutinordertoraisethegrossorthewholeproduce。Itisbecausethelabourofthecultivators，overandabovepayingcompletelyallthosenecessaryexpenses，affordsanetproduceofthiskindthatthisclassofpeopleareinthissystempeculiarlydistinguishedbythehonourableappellationoftheproductiveclass。Theiroriginalandannualexpensesareforthesamereasoncalled，inthissystem，productiveexpenses，because，overandabovereplacingtheirownvalue，theyoccasiontheannualreproductionofthisnetproduce。
Thegroundexpenses，astheyarecalled，orwhatthelandlordlaysoutupontheimprovementofhisland，areinthissystem，too，honouredwiththeappellationofproductiveexpenses。Tillthewholeofthoseexpenses，togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsofstock，havebeencompletelyrepaidtohimbytheadvancedrentwhichhegetsfromhisland，thatadvancedrentoughttoberegardedassacredandinviolable，bothbythechurchandbytheking;oughttobesubjectneithertotithenortotaxation。Ifitisotherwise，bydiscouragingtheimprovementoflandthechurchdiscouragesthefutureincreaseofherowntithes，andthekingthefutureincreaseofhisowntaxes。Asinawell—orderedstateofthings，therefore，thosegroundexpenses，overandabovereproducinginthecompletestmannertheirownvalue，occasionlikewiseafteracertaintimeareproductionofanetproduce，theyareinthissystemconsideredasproductiveexpenses。
Thegroundexpensesofthelandlord，however，togetherwiththeoriginalandtheannualexpensesofthefarmer，aretheonlythreesortsofexpenseswhichinthissystemareconsideredasproductive。Allotherexpensesandallotherordersofpeople，eventhosewhointhecommonapprehensionsofmenareregardedasthemostproductive，areinthisaccountofthingsrepresentedasaltogetherbarrenandunproductive。
Artificersandmanufacturersinparticular，whoseindustry，inthecommonapprehensionsofmen，increasessomuchthevalueoftherudeproduceofland，areinthissystemrepresentedasaclassofpeoplealtogetherbarrenandunproductive。Theirlabour，itissaid，replacesonlythestockwhichemploysthem，togetherwithitsordinaryprofits。Thatstockconsistsinthematerials，tools，andwagesadvancedtothembytheiremployer;andisthefunddestinedfortheiremploymentandmaintenance。Itsprofitsarethefunddestinedforthemaintenanceoftheiremployer。
Theiremployer，asheadvancestothemthestockofmaterials，tools，andwagesnecessaryfortheiremployment，soheadvancestohimselfwhatisnecessaryforhisownmaintenance，andthismaintenancehegenerallyproportionstotheprofitwhichheexpectstomakebythepriceoftheirwork。Unlessitspricerepaystohimthemaintenancewhichheadvancestohimself，aswellasthematerials，tools，andwageswhichheadvancestohisworkmen，itevidentlydoesnotrepaytohimthewholeexpensewhichhelaysoutuponit。Theprofitsofmanufacturingstockthereforearenot，liketherentofland，anetproducewhichremainsaftercompletelyrepayingthewholeexpensewhichmustbelaidoutinordertoobtainthem。Thestockofthefarmeryieldshimaprofitaswellasthatofthemastermanufacturer;andityieldsarentlikewisetoanotherperson，whichthatofthemastermanufacturerdoesnot。Theexpense，therefore，laidoutinemployingandmaintainingartificersandmanufacturersdoesnomorethancontinue，ifonemaysayso，theexistenceofitsownvalue，anddoesnotproduceanynewvalue。Itisthereforealtogetherabarrenandunproductiveexpense。Theexpense，onthecontrary，laidoutinemployingfarmersandcountrylabourers，overandabovecontinuingtheexistenceofitsownvalue，producesanewvalue，therentofthelandlord。Itisthereforeaproductiveexpense。
Mercantilestockisequallybarrenandunproductivewithmanufacturingstock。Itonlycontinuestheexistenceofitsownvalue，withoutproducinganynewvalue。Itsprofitsareonlytherepaymentofthemaintenancewhichitsemployeradvancestohimselfduringthetimethatheemploysit，ortillhereceivesthereturnsofit。Theyareonlytherepaymentofapartoftheexpensewhichmustbelaidoutinemployingit。
Thelabourofartificersandmanufacturersneveraddsanythingtothevalueofthewholeannualamountoftherudeproduceoftheland。Itadds，indeed，greatlytothevalueofsomeparticularpartsofit。Buttheconsumptionwhichinthemeantimeitoccasionsofotherpartsispreciselyequaltothevaluewhichitaddstothoseparts;sothatthevalueofthewholeamountisnot，atanyonemomentoftime，intheleastaugmentedbyit。Thepersonwhoworksthelaceofapairoffineruffles，forexample，willsometimesraisethevalueofperhapsapennyworthofflaxtothirtypoundssterling。Butthoughatfirstsightheappearstherebytomultiplythevalueofapartoftherudeproduceaboutseventhousandandtwohundredtimes，heinrealityaddsnothingtothevalueofthewholeannualamountoftherudeproduce。Theworkingofthatlacecostshimperhapstwoyears’labour。Thethirtypoundswhichhegetsforitwhenitisfinishedisnomorethantherepaymentofthesubsistencewhichheadvancestohimselfduringthetwoyearsthatheisemployedaboutit。Thevaluewhich，byeveryday’s，month’s，oryear’slabour，headdstotheflaxdoesnomorethanreplacethevalueofhisownconsumptionduringthatday，month，oryear。Atnomomentoftime，therefore，doesheaddanythingtothevalueofthewholeannualamountoftherudeproduceoftheland:theportionofthatproducewhichheiscontinuallyconsumingbeingalwaysequaltothevaluewhichheiscontinuallyproducing。Theextremepovertyofthegreaterpartofthepersonsemployedinthisexpensivethoughtriflingmanufacturemaysatisfyusthatthepriceoftheirworkdoesnotinordinarycasesexceedthevalueoftheirsubsistence。Itisotherwisewiththeworkoffarmersandcountrylabourers。Therentofthelandlordisavaluewhich，inordinarycases，itiscontinuallyproducing，overandabovereplacing，inthemostcompletemanner，thewholeconsumption，thewholeexpenselaidoutupontheemploymentandmaintenancebothoftheworkmenandoftheiremployer。
Artificers，manufacturers，andmerchantscanaugmenttherevenueandwealthoftheirsocietybyparsimonyonly;or，asitinthissystem，byprivation，thatis，bydeprivingthemselvesapartofthefundsdestinedfortheirownsubsistence。Theyannuallyreproducenothingbutthosefunds。Unless，therefore，theyannuallysavesomepartofthem，unlesstheyannuallydeprivethemselvesoftheenjoymentofsomepartofthem，therevenueandwealthoftheirsocietycanneverbeinthesmallestdegreeaugmentedbymeansoftheirindustry。Farmersandcountrylabourers，onthecontrary，mayenjoycompletelythewholefundsdestinedfortheirownsubsistence，andyetaugmentatthesametimetherevenueandwealthoftheirsociety。Overandabovewhatisdestinedfortheirownsubsistence，theirindustryannuallyaffordsanetproduce，ofwhichtheaugmentationnecessarilyaugmentstherevenueandwealthoftheirsociety。Nationsthereforewhich，likeFranceorEngland，consistinagreatmeasureofproprietorsandcultivatorscanbeenrichedbyindustryandenjoyment。Nations，onthecontrary，which，likeHollandandHamburg，arecomposedchieflyofmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturerscangrowrichonlythroughparsimonyandprivation。Astheinterestofnationssodifferentlycircumstancedisverydifferent，soislikewisethecommoncharacterofthepeople:inthoseoftheformerkind，liberality，franknessandgoodfellowshipnaturallymakeapartofthatcommoncharacter:inthelatter，narrowness，meanness，andaselfishdisposition，aversetoallsocialpleasureandenjoyment。
Theunproductiveclass，thatofmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturers，ismaintainedandemployedaltogetherattheexpenseofthetwootherclasses，ofthatofproprietors，andofthatofcultivators。Theyfurnishitbothwiththematerialsofitsworkandwiththefundofitssubsistence，withthecornandcattlewhichitconsumeswhileitisemployedaboutthatwork。
Theproprietorsandcultivatorsfinallypayboththewagesofalltheworkmenoftheunproductiveclass，andoftheprofitsofalltheiremployers。Thoseworkmenandtheiremployersareproperlytheservantsoftheproprietorsandcultivators。Theyareonlyservantswhoworkwithoutdoors，asmenialservantsworkwithin。
Boththeoneandtheother，however，areequallymaintainedattheexpenseofthesamemasters。Thelabourofbothisequallyunproductive。Itaddsnothingtothevalueofthesumtotaloftherudeproduceoftheland。Insteadofincreasingthevalueofthatsumtotal，itisachargeandexpensewhichmustbepaidoutofit。
Theunproductiveclass，however，isnotonlyuseful，butgreatlyusefultotheothertwoclasses。Bymeansoftheindustryofmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturers，theproprietorsandcultivatorscanpurchaseboththeforeigngoodsandthemanufacturedproduceoftheirowncountrywhichtheyhaveoccasionforwiththeproduceofamuchsmallerquantityoftheirownlabourthanwhattheywouldbeobligedtoemployiftheyweretoattempt，inanawkwardandunskilfulmanner，eithertoimporttheoneortomaketheotherfortheirownuse。Bymeansoftheunproductiveclass，thecultivatorsaredeliveredfrommanycareswhichwouldotherwisedistracttheirattentionfromthecultivationofland。Thesuperiorityofproduce，which，inconsequenceofthisundividedattention，theyareenabledtoraise，isfullysufficienttopaythewholeexpensewhichthemaintenanceandemploymentoftheunproductiveclasscostseithertheproprietorsorthemselves。Theindustryofmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturers，thoughinitsownnaturealtogetherunproductive，yetcontributesinthismannerindirectlytoincreasetheproduceoftheland。Itincreasestheproductivepowersofproductivelabourbyleavingitatlibertytoconfineitselftoitsproperemployment，thecultivationofland;andtheploughgoesfrequentlytheeasierandthebetterbymeansofthelabourofthemanwhosebusinessismostremotefromtheplough。
Itcanneverbetheinterestoftheproprietorsandcultivatorstorestrainortodiscourageinanyrespecttheindustryofmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturers。Thegreaterthelibertywhichthisunproductiveclassenjoys，thegreaterwillbethecompetitioninallthedifferenttradeswhichcomposeit，andthecheaperwilltheothertwoclassesbesupplied，bothwithforeigngoodsandwiththemanufacturedproduceoftheirowncountry。
Itcanneverbetheinterestoftheunproductiveclasstooppresstheothertwoclasses。Itisthesurplusproduceoftheland，orwhatremainsafterdeductingthemaintenance，first，ofthecultivators，andafterwardsoftheproprietors，thatmaintainsandemploystheunproductiveclass。Thegreaterthissurplusthegreatermustlikewisebethemaintenanceandemploymentofthatclass。Theestablishmentofperfectjustice，ofperfectliberty，andofperfectequalityistheverysimplesecretwhichmosteffectuallysecuresthehighestdegreeofprosperitytoallthethreeclasses。
Themerchants，artificers，andmanufacturersofthosemercantilestateswhich，likeHollandandHamburg，consistchieflyofthisunproductiveclass，areinthesamemannermaintainedandemployedaltogetherattheexpenseoftheproprietorsandcultivatorsofland。Theonlydifferenceis，thatthoseproprietorsandcultivatorsare，thegreaterpartofthem，placedatamostinconvenientdistancefromthemerchants，artificers，andmanufacturerswhomtheysupplywiththematerialsoftheirworkandthefundoftheirsubsistences—theinhabitantsofothercountriesandthesubjectsofothergovernments。
Suchmercantilestates，however，arenotonlyuseful，butgreatlyusefultotheinhabitantsofthoseothercountries。Theyfillup，insomemeasure，averyimportantvoid，andsupplytheplaceofthemerchants，artificers，andmanufacturerswhomtheinhabitantsofthosecountriesoughttofindathome，butwhom，fromsomedefectintheirpolicy，theydonotfindathome。
Itcanneverbetheinterestofthoselandednations，ifI
maycallthemso，todiscourageordistresstheindustryofsuchmercantilestatesbyimposinghighdutiesupontheirtradeoruponthecommoditieswhichtheyfurnish。Suchduties，byrenderingthosecommoditiesdearer，couldserveonlytosinktherealvalueofthesurplusproduceoftheirownland，withwhich，or，whatcomestothesamething，withthepriceofwhichthosecommoditiesarepurchased。Suchdutiescouldserveonlytodiscouragetheincreaseofthatsurplusproduce，andconsequentlytheimprovementandcultivationoftheirownland。Themosteffectualexpedient，onthecontrary，forraisingthevalueofthatsurplusproduce，forencouragingitsincrease，andconsequentlytheimprovementandcultivationoftheirownlandwouldbetoallowthemostperfectfreedomtothetradeofallsuchmercantilenations。
Thisperfectfreedomoftradewouldevenbethemosteffectualexpedientforsupplyingthem，induetime，withalltheartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantswhomtheywantedathome，andforfillingupintheproperestandmostadvantageousmannerthatveryimportantvoidwhichtheyfeltthere。
Thecontinualincreaseofthesurplusproduceoftheirlandwould，induetime，createagreatercapitalthanwhatcouldbeemployedwiththeordinaryrateofprofitintheimprovementandcultivationofland;andthesurpluspartofitwouldnaturallyturnitselftotheemploymentofartificersandmanufacturersathome。Butthoseartificersandmanufacturers，findingathomeboththematerialsoftheirworkandthefundoftheirsubsistence，mightimmediatelyevenwithmuchlessartandskillbeabletoworkascheapasthelikeartificersandmanufacturersofsuchmercantilestateswhohadbothtobringfromagreatdistance。Eventhough，fromwantofartandskill，theymightnotforsometimebeabletoworkascheap，yet，findingamarketathome，theymightbeabletoselltheirworkthereascheapasthatoftheartificersandmanufacturersofsuchmercantilestates，whichcouldnotbebroughttothatmarketbutfromsogreatadistance;andastheirartandskillimproved，theywouldsoonbeabletosellitcheaper。Theartificersandmanufacturersofsuchmercantilestates，therefore，wouldimmediatelyberivalledinthemarketofthoselandednations，andsoonafterundersoldandjostledoutofitaltogether。Thecheapnessofthemanufacturesofthoselandednations，inconsequenceofthegradualimprovementsofartandskill，would，induetime，extendtheirsalebeyondthehomemarket，andcarrythemtomanyforeignmarkets，fromwhichtheywouldinthesamemannergraduallyjostleoutmanyofthemanufacturersofsuchmercantilenations。
Thiscontinualincreasebothoftherudeandmanufacturedproduceofthoselandednationswouldinduetimecreateagreatercapitalthancould，withtheordinaryrateofprofit，beemployedeitherinagricultureorinmanufactures。Thesurplusofthiscapitalwouldnaturallyturnitselftoforeigntrade，andbeemployedinexportingtoforeigncountriessuchpartsoftherudeandmanufacturedproduceofitsowncountryasexceededthedemandofthehomemarket。Intheexportationoftheproduceoftheirowncountry，themerchantsofalandednationwouldhaveanadvantageofthesamekindoverthoseofmercantilenationswhichitsartificersandmanufacturershadovertheartificersandmanufacturersofsuchnations;theadvantageoffindingathomethatcargoandthosestoresandprovisionswhichtheotherswereobligedtoseekforatadistance。Withinferiorartandskillinnavigation，therefore，theywouldbeabletosellthatcargoascheapinforeignmarketsasthemerchantsofsuchmercantilenations;andwithequalartandskilltheywouldbeabletosellitcheaper。Theywouldsoon，therefore，rivalthosemercantilenationsinthisbranchofforeigntrade，andinduetimewouldjostlethemoutofitaltogether。
Accordingtothisliberalandgeneroussystem，therefore，themostadvantageousmethodinwhichalandednationcanraiseupartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsofitsownistograntthemostperfectfreedomoftradetotheartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsofallothernations。Ittherebyraisesthevalueofthesurplusproduceofitsownland，ofwhichthecontinualincreasegraduallyestablishesafund，whichinduetimenecessarilyraisesupalltheartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantswhomithasoccasionfor。
Whenalandednation，onthecontrary，oppresseseitherbyhighdutiesorbyprohibitionsthetradeofforeignnations，itnecessarilyhurtsitsowninterestintwodifferentways。First，byraisingthepriceofallforeigngoodsandofallsortsofmanufactures，itnecessarilysinkstherealvalueofthesurplusproduceofitsownland，withwhich，or，whatcomestothesamething，withthepriceofwhichitpurchasesthoseforeigngoodsandmanufactures。Secondly，bygivingasortofmonopolyofthehomemarkettoitsownmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturers，itraisestherateofmercantileandmanufacturingprofitinproportiontothatofagriculturalprofit，andconsequentlyeitherdrawsfromagricultureapartofthecapitalwhichhadbeforebeenemployedinit，orhindersfromgoingtoitapartofwhatwouldotherwisehavegonetoit。Thispolicy，therefore，discouragesagricultureintwodifferentways;first，bysinkingtherealvalueofitsproduce，andtherebyloweringtherateofitsprofit;and，secondly，byraisingtherateofprofitinallotheremployments。Agricultureisrenderedlessadvantageous，andtradeandmanufacturesmoreadvantageousthantheyotherwisewouldbe;andeverymanistemptedbyhisowninteresttoturn，asmuchashecan，bothhiscapitalandhisindustryfromtheformertothelatteremployments。
Though，bythisoppressivepolicy，alandednationshouldbeabletoraiseupartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsofitsownsomewhatsoonerthanitcoulddobythefreedomoftradeamatter，however，whichisnotalittledoubtful—yetitwouldraisethemup，ifonemaysayso，prematurely，andbeforeitwasperfectlyripeforthem。Byraisinguptoohastilyonespeciesofindustry，itwoulddepressanothermorevaluablespeciesofindustry。Byraisinguptoohastilyaspeciesofindustrywhichonlyreplacesthestockwhichemploysit，togetherwiththeordinaryprofit，itwoulddepressaspeciesofindustrywhich，overandabovereplacingthatstockwithitsprofit，affordslikewiseanetproduce，afreerenttothelandlord。Itwoulddepressproductivelabour，byencouragingtoohastilythatlabourwhichisaltogetherbarrenandunproductive。
Inwhatmanner，accordingtothissystem，thesumtotaloftheannualproduceofthelandisdistributedamongthethreeclassesabovementioned，andinwhatmannerthelabouroftheunproductiveclassdoesnomorethanreplacethevalueofitsownconsumption，withoutincreasinginanyrespectthevalueofthatsumtotal，isrepresentedbyMr。Quesnai，theveryingeniousandprofoundauthorofthissystem，insomearithmeticalformularies。
Thefirstoftheseformularies，whichbywayofeminencehepeculiarlydistinguishesbythenameoftheEconomicalTable，representsthemannerinwhichhesupposesthedistributiontakesplaceinastateofthemostperfectlibertyandthereforeofthehighestprosperity—inastatewheretheannualproduceissuchastoaffordthegreatestpossiblenetproduce，andwhereeachclassenjoysitspropershareofthewholeannualproduce。Somesubsequentformulariesrepresentthemannerinwhichhesupposesthisdistributionismadeindifferentstatesofrestraintandregulation;inwhicheithertheclassofproprietorsorthebarrenandunproductiveclassismorefavouredthantheclassofcultivators，andinwhicheithertheoneortheotherencroachesmoreorlessuponthesharewhichoughtproperlytobelongtothisproductiveclass。Everysuchencroachment，everyviolationofthatnaturaldistribution，whichthemostperfectlibertywouldestablish，must，accordingtothissystem，necessarilydegrademoreorless，fromoneyeartoanother，thevalueandsumtotaloftheannualproduce，andmustnecessarilyoccasionagradualdeclensionintherealwealthandrevenueofthesociety;
adeclensionofwhichtheprogressmustbequickerorslower，accordingtothedegreeofthisencroachment，accordingasthatnaturaldistributionwhichthemostperfectlibertywouldestablishismoreorlessviolated。Thosesubsequentformulariesrepresentthedifferentdegreesofdeclensionwhich，accordingtothissystem，correspondtothedifferentdegreesinwhichthisnaturaldistributionisviolated。
Somespeculativephysiciansseemtohaveimaginedthatthehealthofthehumanbodycouldbepreservedonlybyacertainpreciseregimenofdietandexercise，ofwhichevery，thesmallest，violationnecessarilyoccasionedsomedegreeofdiseaseordisorderproportionedtothedegreeoftheviolation。
Experience，however，wouldseemtoshowthatthehumanbodyfrequentlypreserves，toallappearancesatleast，themostperfectstateofhealthunderavastvarietyofdifferentregimens;evenundersomewhicharegenerallybelievedtobeveryfarfrombeingperfectlywholesome。Butthehealthfulstateofthehumanbody，itwouldseem，containsinitselfsomeunknownprincipleofpreservation，capableeitherofpreventingorofcorrecting，inmanyrespects，thebadeffectsevenofaveryfaultyregimen。Mr。Quesnai，whowashimselfaphysician，andaveryspeculativephysician，seemstohaveentertainedanotionofthesamekindconcerningthepoliticalbody，andtohaveimaginedthatitwouldthriveandprosperonlyunderacertainpreciseregimen，theexactregimenofperfectlibertyandperfectjustice。Heseemsnottohaveconsideredthat，inthepoliticalbody，thenaturaleffortwhicheverymaniscontinuallymakingtobetterhisownconditionisaprincipleofpreservationcapableofpreventingandcorrecting，inmanyrespects，thebadeffectsofapoliticaleconomy，insomedegree，bothpartialandoppressive。Suchapoliticaleconomy，thoughitnodoubtretardsmoreorless，isnotalwayscapableofstoppingaltogetherthenaturalprogressofanationtowardswealthandprosperity，andstilllessofmakingitgobackwards。Ifanationcouldnotprosperwithouttheenjoymentofperfectlibertyandperfectjustice，thereisnotintheworldanationwhichcouldeverhaveprospered。Inthepoliticalbody，however，thewisdomofnaturehasfortunatelymadeampleprovisionforremedyingmanyofthebadeffectsofthefollyandinjusticeofman，inthesamemannerasithasdoneinthenaturalbodyforremedyingthoseofhisslothandintemperance。
Thecapitalerrorofthissystem，however，seemstolieinitsrepresentingtheclassofartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsasaltogetherbarrenandunproductive。Thefollowingobservationsmayservetoshowtheimproprietyofthisrepresentation。
First，thisclass，itisacknowledged，reproducesannuallythevalueofitsownannualconsumption，andcontinues，atleast，theexistenceofthestockorcapitalwhichmaintainsandemploysit。Butuponthisaccountalonethedenominationofbarrenorunproductiveshouldseemtobeveryimproperlyappliedtoit。Weshouldnotcallamarriagebarrenorunproductivethoughitproducedonlyasonandadaughter，toreplacethefatherandmother，andthoughitdidnotincreasethenumberofthehumanspecies，butonlycontinueditasitwasbefore。Farmersandcountrylabourers，indeed，overandabovethestockwhichmaintainsandemploysthem，reproduceannuallyanetproduce，afreerenttothelandlord。Asamarriagewhichaffordsthreechildreniscertainlymoreproductivethanonewhichaffordsonlytwo;sothelabouroffarmersandcountrylabourersiscertainlymoreproductivethanthatofmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturers。Thesuperiorproduceoftheoneclass，however，doesnotrendertheotherbarrenorunproductive。
Secondly，itseems，uponthisaccount，altogetherimpropertoconsiderartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsinthesamelightasmenialservants。Thelabourofmenialservantsdoesnotcontinuetheexistenceofthefundwhichmaintainsandemploysthem。Theirmaintenanceandemploymentisaltogetherattheexpenseoftheirmasters，andtheworkwhichtheyperformisnotofanaturetorepaythatexpense。Thatworkconsistsinserviceswhichperishgenerallyintheveryinstantoftheirperformance，anddoesnotfixorrealizeitselfinanyvendiblecommoditywhichcanreplacethevalueoftheirwagesandmaintenance。Thelabour，onthecontrary，ofartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsnaturallydoesfixandrealizeitselfinsomesuchvendiblecommodity。Itisuponthisaccountthat，inthechapterinwhichItreatofproductiveandunproductivelabour，Ihaveclassedartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsamongtheproductivelabourers，andmenialservantsamongthebarrenorunproductive。
Thirdly，itseemsuponeverysuppositionimpropertosaythatthelabourofartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsdoesnotincreasetherealrevenueofthesociety。Thoughweshouldsuppose，forexample，asitseemstobesupposedinthissystem，thatthevalueofthedaily，monthly，andyearlyconsumptionofthisclasswasexactlyequaltothatofitsdaily，monthly，andyearlyproduction，yetitwouldnotfromthencefollowthatitslabouraddednothingtotherealrevenue，totherealvalueoftheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。Anartificer，forexample，who，inthefirstsixmonthsafterharvest，executestenpounds’worthofwork，thoughheshouldinthesametimeconsumetenpounds’worthofcornandothernecessaries，yetreallyaddsthevalueoftenpoundstotheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。Whilehehasbeenconsumingahalf—yearlyrevenueoftenpounds’worthofcornandothernecessaries，hehasproducedanequalvalueofworkcapableofpurchasing，eithertohimselforsomeotherperson，anequalhalf—yearlyrevenue。Thevalue，therefore，ofwhathasbeenconsumedandproducedduringthesesixmonthsisequal，nottoten，buttotwentypounds。Itispossible，indeed，thatnomorethantenpounds’worthofthisvaluemayeverhaveexistedatanyonemomentoftime。Butifthetenpounds’worthofcornandothernecessaties，whichwereconsumedbytheartificer，hadbeenconsumedbyasoldierorbyamenialservant，thevalueofthatpartoftheannualproducewhichexistedattheendofthesixmonthswouldhavebeentenpoundslessthanitactuallyisinconsequenceofthelabouroftheartificer。Thoughthevalueofwhattheartificerproduces，therefore，shouldnotatanyonemomentoftimebesupposedgreaterthanthevalueheconsumes，yetateverymomentoftimetheactuallyexistingvalueofgoodsinthemarketis，inconsequenceofwhatheproduces，greaterthanitotherwisewouldbe。
Whenthepatronsofthissystemassertthattheconsumptionofartificers，manufacturers，andmerchantsisequaltothevalueofwhattheyproduce，theyprobablymeannomorethanthattheirrevenue，orthefunddestinedfortheirconsumption，isequaltoit。Butiftheyhadexpressedthemselvesmoreaccurately，andonlyassertedthattherevenueofthisclasswasequaltothevalueofwhattheyproduced，itmightreadilyhaveoccurredtothereaderthatwhatwouldnaturallybesavedoutofthisrevenuemustnecessarilyincreasemoreorlesstherealwealthofthesociety。Inorder，therefore，tomakeoutsomethinglikeanargument，itwasnecessarythattheyshouldexpressthemselvesastheyhavedone;andthisargument，evensupposingthingsactuallywereasitseemstopresumethemtobe，turnsouttobeaveryinconclusiveone。
Fourthly，farmersandcountrylabourerscannomoreaugment，withoutparsimony，therealrevenue，theannualproduceofthelandandlabouroftheirsociety，thanartificers，manufacturers，andmerchants。Theannualproduceofthelandandlabourofanysocietycanbeaugmentedonlyintwoways;either，first，bysomeimprovementintheproductivepowersoftheusefullabouractuallymaintainedwithinit;or，secondly，bysomeincreaseinthequantityofthatlabour。
Theimprovementintheproductivepowersofusefullabourdepend，first，upontheimprovementintheabilityoftheworkman;and，secondly，uponthatofthemachinerywithwhichheworks。Butthelabourofartificersandmanufacturers，asitiscapableofbeingmoresubdivided，andthelabourofeachworkmanreducedtoagreatersimplicityofoperationthanthatoffarmersandcountrylabourers，soitislikewisecapableofboththesesortsofimprovementsinamuchhigherdegree。Inthisrespect，therefore，theclassofcultivatorscanhavenosortofadvantageoverthatofartificersandmanufacturers。
Theincreaseinthequantityofusefullabouractuallyemployedwithinanysocietymustdependaltogetherupontheincreaseofthecapitalwhichemploysit;andtheincreaseofthatcapitalagainmustbeexactlyequaltotheamountofthesavingsfromtherevenue，eitheroftheparticularpersonswhomanageanddirecttheemploymentofthatcapital，orofsomeotherpersonswholendittothem。Ifmerchants，artificers，andmanufacturersare，asthissystemseemstosuppose，naturallymoreinclinedtoparsimonyandsavingthanproprietorsandcultivators，theyare，sofar，morelikelytoaugmentthequantityofusefullabouremployedwithintheirsociety，andconsequentlytoincreaseitsrealrevenue，theannualproduceofitslandandlabour。
Fifthlyandlastly，thoughtherevenueoftheinhabitantsofeverycountrywassupposedtoconsistaltogether，asthissystemseemstosuppose，inthequantityofsubsistencewhichtheirindustrycouldprocuretothem;yet，evenuponthissupposition，therevenueofatradingandmanufacturingcountrymust，otherthingsbeingequal，alwaysbemuchgreaterthanthatofonewithouttradeormanufactures。Bymeansoftradeandmanufactures，agreaterquantityofsubsistencecanbeannuallyimportedintoaparticularcountrythanwhatitsownlands，intheactualstateoftheircultivation，couldafford。Theinhabitantsofatown，thoughtheyfrequentlypossessnolandsoftheirown，yetdrawtothemselvesbytheirindustrysuchaquantityoftherudeproduceofthelandsofotherpeopleassuppliesthem，notonlywiththematerialsoftheirwork，butwiththefundoftheirsubsistence。Whatatownalwaysiswithregardtothecountryinitsneighbourhood，oneindependentstateorcountrymayfrequentlybewithregardtootherindependentstatesorcountries。ItisthusthatHollanddrawsagreatpartofitssubsistencefromothercountries;livecattlefromHolsteinandJutland，andcornfromalmostallthedifferentcountriesofEurope。Asmallquantityofmanufacturedproducepurchasesagreatquantityofrudeproduce。Atradingandmanufacturingcountry，therefore，naturallypurchaseswithasmallpartofitsmanufacturedproduceagreatpartoftherudeproduceofothercountries;while，onthecontrary，acountrywithouttradeandmanufacturesisgenerallyobligedtopurchase，attheexpenseofagreatpartofitsrudeproduce，averysmallpartofthemanufacturedproduceofothercountries。Theoneexportswhatcansubsistandaccommodatebutaveryfew，andimportsthesubsistenceandaccommodationofagreatnumber。Theotherexportstheaccommodationandsubsistenceofagreatnumber，andimportsthatofaveryfewonly。Theinhabitantsoftheonemustalwaysenjoyamuchgreaterquantityofsubsistencethanwhattheirownlands，intheactualstateoftheircultivation，couldafford。Theinhabitantsoftheothermustalwaysenjoyamuchsmallerquantity。
Thissystem，however，withallitsimperfectionsis，perhaps，thenearestapproximationtothetruththathasyetbeenpublisheduponthesubjectofpoliticaleconomy，andisuponthataccountwellworththeconsiderationofeverymanwhowishestoexaminewithattentiontheprinciplesofthatveryimportantscience。Thoughinrepresentingthelabourwhichisemployeduponlandastheonlyproductivelabour，thenotionswhichitinculcatesareperhapstoonarrowandconfined;yetinrepresentingthewealthofnationsasconsisting，notintheunconsumablerichesofmoney，butintheconsumablegoodsannuallyreproducedbythelabourofthesociety，andinrepresentingperfectlibertyastheonlyeffectualexpedientforrenderingthisannualreproductionthegreatestpossible，itsdoctrineseemstobeineveryrespectasjustasitisgenerousandliberal。Itsfollowersareverynumerous;andasmenarefondofparadoxes，andofappearingtounderstandwhatsurpassesthecomprehensionofordinarypeople，theparadoxwhichitmaintains，concerningtheunproductivenatureofmanufacturinglabour，hasnotperhapscontributedalittletoincreasethenumberofitsadmirers。Theyhaveforsomeyearspastmadeaprettyconsiderablesect，distinguishedintheFrenchrepublicoflettersbythenameofTheEconomists。Theirworkshavecertainlybeenofsomeservicetotheircountry;notonlybybringingintogeneraldiscussionmanysubjectswhichhadneverbeenwellexaminedbefore，butbyinfluencinginsomemeasurethepublicadministrationinfavourofagriculture。Ithasbeeninconsequenceoftheirrepresentations，accordingly，thattheagricultureofFrancehasbeendeliveredfromseveraloftheoppressionswhichitbeforelabouredunder。