Thecultivatorsorfarmerscontributetotheannualproducebywhatareinthissystemcalledtheoriginalandannualexpenses(depensesprimitivesetdepensesannuelles)whichtheylayoutuponthecultivationoftheland。Theoriginalexpensesconsistintheinstrumentsofhusbandry,inthestockofcattle,intheseed,andinthemaintenanceofthefarmer’sfamily,servants,andcattleduringatleastagreatpartofthefirstyearofhisoccupancy,ortillhecanreceivesomereturnfromtheland。Theannualexpensesconsistintheseed,inthewearandtearoftheinstrumentsofhusbandry,andintheannualmaintenanceofthefarmer’sservantsandcattle,andofhisfamilytoo,sofarasanypartofthemcanbeconsideredasservantsemployedincultivation。Thatpartoftheproduceofthelandwhichremainstohimafterpayingtherentoughttobesufficient,first,toreplacetohimwithinareasonabletime,atleastduringthetermofhisoccupancy,thewholeofhisoriginalexpenses,togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsofstock;and,secondly,toreplacetohimannuallythewholeofhisannualexpenses,togetherlikewisewiththeorderingprofitsofstock。
Thosetwosortsofexpensesaretwocapitalswhichthefarmeremploysincultivation;andunlesstheyareregularlyrestoredtohim,togetherwithareasonableprofit,hecannotcarryonhisemploymentuponalevelwithotheremployments;but,fromaregardtohisowninterest,mustdesertitassoonaspossibleandseeksomeother。Thatpartoftheproduceofthelandwhichisthusnecessaryforenablingthefarmertocontinuehisbusinessoughttobeconsideredasafundsacredtocultivation,which,ifthelandlordviolates,henecessarilyreducestheproduceofhisownland,andinafewyearsnotonlydisablesthefarmerfrompayingthisrackedrent,butfrompayingthereasonablerentwhichhemightotherwisehavegotforhisland。
Therentwhichproperlybelongstothelandlordisnomorethanthenetproducewhichremainsafterpayinginthecompletestmannerallthenecessaryexpenseswhichmustbepreviouslylaidoutinordertoraisethegrossorthewholeproduce。Itisbecausethelabourofthecultivators,overandabovepayingcompletelyallthosenecessaryexpenses,affordsanetproduceofthiskindthatthisclassofpeopleareinthissystempeculiarlydistinguishedbythehonourableappellationoftheproductiveclass。Theiroriginalandannualexpensesareforthesamereasoncalled,inthissystem,productiveexpenses,because,overandabovereplacingtheirownvalue,theyoccasiontheannualreproductionofthisnetproduce。
Thegroundexpenses,astheyarecalled,orwhatthelandlordlaysoutupontheimprovementofhisland,areinthissystem,too,honouredwiththeappellationofproductiveexpenses。Tillthewholeofthoseexpenses,togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsofstock,havebeencompletelyrepaidtohimbytheadvancedrentwhichhegetsfromhisland,thatadvancedrentoughttoberegardedassacredandinviolable,bothbythechurchandbytheking;oughttobesubjectneithertotithenortotaxation。Ifitisotherwise,bydiscouragingtheimprovementoflandthechurchdiscouragesthefutureincreaseofherowntithes,andthekingthefutureincreaseofhisowntaxes。Asinawell—orderedstateofthings,therefore,thosegroundexpenses,overandabovereproducinginthecompletestmannertheirownvalue,occasionlikewiseafteracertaintimeareproductionofanetproduce,theyareinthissystemconsideredasproductiveexpenses。
Thegroundexpensesofthelandlord,however,togetherwiththeoriginalandtheannualexpensesofthefarmer,aretheonlythreesortsofexpenseswhichinthissystemareconsideredasproductive。Allotherexpensesandallotherordersofpeople,eventhosewhointhecommonapprehensionsofmenareregardedasthemostproductive,areinthisaccountofthingsrepresentedasaltogetherbarrenandunproductive。
Artificersandmanufacturersinparticular,whoseindustry,inthecommonapprehensionsofmen,increasessomuchthevalueoftherudeproduceofland,areinthissystemrepresentedasaclassofpeoplealtogetherbarrenandunproductive。Theirlabour,itissaid,replacesonlythestockwhichemploysthem,togetherwithitsordinaryprofits。Thatstockconsistsinthematerials,tools,andwagesadvancedtothembytheiremployer;andisthefunddestinedfortheiremploymentandmaintenance。Itsprofitsarethefunddestinedforthemaintenanceoftheiremployer。
Theiremployer,asheadvancestothemthestockofmaterials,tools,andwagesnecessaryfortheiremployment,soheadvancestohimselfwhatisnecessaryforhisownmaintenance,andthismaintenancehegenerallyproportionstotheprofitwhichheexpectstomakebythepriceoftheirwork。Unlessitspricerepaystohimthemaintenancewhichheadvancestohimself,aswellasthematerials,tools,andwageswhichheadvancestohisworkmen,itevidentlydoesnotrepaytohimthewholeexpensewhichhelaysoutuponit。Theprofitsofmanufacturingstockthereforearenot,liketherentofland,anetproducewhichremainsaftercompletelyrepayingthewholeexpensewhichmustbelaidoutinordertoobtainthem。Thestockofthefarmeryieldshimaprofitaswellasthatofthemastermanufacturer;andityieldsarentlikewisetoanotherperson,whichthatofthemastermanufacturerdoesnot。Theexpense,therefore,laidoutinemployingandmaintainingartificersandmanufacturersdoesnomorethancontinue,ifonemaysayso,theexistenceofitsownvalue,anddoesnotproduceanynewvalue。Itisthereforealtogetherabarrenandunproductiveexpense。Theexpense,onthecontrary,laidoutinemployingfarmersandcountrylabourers,overandabovecontinuingtheexistenceofitsownvalue,producesanewvalue,therentofthelandlord。Itisthereforeaproductiveexpense。
Mercantilestockisequallybarrenandunproductivewithmanufacturingstock。Itonlycontinuestheexistenceofitsownvalue,withoutproducinganynewvalue。Itsprofitsareonlytherepaymentofthemaintenancewhichitsemployeradvancestohimselfduringthetimethatheemploysit,ortillhereceivesthereturnsofit。Theyareonlytherepaymentofapartoftheexpensewhichmustbelaidoutinemployingit。
Thelabourofartificersandmanufacturersneveraddsanythingtothevalueofthewholeannualamountoftherudeproduceoftheland。Itadds,indeed,greatlytothevalueofsomeparticularpartsofit。Buttheconsumptionwhichinthemeantimeitoccasionsofotherpartsispreciselyequaltothevaluewhichitaddstothoseparts;sothatthevalueofthewholeamountisnot,atanyonemomentoftime,intheleastaugmentedbyit。Thepersonwhoworksthelaceofapairoffineruffles,forexample,willsometimesraisethevalueofperhapsapennyworthofflaxtothirtypoundssterling。Butthoughatfirstsightheappearstherebytomultiplythevalueofapartoftherudeproduceaboutseventhousandandtwohundredtimes,heinrealityaddsnothingtothevalueofthewholeannualamountoftherudeproduce。Theworkingofthatlacecostshimperhapstwoyears’labour。Thethirtypoundswhichhegetsforitwhenitisfinishedisnomorethantherepaymentofthesubsistencewhichheadvancestohimselfduringthetwoyearsthatheisemployedaboutit。Thevaluewhich,byeveryday’s,month’s,oryear’slabour,headdstotheflaxdoesnomorethanreplacethevalueofhisownconsumptionduringthatday,month,oryear。Atnomomentoftime,therefore,doesheaddanythingtothevalueofthewholeannualamountoftherudeproduceoftheland:theportionofthatproducewhichheiscontinuallyconsumingbeingalwaysequaltothevaluewhichheiscontinuallyproducing。Theextremepovertyofthegreaterpartofthepersonsemployedinthisexpensivethoughtriflingmanufacturemaysatisfyusthatthepriceoftheirworkdoesnotinordinarycasesexceedthevalueoftheirsubsistence。Itisotherwisewiththeworkoffarmersandcountrylabourers。Therentofthelandlordisavaluewhich,inordinarycases,itiscontinuallyproducing,overandabovereplacing,inthemostcompletemanner,thewholeconsumption,thewholeexpenselaidoutupontheemploymentandmaintenancebothoftheworkmenandoftheiremployer。
Artificers,manufacturers,andmerchantscanaugmenttherevenueandwealthoftheirsocietybyparsimonyonly;or,asitinthissystem,byprivation,thatis,bydeprivingthemselvesapartofthefundsdestinedfortheirownsubsistence。Theyannuallyreproducenothingbutthosefunds。Unless,therefore,theyannuallysavesomepartofthem,unlesstheyannuallydeprivethemselvesoftheenjoymentofsomepartofthem,therevenueandwealthoftheirsocietycanneverbeinthesmallestdegreeaugmentedbymeansoftheirindustry。Farmersandcountrylabourers,onthecontrary,mayenjoycompletelythewholefundsdestinedfortheirownsubsistence,andyetaugmentatthesametimetherevenueandwealthoftheirsociety。Overandabovewhatisdestinedfortheirownsubsistence,theirindustryannuallyaffordsanetproduce,ofwhichtheaugmentationnecessarilyaugmentstherevenueandwealthoftheirsociety。Nationsthereforewhich,likeFranceorEngland,consistinagreatmeasureofproprietorsandcultivatorscanbeenrichedbyindustryandenjoyment。Nations,onthecontrary,which,likeHollandandHamburg,arecomposedchieflyofmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturerscangrowrichonlythroughparsimonyandprivation。Astheinterestofnationssodifferentlycircumstancedisverydifferent,soislikewisethecommoncharacterofthepeople:inthoseoftheformerkind,liberality,franknessandgoodfellowshipnaturallymakeapartofthatcommoncharacter:inthelatter,narrowness,meanness,andaselfishdisposition,aversetoallsocialpleasureandenjoyment。
Theunproductiveclass,thatofmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturers,ismaintainedandemployedaltogetherattheexpenseofthetwootherclasses,ofthatofproprietors,andofthatofcultivators。Theyfurnishitbothwiththematerialsofitsworkandwiththefundofitssubsistence,withthecornandcattlewhichitconsumeswhileitisemployedaboutthatwork。
Theproprietorsandcultivatorsfinallypayboththewagesofalltheworkmenoftheunproductiveclass,andoftheprofitsofalltheiremployers。Thoseworkmenandtheiremployersareproperlytheservantsoftheproprietorsandcultivators。Theyareonlyservantswhoworkwithoutdoors,asmenialservantsworkwithin。
Boththeoneandtheother,however,areequallymaintainedattheexpenseofthesamemasters。Thelabourofbothisequallyunproductive。Itaddsnothingtothevalueofthesumtotaloftherudeproduceoftheland。Insteadofincreasingthevalueofthatsumtotal,itisachargeandexpensewhichmustbepaidoutofit。
Theunproductiveclass,however,isnotonlyuseful,butgreatlyusefultotheothertwoclasses。Bymeansoftheindustryofmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturers,theproprietorsandcultivatorscanpurchaseboththeforeigngoodsandthemanufacturedproduceoftheirowncountrywhichtheyhaveoccasionforwiththeproduceofamuchsmallerquantityoftheirownlabourthanwhattheywouldbeobligedtoemployiftheyweretoattempt,inanawkwardandunskilfulmanner,eithertoimporttheoneortomaketheotherfortheirownuse。Bymeansoftheunproductiveclass,thecultivatorsaredeliveredfrommanycareswhichwouldotherwisedistracttheirattentionfromthecultivationofland。Thesuperiorityofproduce,which,inconsequenceofthisundividedattention,theyareenabledtoraise,isfullysufficienttopaythewholeexpensewhichthemaintenanceandemploymentoftheunproductiveclasscostseithertheproprietorsorthemselves。Theindustryofmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturers,thoughinitsownnaturealtogetherunproductive,yetcontributesinthismannerindirectlytoincreasetheproduceoftheland。Itincreasestheproductivepowersofproductivelabourbyleavingitatlibertytoconfineitselftoitsproperemployment,thecultivationofland;andtheploughgoesfrequentlytheeasierandthebetterbymeansofthelabourofthemanwhosebusinessismostremotefromtheplough。
Itcanneverbetheinterestoftheproprietorsandcultivatorstorestrainortodiscourageinanyrespecttheindustryofmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturers。Thegreaterthelibertywhichthisunproductiveclassenjoys,thegreaterwillbethecompetitioninallthedifferenttradeswhichcomposeit,andthecheaperwilltheothertwoclassesbesupplied,bothwithforeigngoodsandwiththemanufacturedproduceoftheirowncountry。
Itcanneverbetheinterestoftheunproductiveclasstooppresstheothertwoclasses。Itisthesurplusproduceoftheland,orwhatremainsafterdeductingthemaintenance,first,ofthecultivators,andafterwardsoftheproprietors,thatmaintainsandemploystheunproductiveclass。Thegreaterthissurplusthegreatermustlikewisebethemaintenanceandemploymentofthatclass。Theestablishmentofperfectjustice,ofperfectliberty,andofperfectequalityistheverysimplesecretwhichmosteffectuallysecuresthehighestdegreeofprosperitytoallthethreeclasses。
Themerchants,artificers,andmanufacturersofthosemercantilestateswhich,likeHollandandHamburg,consistchieflyofthisunproductiveclass,areinthesamemannermaintainedandemployedaltogetherattheexpenseoftheproprietorsandcultivatorsofland。Theonlydifferenceis,thatthoseproprietorsandcultivatorsare,thegreaterpartofthem,placedatamostinconvenientdistancefromthemerchants,artificers,andmanufacturerswhomtheysupplywiththematerialsoftheirworkandthefundoftheirsubsistences—theinhabitantsofothercountriesandthesubjectsofothergovernments。
Suchmercantilestates,however,arenotonlyuseful,butgreatlyusefultotheinhabitantsofthoseothercountries。Theyfillup,insomemeasure,averyimportantvoid,andsupplytheplaceofthemerchants,artificers,andmanufacturerswhomtheinhabitantsofthosecountriesoughttofindathome,butwhom,fromsomedefectintheirpolicy,theydonotfindathome。
Itcanneverbetheinterestofthoselandednations,ifI
maycallthemso,todiscourageordistresstheindustryofsuchmercantilestatesbyimposinghighdutiesupontheirtradeoruponthecommoditieswhichtheyfurnish。Suchduties,byrenderingthosecommoditiesdearer,couldserveonlytosinktherealvalueofthesurplusproduceoftheirownland,withwhich,or,whatcomestothesamething,withthepriceofwhichthosecommoditiesarepurchased。Suchdutiescouldserveonlytodiscouragetheincreaseofthatsurplusproduce,andconsequentlytheimprovementandcultivationoftheirownland。Themosteffectualexpedient,onthecontrary,forraisingthevalueofthatsurplusproduce,forencouragingitsincrease,andconsequentlytheimprovementandcultivationoftheirownlandwouldbetoallowthemostperfectfreedomtothetradeofallsuchmercantilenations。
Thisperfectfreedomoftradewouldevenbethemosteffectualexpedientforsupplyingthem,induetime,withalltheartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantswhomtheywantedathome,andforfillingupintheproperestandmostadvantageousmannerthatveryimportantvoidwhichtheyfeltthere。
Thecontinualincreaseofthesurplusproduceoftheirlandwould,induetime,createagreatercapitalthanwhatcouldbeemployedwiththeordinaryrateofprofitintheimprovementandcultivationofland;andthesurpluspartofitwouldnaturallyturnitselftotheemploymentofartificersandmanufacturersathome。Butthoseartificersandmanufacturers,findingathomeboththematerialsoftheirworkandthefundoftheirsubsistence,mightimmediatelyevenwithmuchlessartandskillbeabletoworkascheapasthelikeartificersandmanufacturersofsuchmercantilestateswhohadbothtobringfromagreatdistance。Eventhough,fromwantofartandskill,theymightnotforsometimebeabletoworkascheap,yet,findingamarketathome,theymightbeabletoselltheirworkthereascheapasthatoftheartificersandmanufacturersofsuchmercantilestates,whichcouldnotbebroughttothatmarketbutfromsogreatadistance;andastheirartandskillimproved,theywouldsoonbeabletosellitcheaper。Theartificersandmanufacturersofsuchmercantilestates,therefore,wouldimmediatelyberivalledinthemarketofthoselandednations,andsoonafterundersoldandjostledoutofitaltogether。Thecheapnessofthemanufacturesofthoselandednations,inconsequenceofthegradualimprovementsofartandskill,would,induetime,extendtheirsalebeyondthehomemarket,andcarrythemtomanyforeignmarkets,fromwhichtheywouldinthesamemannergraduallyjostleoutmanyofthemanufacturersofsuchmercantilenations。
Thiscontinualincreasebothoftherudeandmanufacturedproduceofthoselandednationswouldinduetimecreateagreatercapitalthancould,withtheordinaryrateofprofit,beemployedeitherinagricultureorinmanufactures。Thesurplusofthiscapitalwouldnaturallyturnitselftoforeigntrade,andbeemployedinexportingtoforeigncountriessuchpartsoftherudeandmanufacturedproduceofitsowncountryasexceededthedemandofthehomemarket。Intheexportationoftheproduceoftheirowncountry,themerchantsofalandednationwouldhaveanadvantageofthesamekindoverthoseofmercantilenationswhichitsartificersandmanufacturershadovertheartificersandmanufacturersofsuchnations;theadvantageoffindingathomethatcargoandthosestoresandprovisionswhichtheotherswereobligedtoseekforatadistance。Withinferiorartandskillinnavigation,therefore,theywouldbeabletosellthatcargoascheapinforeignmarketsasthemerchantsofsuchmercantilenations;andwithequalartandskilltheywouldbeabletosellitcheaper。Theywouldsoon,therefore,rivalthosemercantilenationsinthisbranchofforeigntrade,andinduetimewouldjostlethemoutofitaltogether。
Accordingtothisliberalandgeneroussystem,therefore,themostadvantageousmethodinwhichalandednationcanraiseupartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsofitsownistograntthemostperfectfreedomoftradetotheartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsofallothernations。Ittherebyraisesthevalueofthesurplusproduceofitsownland,ofwhichthecontinualincreasegraduallyestablishesafund,whichinduetimenecessarilyraisesupalltheartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantswhomithasoccasionfor。
Whenalandednation,onthecontrary,oppresseseitherbyhighdutiesorbyprohibitionsthetradeofforeignnations,itnecessarilyhurtsitsowninterestintwodifferentways。First,byraisingthepriceofallforeigngoodsandofallsortsofmanufactures,itnecessarilysinkstherealvalueofthesurplusproduceofitsownland,withwhich,or,whatcomestothesamething,withthepriceofwhichitpurchasesthoseforeigngoodsandmanufactures。Secondly,bygivingasortofmonopolyofthehomemarkettoitsownmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturers,itraisestherateofmercantileandmanufacturingprofitinproportiontothatofagriculturalprofit,andconsequentlyeitherdrawsfromagricultureapartofthecapitalwhichhadbeforebeenemployedinit,orhindersfromgoingtoitapartofwhatwouldotherwisehavegonetoit。Thispolicy,therefore,discouragesagricultureintwodifferentways;first,bysinkingtherealvalueofitsproduce,andtherebyloweringtherateofitsprofit;and,secondly,byraisingtherateofprofitinallotheremployments。Agricultureisrenderedlessadvantageous,andtradeandmanufacturesmoreadvantageousthantheyotherwisewouldbe;andeverymanistemptedbyhisowninteresttoturn,asmuchashecan,bothhiscapitalandhisindustryfromtheformertothelatteremployments。
Though,bythisoppressivepolicy,alandednationshouldbeabletoraiseupartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsofitsownsomewhatsoonerthanitcoulddobythefreedomoftradeamatter,however,whichisnotalittledoubtful—yetitwouldraisethemup,ifonemaysayso,prematurely,andbeforeitwasperfectlyripeforthem。Byraisinguptoohastilyonespeciesofindustry,itwoulddepressanothermorevaluablespeciesofindustry。Byraisinguptoohastilyaspeciesofindustrywhichonlyreplacesthestockwhichemploysit,togetherwiththeordinaryprofit,itwoulddepressaspeciesofindustrywhich,overandabovereplacingthatstockwithitsprofit,affordslikewiseanetproduce,afreerenttothelandlord。Itwoulddepressproductivelabour,byencouragingtoohastilythatlabourwhichisaltogetherbarrenandunproductive。
Inwhatmanner,accordingtothissystem,thesumtotaloftheannualproduceofthelandisdistributedamongthethreeclassesabovementioned,andinwhatmannerthelabouroftheunproductiveclassdoesnomorethanreplacethevalueofitsownconsumption,withoutincreasinginanyrespectthevalueofthatsumtotal,isrepresentedbyMr。Quesnai,theveryingeniousandprofoundauthorofthissystem,insomearithmeticalformularies。
Thefirstoftheseformularies,whichbywayofeminencehepeculiarlydistinguishesbythenameoftheEconomicalTable,representsthemannerinwhichhesupposesthedistributiontakesplaceinastateofthemostperfectlibertyandthereforeofthehighestprosperity—inastatewheretheannualproduceissuchastoaffordthegreatestpossiblenetproduce,andwhereeachclassenjoysitspropershareofthewholeannualproduce。Somesubsequentformulariesrepresentthemannerinwhichhesupposesthisdistributionismadeindifferentstatesofrestraintandregulation;inwhicheithertheclassofproprietorsorthebarrenandunproductiveclassismorefavouredthantheclassofcultivators,andinwhicheithertheoneortheotherencroachesmoreorlessuponthesharewhichoughtproperlytobelongtothisproductiveclass。Everysuchencroachment,everyviolationofthatnaturaldistribution,whichthemostperfectlibertywouldestablish,must,accordingtothissystem,necessarilydegrademoreorless,fromoneyeartoanother,thevalueandsumtotaloftheannualproduce,andmustnecessarilyoccasionagradualdeclensionintherealwealthandrevenueofthesociety;
adeclensionofwhichtheprogressmustbequickerorslower,accordingtothedegreeofthisencroachment,accordingasthatnaturaldistributionwhichthemostperfectlibertywouldestablishismoreorlessviolated。Thosesubsequentformulariesrepresentthedifferentdegreesofdeclensionwhich,accordingtothissystem,correspondtothedifferentdegreesinwhichthisnaturaldistributionisviolated。
Somespeculativephysiciansseemtohaveimaginedthatthehealthofthehumanbodycouldbepreservedonlybyacertainpreciseregimenofdietandexercise,ofwhichevery,thesmallest,violationnecessarilyoccasionedsomedegreeofdiseaseordisorderproportionedtothedegreeoftheviolation。
Experience,however,wouldseemtoshowthatthehumanbodyfrequentlypreserves,toallappearancesatleast,themostperfectstateofhealthunderavastvarietyofdifferentregimens;evenundersomewhicharegenerallybelievedtobeveryfarfrombeingperfectlywholesome。Butthehealthfulstateofthehumanbody,itwouldseem,containsinitselfsomeunknownprincipleofpreservation,capableeitherofpreventingorofcorrecting,inmanyrespects,thebadeffectsevenofaveryfaultyregimen。Mr。Quesnai,whowashimselfaphysician,andaveryspeculativephysician,seemstohaveentertainedanotionofthesamekindconcerningthepoliticalbody,andtohaveimaginedthatitwouldthriveandprosperonlyunderacertainpreciseregimen,theexactregimenofperfectlibertyandperfectjustice。Heseemsnottohaveconsideredthat,inthepoliticalbody,thenaturaleffortwhicheverymaniscontinuallymakingtobetterhisownconditionisaprincipleofpreservationcapableofpreventingandcorrecting,inmanyrespects,thebadeffectsofapoliticaleconomy,insomedegree,bothpartialandoppressive。Suchapoliticaleconomy,thoughitnodoubtretardsmoreorless,isnotalwayscapableofstoppingaltogetherthenaturalprogressofanationtowardswealthandprosperity,andstilllessofmakingitgobackwards。Ifanationcouldnotprosperwithouttheenjoymentofperfectlibertyandperfectjustice,thereisnotintheworldanationwhichcouldeverhaveprospered。Inthepoliticalbody,however,thewisdomofnaturehasfortunatelymadeampleprovisionforremedyingmanyofthebadeffectsofthefollyandinjusticeofman,inthesamemannerasithasdoneinthenaturalbodyforremedyingthoseofhisslothandintemperance。
Thecapitalerrorofthissystem,however,seemstolieinitsrepresentingtheclassofartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsasaltogetherbarrenandunproductive。Thefollowingobservationsmayservetoshowtheimproprietyofthisrepresentation。
First,thisclass,itisacknowledged,reproducesannuallythevalueofitsownannualconsumption,andcontinues,atleast,theexistenceofthestockorcapitalwhichmaintainsandemploysit。Butuponthisaccountalonethedenominationofbarrenorunproductiveshouldseemtobeveryimproperlyappliedtoit。Weshouldnotcallamarriagebarrenorunproductivethoughitproducedonlyasonandadaughter,toreplacethefatherandmother,andthoughitdidnotincreasethenumberofthehumanspecies,butonlycontinueditasitwasbefore。Farmersandcountrylabourers,indeed,overandabovethestockwhichmaintainsandemploysthem,reproduceannuallyanetproduce,afreerenttothelandlord。Asamarriagewhichaffordsthreechildreniscertainlymoreproductivethanonewhichaffordsonlytwo;sothelabouroffarmersandcountrylabourersiscertainlymoreproductivethanthatofmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturers。Thesuperiorproduceoftheoneclass,however,doesnotrendertheotherbarrenorunproductive。
Secondly,itseems,uponthisaccount,altogetherimpropertoconsiderartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsinthesamelightasmenialservants。Thelabourofmenialservantsdoesnotcontinuetheexistenceofthefundwhichmaintainsandemploysthem。Theirmaintenanceandemploymentisaltogetherattheexpenseoftheirmasters,andtheworkwhichtheyperformisnotofanaturetorepaythatexpense。Thatworkconsistsinserviceswhichperishgenerallyintheveryinstantoftheirperformance,anddoesnotfixorrealizeitselfinanyvendiblecommoditywhichcanreplacethevalueoftheirwagesandmaintenance。Thelabour,onthecontrary,ofartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsnaturallydoesfixandrealizeitselfinsomesuchvendiblecommodity。Itisuponthisaccountthat,inthechapterinwhichItreatofproductiveandunproductivelabour,Ihaveclassedartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsamongtheproductivelabourers,andmenialservantsamongthebarrenorunproductive。
Thirdly,itseemsuponeverysuppositionimpropertosaythatthelabourofartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsdoesnotincreasetherealrevenueofthesociety。Thoughweshouldsuppose,forexample,asitseemstobesupposedinthissystem,thatthevalueofthedaily,monthly,andyearlyconsumptionofthisclasswasexactlyequaltothatofitsdaily,monthly,andyearlyproduction,yetitwouldnotfromthencefollowthatitslabouraddednothingtotherealrevenue,totherealvalueoftheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。Anartificer,forexample,who,inthefirstsixmonthsafterharvest,executestenpounds’worthofwork,thoughheshouldinthesametimeconsumetenpounds’worthofcornandothernecessaries,yetreallyaddsthevalueoftenpoundstotheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。Whilehehasbeenconsumingahalf—yearlyrevenueoftenpounds’worthofcornandothernecessaries,hehasproducedanequalvalueofworkcapableofpurchasing,eithertohimselforsomeotherperson,anequalhalf—yearlyrevenue。Thevalue,therefore,ofwhathasbeenconsumedandproducedduringthesesixmonthsisequal,nottoten,buttotwentypounds。Itispossible,indeed,thatnomorethantenpounds’worthofthisvaluemayeverhaveexistedatanyonemomentoftime。Butifthetenpounds’worthofcornandothernecessaties,whichwereconsumedbytheartificer,hadbeenconsumedbyasoldierorbyamenialservant,thevalueofthatpartoftheannualproducewhichexistedattheendofthesixmonthswouldhavebeentenpoundslessthanitactuallyisinconsequenceofthelabouroftheartificer。Thoughthevalueofwhattheartificerproduces,therefore,shouldnotatanyonemomentoftimebesupposedgreaterthanthevalueheconsumes,yetateverymomentoftimetheactuallyexistingvalueofgoodsinthemarketis,inconsequenceofwhatheproduces,greaterthanitotherwisewouldbe。
Whenthepatronsofthissystemassertthattheconsumptionofartificers,manufacturers,andmerchantsisequaltothevalueofwhattheyproduce,theyprobablymeannomorethanthattheirrevenue,orthefunddestinedfortheirconsumption,isequaltoit。Butiftheyhadexpressedthemselvesmoreaccurately,andonlyassertedthattherevenueofthisclasswasequaltothevalueofwhattheyproduced,itmightreadilyhaveoccurredtothereaderthatwhatwouldnaturallybesavedoutofthisrevenuemustnecessarilyincreasemoreorlesstherealwealthofthesociety。Inorder,therefore,tomakeoutsomethinglikeanargument,itwasnecessarythattheyshouldexpressthemselvesastheyhavedone;andthisargument,evensupposingthingsactuallywereasitseemstopresumethemtobe,turnsouttobeaveryinconclusiveone。
Fourthly,farmersandcountrylabourerscannomoreaugment,withoutparsimony,therealrevenue,theannualproduceofthelandandlabouroftheirsociety,thanartificers,manufacturers,andmerchants。Theannualproduceofthelandandlabourofanysocietycanbeaugmentedonlyintwoways;either,first,bysomeimprovementintheproductivepowersoftheusefullabouractuallymaintainedwithinit;or,secondly,bysomeincreaseinthequantityofthatlabour。
Theimprovementintheproductivepowersofusefullabourdepend,first,upontheimprovementintheabilityoftheworkman;and,secondly,uponthatofthemachinerywithwhichheworks。Butthelabourofartificersandmanufacturers,asitiscapableofbeingmoresubdivided,andthelabourofeachworkmanreducedtoagreatersimplicityofoperationthanthatoffarmersandcountrylabourers,soitislikewisecapableofboththesesortsofimprovementsinamuchhigherdegree。Inthisrespect,therefore,theclassofcultivatorscanhavenosortofadvantageoverthatofartificersandmanufacturers。
Theincreaseinthequantityofusefullabouractuallyemployedwithinanysocietymustdependaltogetherupontheincreaseofthecapitalwhichemploysit;andtheincreaseofthatcapitalagainmustbeexactlyequaltotheamountofthesavingsfromtherevenue,eitheroftheparticularpersonswhomanageanddirecttheemploymentofthatcapital,orofsomeotherpersonswholendittothem。Ifmerchants,artificers,andmanufacturersare,asthissystemseemstosuppose,naturallymoreinclinedtoparsimonyandsavingthanproprietorsandcultivators,theyare,sofar,morelikelytoaugmentthequantityofusefullabouremployedwithintheirsociety,andconsequentlytoincreaseitsrealrevenue,theannualproduceofitslandandlabour。
Fifthlyandlastly,thoughtherevenueoftheinhabitantsofeverycountrywassupposedtoconsistaltogether,asthissystemseemstosuppose,inthequantityofsubsistencewhichtheirindustrycouldprocuretothem;yet,evenuponthissupposition,therevenueofatradingandmanufacturingcountrymust,otherthingsbeingequal,alwaysbemuchgreaterthanthatofonewithouttradeormanufactures。Bymeansoftradeandmanufactures,agreaterquantityofsubsistencecanbeannuallyimportedintoaparticularcountrythanwhatitsownlands,intheactualstateoftheircultivation,couldafford。Theinhabitantsofatown,thoughtheyfrequentlypossessnolandsoftheirown,yetdrawtothemselvesbytheirindustrysuchaquantityoftherudeproduceofthelandsofotherpeopleassuppliesthem,notonlywiththematerialsoftheirwork,butwiththefundoftheirsubsistence。Whatatownalwaysiswithregardtothecountryinitsneighbourhood,oneindependentstateorcountrymayfrequentlybewithregardtootherindependentstatesorcountries。ItisthusthatHollanddrawsagreatpartofitssubsistencefromothercountries;livecattlefromHolsteinandJutland,andcornfromalmostallthedifferentcountriesofEurope。Asmallquantityofmanufacturedproducepurchasesagreatquantityofrudeproduce。Atradingandmanufacturingcountry,therefore,naturallypurchaseswithasmallpartofitsmanufacturedproduceagreatpartoftherudeproduceofothercountries;while,onthecontrary,acountrywithouttradeandmanufacturesisgenerallyobligedtopurchase,attheexpenseofagreatpartofitsrudeproduce,averysmallpartofthemanufacturedproduceofothercountries。Theoneexportswhatcansubsistandaccommodatebutaveryfew,andimportsthesubsistenceandaccommodationofagreatnumber。Theotherexportstheaccommodationandsubsistenceofagreatnumber,andimportsthatofaveryfewonly。Theinhabitantsoftheonemustalwaysenjoyamuchgreaterquantityofsubsistencethanwhattheirownlands,intheactualstateoftheircultivation,couldafford。Theinhabitantsoftheothermustalwaysenjoyamuchsmallerquantity。
Thissystem,however,withallitsimperfectionsis,perhaps,thenearestapproximationtothetruththathasyetbeenpublisheduponthesubjectofpoliticaleconomy,andisuponthataccountwellworththeconsiderationofeverymanwhowishestoexaminewithattentiontheprinciplesofthatveryimportantscience。Thoughinrepresentingthelabourwhichisemployeduponlandastheonlyproductivelabour,thenotionswhichitinculcatesareperhapstoonarrowandconfined;yetinrepresentingthewealthofnationsasconsisting,notintheunconsumablerichesofmoney,butintheconsumablegoodsannuallyreproducedbythelabourofthesociety,andinrepresentingperfectlibertyastheonlyeffectualexpedientforrenderingthisannualreproductionthegreatestpossible,itsdoctrineseemstobeineveryrespectasjustasitisgenerousandliberal。Itsfollowersareverynumerous;andasmenarefondofparadoxes,andofappearingtounderstandwhatsurpassesthecomprehensionofordinarypeople,theparadoxwhichitmaintains,concerningtheunproductivenatureofmanufacturinglabour,hasnotperhapscontributedalittletoincreasethenumberofitsadmirers。Theyhaveforsomeyearspastmadeaprettyconsiderablesect,distinguishedintheFrenchrepublicoflettersbythenameofTheEconomists。Theirworkshavecertainlybeenofsomeservicetotheircountry;notonlybybringingintogeneraldiscussionmanysubjectswhichhadneverbeenwellexaminedbefore,butbyinfluencinginsomemeasurethepublicadministrationinfavourofagriculture。Ithasbeeninconsequenceoftheirrepresentations,accordingly,thattheagricultureofFrancehasbeendeliveredfromseveraloftheoppressionswhichitbeforelabouredunder。