Inordertopreventexportation,thewholeinlandcommerceofwoolislaidunderveryburdensomeandoppressiverestrictions。Itcannotbepackedinanybox,barrel,cask,case,chest,oranyotherpackage,butonlyinpacksofleatherorpack—cloth,onwhichmustbemarkedontheoutsidethewordswooloryam,inlargelettersnotlessthanthreeincheslong,onpainofforfeitingthesameandthepackage,andthreeshillingsforeverypoundweight,tobepaidbytheownerorpacker。Itcannotbeloadenonanyhorseorcart,orcarriedbylandwithinfivemilesofthecoast,butbetweensun—risingandsun—setting,onpainofforfeitingthesame,thehorsesandcarriages。Thehundrednextadjoiningtothesea—coast,outoforthroughwhichthewooliscarriedorexported,forfeitstwentypounds,ifthewoolisunderthevalueoftenpounds;andifofgreatervalue,thentreblethatvalue,togetherwithtreblecosts,tobesuedforwithintheyear。Theexecutiontobeagainstanytwooftheinhabitants,whomthesessionsmustreimburse,byanassessmentontheotherinhabitants,asinthecasesofrobbery。Andifanypersoncompoundswiththehundredforlessthanthispenalty,heistobeimprisonedforfiveyears;andanyotherpersonmayprosecute。Theseregulationstakeplacethroughthewholekingdom。
ButintheparticularcountiesofKentandSussex,therestrictionsarestillmoretroublesome。Everyownerofwoolwithintenmilesofthesea—coastmustgivenanaccountinwriting,threedaysaftershearingtothenextofficerofthecustoms,ofthenumberofhisfleeces,andoftheplaceswheretheyarelodged。Andbeforeheremovesanypartofthemhemustgivethelikenoticeofthenumberandweightofthefleeces,andofthenameandabodeofthepersontowhomtheyaresold,andoftheplacetowhichitisintendedtheyshouldbecarried。Nopersonwithinfifteenmilesofthesea,inthesaidcounties,canbuyanywoolbeforeheentersintobondtothekingthatnopartofthewoolwhichheshallsobuyshallbesoldbyhimtoanyotherpersonwithinfifteenmilesofthesea。Ifanywoolisfoundcarryingtowardsthesea—sideinthesaidcounties,unlessithasbeenenteredandsecuritygivenasaforesaid,itisforfeited,andtheoffenderalsoforfeitsthreeshillingsforeverypoundweight。Ifanypersonlaysanywoolnotenteredasaforesaidwithinfifteenmilesofthesea,itmustbeseizedandforfeited;andif,aftersuchseizure,anypersonclaimthesame,hemustgivesecuritytotheExchequerthatifheiscastupontrialheshallpaytreblecosts,besidesallotherpenalties。
Whensuchrestrictionsareimposedupontheinlandtrade,thecoastingtrade,wemaybelieve,cannotbeleftveryfree。
Everyownerofwoolwhocarriesorcausestobecarriedanywooltoanyportorplaceontheseacoast,inordertobefromthencetransportedbyseatoanyotherplaceorportonthecoast,mustfirstcauseanentrythereoftobemadeattheportfromwhenceitisintendedtobeconveyed,containingtheweight,marks,andnumberofthepackages,beforehebringsthesamewithinfivemilesofthatport,onpainofforfeitingthesame,andalsothehorses,carts,andothercarriages;andalsoofsufferingandforfeitingasbytheotherlawsinforceagainsttheexportationofwool。Thislaw,however(1stWilliamIII,c。32),issoveryindulgentastodeclarethat,\"Thisshallnothinderanypersonfromcarryinghiswoolhomefromtheplaceofshearing,thoughitbewithinfivemilesofthesea,providedthatintendaysaftershearing,andbeforeheremovethewool,hedounderhishandcertifytothenextofficerofthecustoms,thetruenumberoffleeces,andwhereitishoused;anddonotremovethesame,withoutcertifyingtosuchofficer,underhishand,hisintentionsotodo,threedaysbefore。\"Bondmustbegiventhatthewooltobecarriedcoastwaysistobelandedattheparticularportforwhichitisenteredoutwards;andifanypartofitislandedwithoutthepresenceofanofficer,notonlytheforfeitureofthewoolisincurredasinothergoods,buttheusualadditionalpenaltyofthreeshillingsforeverypoundweightislikewiseincurred。
Ourwoollenmanufactures,inordertojustifytheirdemandofsuchextraordinaryrestrictionsandregulations,confidentlyassertedthatEnglishwoolwasofapeculiarquality,superiortothatofanyothercountry;thatthewoolofothercountriescouldnot,withoutsomemixtureofit,bewroughtupintoanytolerablemanufacture;thatfineclothcouldnotbemadewithoutit;thatEngland,therefore,iftheexportationofitcouldbetotallyprevented,couldmonopolizetoherselfalmostthewholewoollentradeoftheworld;andthus,havingnorivals,couldsellatwhatpriceshepleased,andinashorttimeacquirethemostincredibledegreeofwealthbythemostadvantageousbalanceoftrade。Thisdoctrine,likemostotherdoctrineswhichareconfidentlyassertedbyanyconsiderablenumberofpeople,was,andstillcontinuestobe,mostimplicitlybelievedbyamuchgreaternumber—byalmostallthosewhoareeitherunacquaintedwiththewoollentrade,orwhohavenotmadeparticularinquiries。Itis,however,soperfectlyfalsethatEnglishwoolisinanyrespectnecessaryforthemakingoffinecloththatitisaltogetherunfitforit。FineclothismadealtogetherofSpanishwool。EnglishwoolcannotbeevensomixedwithSpanishwoolastoenterintothecompositionwithoutspoilinganddegrading,insomedegree,thefabricofthecloth。
IthasbeenshownintheforegoingpartofthisworkthattheeffectoftheseregulationshasbeentodepressthepriceofEnglishwool,notonlybelowwhatitnaturallywouldbeinthepresenttimes,butverymuchbelowwhatitactuallywasinthetimeofEdwardIII。ThepriceofScotswool,wheninconsequenceoftheunionitbecamesubjecttothesameregulations,issaidtohavefallenaboutonehalf。ItisobservedbytheveryaccurateandintelligentauthoroftheMemoirsofWool,theReverendMr。JohnSmith,thatthepriceofthebestEnglishwoolinEnglandisgenerallybelowwhatwoolofaveryinferiorqualitycommonlysellsforinthemarketofAmsterdam。Todepressthepriceofthiscommoditybelowwhatmaybecalleditsnaturalandproperpricewastheavowedpurposeofthoseregulations;andthereseemstobenodoubtoftheirhavingproducedtheeffectthatwasexpectedfromthem。
Thisreductionofprice,itmayperhapsbethought,bydiscouragingthegrowingofwool,musthavereducedverymuchtheannualproduceofthatcommodity,thoughnotbelowwhatitformerlywas,yetbelowwhat,inthepresentstateofthings,itprobablywouldhavebeen,hadit,inconsequenceofanopenandfreemarket,beenallowedtorisetothenaturalandproperprice。Iam,however,disposedtobelievethatthequantityoftheannualproducecannothavebeenmuch,thoughitmayperhapshavebeenalittle,affectedbytheseregulations。Thegrowingofwoolisnotthechiefpurposeforwhichthesheepfarmeremployshisindustryandstock。Heexpectshisprofitnotsomuchfromthepriceofthefleeceasfromthatofthecarcass;andtheaverageorordinarypriceofthelattermusteven,inmanycases,makeuptohimwhateverdeficiencytheremaybeintheaverageorordinarypriceoftheformer。Ithasbeenobservedintheforegoingpartofthisworkthat,\"Whateverregulationstendtosinktheprice,eitherofwoolorofrawhides,belowwhatitnaturallywouldbe,must,inanimprovedandcultivatedcountry,havesometendencytoraisethepriceofbutcher’smeat。Thepricebothofthegreatandsmallcattlewhicharefedonimprovedandcultivatedlandmustbesufficienttopaytherentwhichthelandlord,andtheprofitwhichthefarmerhasreasontoexpectfromimprovedandcultivatedland。Ifitisnot,theywillsoonceasetofeedthem。Whateverpartofthisprice,therefore,isnotpaidbythewoolandthehidemustbepaidbythecarcass。
Thelessthereispaidfortheone,themoremustbepaidfortheother。Inwhatmannerthispriceistobedivideduponthedifferentpartsofthebeastisindifferenttothelandlordsandfarmers,provideditisallpaidtothem。Inanimprovedandcultivatedcountry,therefore,theirinterestaslandlordsandfarmerscannotbemuchaffectedbysuchregulations,thoughtheirinterestasconsumersmaybytheriseinthepriceofprovisions。\"Accordingtothisreasoning,therefore,thisdegradationinthepriceofwoolisnotlikely,inanimprovedandcultivatedcountry,tooccasionanydiminutionintheannualproduceofthatcommodity,exceptsofaras,byraisingthepriceofmutton,itmaysomewhatdiminishthedemandfor,andconsequentlytheproductionof,thatparticularspeciesofbutcher’smeat。Itseffect,however,eveninthisway,itisprobable,isnotveryconsiderable。
Butthoughitseffectuponthequantityoftheannualproducemaynothavebeenveryconsiderable,itseffectuponthequality,itmayperhapsbethought,mustnecessarilyhavebeenverygreat。ThedegradationinthequalityofEnglishwool,ifnotbelowwhatitwasinformertimes,yetbelowwhatitnaturallywouldhavebeeninthepresentstateofimprovementandcultivation,musthavebeen,itmayperhapsbesupposed,verynearlyinproportiontothedegradationofprice。Asthequalitydependsuponthebreed,uponthepasture,anduponthemanagementandcleanlinessofthesheep,duringthewholeprogressofthegrowthofthefleece,theattentiontothesecircumstances,itmaynaturallyenoughbeimagined,canneverbegreaterthaninproportiontotherecompensewhichthepriceofthefleeceislikelytomakeforthelabourandexpensewhichthatattentionrequires。Ithappens,however,thatthegoodnessofthefleecedepends,inagreatmeasure,uponthehealth,growth,andbulkoftheanimal;thesameattentionwhichisnecessaryfortheimprovementofthecarcaseis,insomerespects,sufficientforthatofthefleece。Notwithstandingthedegradationofprice,Englishwoolissaidtohavebeenimprovedconsiderablyduringthecourseevenofthepresentcentury。Theimprovementmightperhapshavebeengreaterifthepricehadbeenbetter;butthelownessofprice,thoughitmayhaveobstructed,yetcertainlyithasnotaltogetherpreventedthatimprovement。
Theviolenceoftheseregulations,therefore,seemstohaveaffectedneitherthequantitynorthequalityoftheannualproduceofwoolsomuchasitmighthavebeenexpectedtodo(thoughIthinkitprobablethatitmayhaveaffectedthelatteragooddealmorethantheformer);andtheinterestofthegrowersofwool,thoughitmusthavebeenhurtinsomedegree,seems,uponthewhole,tohavebeenmuchlesshurtthancouldwellhavebeenimagined。
Theseconsiderations,however,willnotjustifytheabsoluteprohibitionoftheexportationofwool。Buttheywillfullyjustifytheimpositionofaconsiderabletaxuponthatexportation。
Tohurtinanydegreetheinterestofanyoneorderofcitizens,fornootherpurposebuttopromotethatofsomeother,isevidentlycontrarytothatjusticeandequalityoftreatmentwhichthesovereignowestoallthedifferentordersofhissubjects。Buttheprohibitioncertainlyhurts,insomedegree,theinterestofthegrowersofwool,fornootherpurposebuttopromotethatofthemanufacturers。
Everydifferentorderofcitizensisboundtocontributetothesupportofthesovereignorcommonwealth。Ataxoffive,orevenoftenshillingsupontheexportationofeverytonofwoolwouldproduceaveryconsiderablerevenuetothesovereign。Itwouldhurttheinterestofthegrowerssomewhatlessthantheprohibition,becauseitwouldnotprobablylowerthepriceofwoolquitesomuch。Itwouldaffordasufficientadvantagetothemanufacturer,because,thoughhemightnotbuyhiswoolaltogethersocheapasundertheprohibition,hewouldstillbuyit,atleast,fiveortenshillingscheaperthananyforeignmanufacturercouldbuyit,besidessavingthefreightandinsurance,whichtheotherwouldbeobligedtopay。Itisscarcepossibletodeviseataxwhichcouldproduceanyconsiderablerevenuetothesovereign,andatthesametimeoccasionsolittleinconveniencytoanybody。
Theprohibition,notwithstandingallthepenaltieswhichguardit,doesnotpreventtheexportationofwool。Itisexported,itiswellknown,ingreatquantities。Thegreatdifferencebetweenthepriceinthehomeandthatintheforeignmarketpresentssuchatemptationtosmugglingthatalltherigourofthelawcannotpreventit。Thisillegalexportationisadvantageoustonobodybutthesmuggler。Alegalexportationsubjecttoatax,byaffordingarevenuetothesovereign,andtherebysavingtheimpositionofsomeother,perhaps,moreburdensomeandinconvenienttaxesmightproveadvantageoustoallthedifferentsubjectsofthestate。
Theexportationoffuller’searthorfuller’sclay,supposedtobenecessaryforpreparingandcleansingthewoolenmanufactures,hasbeensubjectedtonearlythesamepenaltiesastheexportationofwool。Eventobacco—pipeclay,thoughacknowledgedtobedifferentfromfuller’sclay,yet,onaccountoftheirresemblance,andbecausefuller’sclaymightsometimesbeexportedastobacco—pipeclay,hasbeenlaidunderthesameprohibitionsandpenalties。
Bythe13thand14thofCharlesII,c。7,theexportation,notonlyofrawhides,butoftannedleather,exceptintheshapeofboots,shoes,orslippers,wasprohibited;andthelawgaveamonopolytoourbootmakersandshoemakers,notonlyagainstourgraziers,butagainstourtanners。Bysubsequentstatutesourtannershavegotthemselvesexemptedfromthismonopolyuponpayingasmalltaxofonlyoneshillingonthehundred—weightoftannedleather,weighingonehundredandtwelvepounds。Theyhaveobtainedlikewisethedrawbackoftwo—thirdsoftheexcisedutiesimposedupontheircommodityevenwhenexportedwithoutfurthermanufacture。Allmanufacturesofleathermaybeexporteddutyfree;andtheexporterisbesidesentitledtothedrawbackofthewholedutiesofexcise。Ourgraziersstillcontinuesubjecttotheoldmonopoly。Graziersseparatedfromoneanother,anddispersedthroughallthedifferentcornersofthecountry,cannot,withoutgreatdifficulty,combinetogetherforthepurposeeitherofimposingmonopoliesupontheirfellowcitizens,orofexemptingthemselvesfromsuchasmayhavebeenimposeduponthembyotherpeople。Manufacturersofallkinds,collectedtogetherinnumerousbodiesinallgreatcities,easilycan。Eventhehornsofcattleareprohibitedtobeexported;andthetwoinsignificanttradesofthehornerandcombmakerenjoy,inthisrespect,amonopolyagainstthegraziers。
Restraints,eitherbyprohibitionsorbytaxes,upontheexportationofgoodswhicharepartially,butnotcompletelymanufactured,arenotpeculiartothemanufactureofleather。Aslongasanythingremainstobedone,inordertofitanycommodityforimmediateuseandconsumption,ourmanufacturersthinkthattheythemselvesoughttohavethedoingofit。Woolenyarnandworstedareprohibitedtobeexportedunderthesamepenaltiesaswool。Evenwhiteclothsaresubjecttoadutyuponexportation,andourdyershavesofarobtainedamonopolyagainstourclothiers。Ourclothierswouldprobablyhavebeenabletodefendthemselvesagainstit,butithappensthatthegreaterpartofourprincipalclothiersarethemselveslikewisedyers。Watch—cases,clockcases,anddial—platesforclocksandwatcheshavebeenprohibitedtobeexported。Ourclock—makersandwatch—makersare,itseems,unwillingthatthepriceofthissortofworkmanshipshouldberaiseduponthembythecompetitionofforeigners。
BysomeoldstatutesofEdwardM,HenryVIII,andEdwardVI,theexportationofallmetalswasprohibited。Leadandtinwerealoneexceptedprobablyonaccountofthegreatabundanceofthosemetals,intheexportationofwhichaconsiderablepartofthetradeofthekingdominthosedaysconsisted。Fortheencouragementoftheminingtrade,the5thofWilliamandMary,c。17,exemptedfromtheprohibitioniron,copper,andmundicmetalmadefromBritishore。Theexportationofallsortsofcopperbars,foreignaswellasBritish,wasafterwardspermittedbythe9thand10thofWilliamIII,c。26。Theexportationofunmanufacturedbrass,ofwhatiscalledgun—metal,bell—metal,andshroff—metal,stillcontinuestobeprohibited。Brassmanufacturesofallsortsmaybeexporteddutyfree。
Theexportationofthematerialsofmanufacture,whereitisnotaltogetherprohibited,isinmanycasessubjectedtoconsiderableduties。
Bythe8thGeorgeI,c。15,theexportationofallgoods,theproduceormanufactureofGreatBritain,uponwhichanydutieshadbeenimposedbyformerstatutes,wasrendereddutyfree。Thefollowinggoods,however,wereexcepted:alum,lead,leadore,tin,tannedleather,copperas,coals,woolcards,whitewoolencloths,lapiscalaminaris,skinsofallsorts,glue,coneyhairorwool,hares’wool,hairofallsorts,horses,andlithargeoflead。Ifyouexpecthorses,alltheseareeithermaterialsofmanufacture,orincompletemanufactures(whichmaybeconsideredasmaterialsforstillfurthermanufacture),orinstrumentsoftrade。Thisstatuteleavesthemsubjecttoalltheolddutieswhichhadeverbeenimposeduponthem,theoldsubsidyandonepercentoutwards。
Bythesamestatuteagreatnumberofforeigndrugsfordyers’useareexemptedfromalldutiesuponimportation。Eachofthem,however,isafterwardssubjectedtoacertainduty,notindeedaveryheavyone,uponexportation。Ourdyers,itseems,whiletheythoughtitfortheirinteresttoencouragetheimportationofthosedrugs,byanexemptionfromallduties,thoughtitlikewisefortheirinteresttothrowsomesmalldiscouragementupontheirexportation。Theavidity,however,whichsuggestedthisnotablepieceofmercantileingenuity,mostprobablydisappointeditselfofitsobject。Itnecessarilytaughttheimporterstobemorecarefulthantheymightotherwisehavebeenthattheirimportationshouldnotexceedwhatwasnecessaryforthesupplyofthehomemarket。Thehomemarketwasatalltimeslikelytobemorescantilysupplied;thecommoditieswereatalltimeslikelytobesomewhatdearertherethantheywouldhavebeenhadtheexportationbeenrenderedasfreeastheimportation。
Bytheabove—mentionedstatute,gumsenega,orgumarabic,beingamongtheenumerateddyeingdrugs,mightbeimporteddutyfree。Theyweresubjected,indeed,toasmallpoundageduty,amountingonlytothreepenceinthehundredweightupontheirre—exportation。Franceenjoyed,atthattime,anexclusivetradetothecountrymostproductiveofthosedrugs,thatwhichliesintheneighbourhoodoftheSenegal;andtheBritishmarketcouldnoteasilybesuppliedbytheimmediateimportationofthemfromtheplaceofgrowth。Bythe25thGeorgeII,therefore,gumsenegawasallowedtobeimported(contrarytothegeneraldispositionsoftheActofNavigation)fromanypartofEurope。Asthelaw,however,didnotmeantoencouragethisspeciesoftrade,socontrarytothegeneralprinciplesofthemercantilepolicyofEngland,itimposedadutyoftenshillingsthehundredweightuponsuchimportation,andnopartofthisdutywastobeafterwardsdrawnbackuponitsexportation。Thesuccessfulwarwhichbeganin1755gaveGreatBritainthesameexclusivetradetothosecountrieswhichFrancehadenjoyedbefore。Ourmanufacturers,assoonasthepeacewasmade,endeavouredtoavailthemselvesofthisadvantage,andtoestablishamonopolyintheirownfavourbothagainstthegrowersandagainsttheimportersofthiscommodity。Bythe5thGeorgeIII,therefore,c。
37,theexportationofgumsenegafromhisMajesty’sdominionsinAfricawasconfinedtoGreatBritain,andwassubjectedtoallthesamerestrictions,regulations,forfeitures,andpenaltiesasthatoftheenumeratedcommoditiesoftheBritishcoloniesinAmericaandtheWestIndies。Itsimportation,indeed,wassubjectedtoasmalldutyofsixpencethehundredweight,butitsre—exportationwassubjectedtotheenormousdutyofonepoundtenshillingsthehundredweight。ItwastheintentionofourmanufacturersthatthewholeproduceofthosecountriesshouldbeimportedintoGreatBritain,and,inorderthattheythemselvesmightbeenabledtobuyitattheirownprice,thatnopartofitshouldbeexportedagainbutatsuchanexpenseaswouldsufficientlydiscouragethatexportation。Theiravidity,however,uponthis,aswellasuponmanyotheroccasions,disappointeditselfofitsobject。Thisenormousdutypresentedsuchatemptationtosmugglingthatgreatquantitiesofthiscommoditywereclandestinelyexported,probablytoallthemanufacturingcountriesofEurope,putparticularlytoHolland,notonlyfromGreatBritainbutfromAfrica。Uponthisaccount,bythe14thGeorgeIII,c。10,thisdutyuponexportationwasreducedtofiveshillingsthehundredweight。
Inthebookofrates,accordingtowhichtheOldSubsidywaslevied,beaverskinswereestimatedatsixshillingsandeightpenceapiece,andthedifferentsubsidiesandimposts,whichbeforetheyear1722hadbeenlaidupontheirimportation,amountedtoone—fifthpartoftherate,ortosixteenpenceuponeachskin;allofwhich,excepthalftheOldSubsidy,amountingonlytotwopence,wasdrawnbackuponexportation。Thisdutyupontheimportationofsoimportantamaterialofmanufacturehadbeenthoughttoohigh,andintheyear1722theratewasreducedtotwoshillingsandsixpence,whichreducedthedutyuponimportationtosixpence,andofthisonlyonehalfwastobedrawnbackuponexportation。ThesamesuccessfulwarputthecountrymostproductiveofbeaverunderthedominionofGreatBritain,andbeaverskinsbeingamongtheenumeratedcommodities,theirexportationfromAmericawasconsequentlyconfinedtothemarketofGreatBritain。Ourmanufacturerssoonbethoughtthemselvesoftheadvantagewhichtheymightmakeofthiscircumstance,andintheyear1764thedutyupontheimportationofbeaver—skinwasreducedtoonepenny,butthedutyuponexportationwasraisedtosevenpenceeachskin,withoutanydrawbackofthedutyuponimportation。Bythesamelaw,adutyofeighteenpencethepoundwasimposedupontheexportationofbeaverwoolorwombs,withoutmakinganyalterationinthedutyupontheimportationofthatcommodity,which,whenimportedbyBritainandinBritishshipping,amountedatthattimetobetweenfourpenceandfivepencethepiece。
Coalsmaybeconsideredbothasamaterialofmanufactureandasaninstrumentoftrade。Heavyduties,accordingly,havebeenimposedupontheirexportation,amountingatpresent(1783)
tomorethanfiveshillingstheton,ortomorethanfifteenshillingsthechaldron,Newcastlemeasures,whichisinmostcasesmorethantheoriginalvalueofthecommodityatthecoalpit,orevenattheshippingportforexportation。
Theexportation,however,oftheinstrumentsoftrade,properlysocalled,iscommonlyrestrained,notbyhighduties,butbyabsoluteprohibitions。Thusbythe7thand8thofWilliamIII,c。20,sect。8,theexportationofframesorenginesforknittingglovesorstockingsisprohibitedunderthepenalty,notonlyoftheforfeitureofsuchframesorenginessoexported,orattemptedtobeexported,butoffortypounds,onehalftotheking,theothertothepersonwhoshallinformorsueforthesame。Inthesamemanner,bythe14thGeorgeIII,c。71,theexportationtoforeignpartsofanyutensilsmadeuseofinthecotton,linen,woollen,andsilkmanufacturesisprohibitedunderthepenalty,notonlyoftheforfeitureofsuchutensils,butoftwohundredpounds,tobepaidbythepersonwhoshalloffendinthismanner,andlikewiseoftwohundredpoundstobepaidbythemasteroftheshipwhoshallknowinglysuffersuchutensilstobeloadedonboardhisship。
Whensuchheavypenaltieswereimposedupontheexportationofthedeadinstrumentsoftrade,itcouldnotwellbeexpectedthatthelivinginstrument,theartificer,shouldbeallowedtogofree。Accordingly,bythe5thGeorgeI,c。27,thepersonwhoshallbeconvictedofenticinganyartificerof,orinanyofthemanufacturesofGreatBritain,togointoanyforeignpartsinordertopractiseorteachhistrade,isliableforthefirstoffencetobefinedinanysumnotexceedingonehundredpounds,andtothreemonths’imprisonment,anduntilthefineshallbepaid;andforthesecondoffence,tobefinedinanysumatthediscretionofthecourt,andtoimprisonmentfortwelvemonths,anduntilthefineshallbepaid。Bythe23rdGeorgeII,c。13,thispenaltyisincreasedforthefirstoffencetofivehundredpoundsforeveryartificersoenticed,andtotwelvemonths’
imprisonment,anduntilthefineshallbepaid;andforthesecondoffence,toonethousandpounds,andtotwoyears’
imprisonment,anduntilthefineshallbepaid。
Bytheformerofthosetwostatutes,uponproofthatanypersonhasbeenenticinganyartificer,orthatanyartificerhaspromisedorcontractedtogointoforeignpartsforthepurposesaforesaid,suchartificermaybeobligedtogivesecurityatthediscretionofthecourtthatheshallnotgobeyondtheseas,andmaybecommittedtoprisonuntilhegivesuchsecurity。
Ifanyartificerhasgonebeyondtheseas,andisexercisingorteachinghistradeinanyforeigncountry,uponwarningbeinggiventohimbyanyofhisMajesty’sministersorconsulsabroad,orbyoneofhisMajesty’sSecretariesofStateforthetimebeing,ifhedoesnot,withinsixmonthsaftersuchwarning,returnintothisrealm,andfromthenceforthabideandinhabitcontinuallywithinthesame,heisfromthenceforthdeclaredincapableoftakinganylegacydevisedtohimwithinthiskingdom,orofbeingexecutororadministratortoanyperson,oroftakinganylandswithinthiskingdombydescent,device,orpurchase。Helikewiseforfeitstothekingallhislands,goods,andchattels,isdeclaredanalienineveryrespect,andisputoutoftheking’sprotection。
Itisunnecessary,Iimagine,toobservehowcontrarysuchregulationsaretotheboastedlibertyofthesubject,ofwhichweaffecttobesoveryjealous;butwhich,inthiscase,issoplainlysacrificedtothefutileinterestsofourmerchantsandmanufacturers。
Thelaudablemotiveofalltheseregulationsistoextendourownmanufactures,notbytheirownimprovement,butbythedepressionofthoseofallourneighbours,andbyputtinganend,asmuchaspossible,tothetroublesomecompetitionofsuchodiousanddisagreeablerivals。Ourmastermanufacturersthinkitreasonablethattheythemselvesshouldhavethemonopolyoftheingenuityofalltheircountrymen。Thoughbyrestraining,insometrades,thenumberofapprenticeswhichcanbeemployedatonetime,andbyimposingthenecessityofalongapprenticeshipinalltrades,theyendeavour,allofthem,toconfinetheknowledgeoftheirrespectiveemploymentstoassmallanumberaspossible;
theyareunwilling,however,thatanypartofthissmallnumbershouldgoabroadtoinstructforeigners。
Consumptionisthesoleendandpurposeofallproduction;
andtheinterestoftheproduceroughttobeattendedtoonlysofarasitmaybenecessaryforpromotingthatoftheconsumer。
Themaximissoperfectlyselfevidentthatitwouldbeabsurdtoattempttoproveit。Butinthemercantilesystemtheinterestoftheconsumerisalmostconstantlysacrificedtothatoftheproducer;anditseemstoconsiderproduction,andnotconsumption,astheultimateendandobjectofallindustryandcommerce。
Intherestraintsupontheimportationofallforeigncommoditieswhichcancomeintocompetitionwiththoseofourowngrowthormanufacture,theinterestofthehomeconsumerisevidentlysacrificedtothatoftheproducer。Itisaltogetherforthebenefitofthelatterthattheformerisobligedtopaythatenhancementofpricewhichthismonopolyalmostalwaysoccasions。
Itisaltogetherforthebenefitoftheproducerthatbountiesaregrantedupontheexportationofsomeofhisproductions。Thehomeconsumerisobligedtopay,first,thetaxwhichisnecessaryforpayingthebounty,andsecondly,thestillgreatertaxwhichnecessarilyarisesfromtheenhancementofthepriceofthecommodityinthehomemarket。
BythefamoustreatyofcommercewithPortugal,theconsumerispreventedbyhighdutiesfrompurchasingofaneighbouringcountryacommoditywhichourownclimatedoesnotproduce,butisobligedtopurchaseitofadistantcountry,thoughitisacknowledgedthatthecommodityofthedistantcountryisofaworsequalitythanthatofthenearone。Thehomeconsumerisobligedtosubmittothisinconveniencyinorderthattheproducermayimportintothedistantcountrysomeofhisproductionsuponmoreadvantageoustermsthanhewouldotherwisehavebeenallowedtodo。Theconsumer,too,isobligedtopaywhateverenhancementinthepriceifthoseveryproductionsthisforcedexportationmayoccasioninthehomemarket。
ButinthesystemoflawswhichhasbeenestablishedforthemanagementofourAmericanandWestIndiancolonies,theinterestofthehomeconsumerhasbeensacrificedtothatoftheproducerwithamoreextravagantprofusionthaninallourothercommercialregulations。Agreatempirehasbeenestablishedforthesolepurposeofraisingupanationofcustomerswhoshouldbeobligedtobuyfromtheshopsofourdifferentproducersallthegoodswithwhichthesecouldsupplythem。Forthesakeofthatlittleenhancementofpricewhichthismonopolymightaffordourproducers,thehomeconsumershavebeenburdenedwiththewholeexpenseofmaintaininganddefendingthatempire。Forthispurpose,andforthispurposeonly,inthetwolastwars,morethantwohundredmillionshavebeenspent,andanewdebtofmorethanahundredandseventymillionshasbeencontractedoverandaboveallthathadbeenexpendedforthesamepurposeinformerwars。Theinterestofthisdebtaloneisnotonlygreaterthanthewholeextraordinaryprofitwhichitevercouldbepretendedwasmadebythemonopolyofthecolonytrade,butthanthewholevalueofthattrade,orthanthewholevalueofthegoodswhichatanaveragehavebeenannuallyexportedtothecolonies。
Itcannotbeverydifficulttodeterminewhohavebeenthecontriversofthiswholemercantilesystem;nottheconsumers,wemaybelieve,whoseinteresthasbeenentirelyneglected;buttheproducers,whoseinteresthasbeensocarefullyattendedto;andamongthislatterclassourmerchantsandmanufacturershavebeenbyfartheprincipalarchitects。Inthemercantileregulations,whichhavebeentakennoticeofinthischapter,theinterestofourmanufacturershasbeenmostpeculiarlyattendedto;andtheinterest,notsomuchoftheconsumers,asthatofsomeothersetsofproducers,hasbeensacrificedtoit。
CHAPTERIX
OftheAgriculturalSystems,orofthoseSystemsofPoliticalEconomywhichrepresenttheProduceofLandaseitherthesoleortheprincipalSourceoftheRevenueandWealtheveryCountryTHEagriculturalsystemsofpoliticaleconomywillnotrequiresolonganexplanationasthatwhichIhavethoughtitnecessarytobestowuponthemercantileorcommercialsystem。
Thatsystemwhichrepresentstheproduceoflandasthesolesourceoftherevenueandwealthofeverycountryhas,sofarasIknow,neverbeenadoptedbyanynation,anditatpresentexistsonlyinthespeculationsofafewmenofgreatlearningandingenuityinFrance。Itwouldnot,surely,beworthwhiletoexamineatgreatlengththeerrorsofasystemwhichneverhasdone,andprobablyneverwilldo,anyharminanypartoftheworld。Ishallendeavourtoexplain,however,asdistinctlyasI
can,thegreatoutlinesofthisveryingenioussystem。
Mr。Colbert,thefamousministerofLouisXIV,wasamanofprobity,ofgreatindustryandknowledgeofdetail,ofgreatexperienceandacutenessintheexaminationofpublicaccounts,andofabilities,inshort,everywayfittedforintroducingmethodandgoodorderintothecollectionandexpenditureofthepublicrevenue。Thatministerhadunfortunatelyembracedalltheprejudicesofthemercantilesystem,initsnatureandessenceasystemofrestraintandregulation,andsuchascouldscarcefailtobeagreeabletoalaboriousandploddingmanofbusiness,whohadbeenaccustomedtoregulatethedifferentdepartmentsofpublicoffices,andtoestablishthenecessarychecksandcontrolsforconfiningeachtoitspropersphere。Theindustryandcommerceofagreatcountryheendeavouredtoregulateuponthesamemodelasthedepartmentsofapublicoffice;andinsteadofallowingeverymantopursuehisowninterestinhisownway,upontheliberalplanofequality,liberty,andjustice,hebestoweduponcertainbranchesofindustryextraordinaryprivileges,whilehelaidothersunderasextraordinaryrestraints。Hewasnotonlydisposed,likeotherEuropeanministers,toencouragemoretheindustryofthetownsthanthatofthecountry;but,inordertosupporttheindustryofthetowns,hewaswillingeventodepressandkeepdownthatofthecountry。Inordertorenderprovisionscheaptotheinhabitantsofthetowns,andtherebytoencouragemanufacturesandforeigncommerce,heprohibitedaltogethertheexportationofcorn,andthusexcludedtheinhabitantsofthecountryfromeveryforeignmarketforbyfarthemostimportantpartoftheproduceoftheirindustry。Thisprohibition,joinedtotherestraintsimposedbytheancientprovinciallawsofFranceuponthetransportationofcornfromoneprovincetoanother,andtothearbitraryanddegradingtaxeswhicharelevieduponthecultivatorsinalmostalltheprovinces,discouragedandkeptdowntheagricultureofthatcountryverymuchbelowthestatetowhichitwouldnaturallyhaveriseninsoveryfertileasoilandsoveryhappyaclimate。Thisstateofdiscouragementanddepressionwasfeltmoreorlessineverydifferentpartofthecountry,andmanydifferentinquiriesweresetonfootconcerningthecausesofit。
Oneofthosecausesappearedtobethepreferencegiven,bytheinstitutionsofMr。Colbert,totheindustryofthetownsabovethatofthecountry。
Iftherodbebenttoomuchoneway,saystheproverb,inordertomakeitstraightyoumustbenditasmuchtheother。TheFrenchphilosophers,whohaveproposedthesystemwhichrepresentsagricultureasthesolesourceoftherevenueandwealthofeverycountry,seemtohaveadoptedthisproverbialmaxim;andasintheplanofMr。Colberttheindustryofthetownswascertainlyovervaluedincomparisonwiththatofthecountry;sointheirsystemitseemstobeascertainlyundervalued。
Thedifferentordersofpeoplewhohaveeverbeensupposedtocontributeinanyrespecttowardstheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthecountry,theydivideintothreeclasses。
Thefirstistheclassoftheproprietorsofland。Thesecondistheclassofthecultivators,offarmersandcountrylabourers,whomtheyhonourwiththepeculiarappellationoftheproductiveclass。Thethirdistheclassofartificers,manufacturers,andmerchants,whomtheyendeavourtodegradebythehumiliatingappellationofthebarrenorunproductiveclass。
Theclassofproprietorscontributestotheannualproducebytheexpensewhichtheymayoccasionallylayoutupontheimprovementoftheland,uponthebuildings,drains,enclosures,andotherameliorations,whichtheymayeithermakeormaintainuponit,andbymeansofwhichthecultivatorsareenabled,withthesamecapital,toraiseagreaterproduce,andconsequentlytopayagreaterrent。Thisadvancedrentmaybeconsideredastheinterestorprofitduetotheproprietorupontheexpenseorcapitalwhichhethusemploysintheimprovementofhisland。
Suchexpensesareinthissystemcalledgroundexpenses(depensesfoncieres。)