Noprivatemerchant,ithasbeensaid,couldwellhavecapitalsufficienttomaintainfactorsandagentsinthedifferentportsoftheEastIndies,inordertoprovidegoodsfortheshipswhichhemightoccasionallysendthither;andyet,unlesshewasabletodothis,thedifficultyoffindingacargomightfrequentlymakehisshipslosetheseasonforreturning,andtheexpenseofsolongadelaywouldnotonlyeatupthewholeprofitoftheadventure,butfrequentlyoccasionaveryconsiderableloss。Thisargument,however,ifitprovedanythingatall,wouldprovethatnoonegreatbranchoftradecouldbecarriedonwithoutanexclusivecompany,whichiscontrarytotheexperienceofallnations。Thereisnogreatbranchoftradeinwhichthecapitalofanyoneprivatemerchantissufficientforcarryingonallthesubordinatebrancheswhichmustbecarriedon,inordertocarryontheprincipalone。Butwhenanationisripeforanygreatbranchoftrade,somemerchantsnaturallyturntheircapitalstowardstheprincipal,andsometowardsthesubordinatebranchesofit;andthoughallthedifferentbranchesofitareinthismannercarriedon,yetitveryseldomhappensthattheyareallcarriedonbythecapitalofoneprivatemerchant。Ifanation,therefore,isripefortheEastIndiatrade,acertainportionofitscapitalwillnaturallydivideitselfamongallthedifferentbranchesofthattrade。SomeofitsmerchantswillfinditfortheirinteresttoresideintheEastIndies,andtoemploytheircapitalsthereinprovidinggoodsfortheshipswhicharetobesentoutbyothermerchantswhoresideinEurope。ThesettlementswhichdifferentEuropeannationshaveobtainedintheEastIndies,iftheyweretakenfromtheexclusivecompaniestowhichtheyatpresentbelongandputundertheimmediateprotectionofthesovereign,wouldrenderthisresidencebothsafeandeasy,atleasttothemerchantsoftheparticularnationstowhomthosesettlementsbelong。Ifatanyparticulartimethatpartofthecapitalofanycountrywhichofitsownaccordtendedandinclined,ifImaysayso,towardstheEastIndiatrade,wasnotsufficientforcarryingonallthosedifferentbranchesofit,itwouldbeaproofthat,atthatparticulartime,thatcountrywasnotripeforthattrade,andthatitwoulddobettertobuyforsometime,evenatahigherprice,fromotherEuropeannations,theEastIndiagoodsithadoccasionfor,thantoimportthemitselfdirectlyfromtheEastIndies。Whatitmightlosebythehighpriceofthosegoodscouldseldombeequaltothelosswhichitwouldsustainbythedistractionofalargeportionofitscapitalfromotheremploymentsmorenecessary,ormoreuseful,ormoresuitabletoitscircumstancesandsituation,thanadirecttradetotheEastIndies。
ThoughtheEuropeanspossessmanyconsiderablesettlementsbothuponthecoastofAfricaandintheEastIndies,theyhavenotyetestablishedineitherofthosecountriessuchnumerousandthrivingcoloniesasthoseintheislandsandcontinentofAmerica。Africa,however,aswellasseveralofthecountriescomprehendedunderthegeneralnameoftheEastIndies,areinhabitedbybarbarousnations。ButthosenationswerebynomeanssoweakanddefencelessasthemiserableandhelplessAmericans;andinproportiontothenaturalfertilityofthecountrieswhichtheyinhabited,theywerebesidesmuchmorepopulous。ThemostbarbarousnationseitherofAfricaoroftheEastIndieswereshepherds;eventheHottentotswereso。ButthenativesofeverypartofAmerica,exceptMexicoandPeru,wereonlyhunters;andthedifferenceisverygreatbetweenthenumberofshepherdsandthatofhunterswhomthesameextentofequallyfertileterritorycanmaintain。InAfricaandtheEastIndies,therefore,itwasmoredifficulttodisplacethenatives,andtoextendtheEuropeanplantationsoverthegreaterpartofthelandsoftheoriginalinhabitants。Thegeniusofexclusivecompanies,besides,isunfavourable,ithasalreadybeenobserved,tothegrowthofnewcolonies,andhasprobablybeentheprincipalcauseofthelittleprogresswhichtheyhavemadeintheEastIndies。ThePortuguesecarriedonthetradebothtoAfricaandtheEastIndieswithoutanyexclusivecompanies,andtheirsettlementsatCongo,Angola,andBenguelaonthecoastofAfrica,andatGoaintheEastIndies,thoughmuchdepressedbysuperstitionandeverysortofbadgovernment,yetbearsomefaintresemblancetothecoloniesofAmerica,andarepartlyinhabitedbyPortuguesewhohavebeenestablishedthereforseveralgenerations。TheDutchsettlementsattheCapeofGoodHopeandatBataviaareatpresentthemostconsiderablecolonieswhichtheEuropeanshaveestablishedeitherinAfricaorintheEastIndies,andboththesesettlementsarepeculiarlyfortunateintheirsituation。TheCapeofGoodHopewasinhabitedbyaraceofpeoplealmostasbarbarousandquiteasincapableofdefendingthemselvesasthenativesofAmerica。Itisbesidesthehalfwayhouse,ifonemaysayso,betweenEuropeandtheEastIndies,atwhichalmosteveryEuropeanshipmakessomestay,bothingoingandreturning。Thesupplyingofthoseshipswitheverysortoffreshprovisions,withfruitandsometimeswithwine,affordsaloneaveryextensivemarketforthesurplusproduceofthecolonists。WhattheCapeofGoodHopeisbetweenEuropeandeverypartoftheEastIndies,BataviaisbetweentheprincipalcountriesoftheEastIndies。ItliesuponthemostfrequentedroadfromIndostantoChinaandJapan,andisnearlyaboutmidwayuponthatroad。Almostalltheships,too,thatsailbetweenEuropeandChinatouchatBatavia;anditis,overandaboveallthis,thecentreandprincipalmartofwhatiscalledthecountrytradeoftheEastIndies,notonlyofthatpartofitwhichiscarriedonbyEuropeans,butofthatwhichiscarriedonbythenativeIndians;andvesselsnavigatedbytheinhabitantsofChinaandJapan,ofTonquin,Malacca,CochinChina,andtheislandofCelebes,arefrequentlytobeseeninitsport。Suchadvantageoussituationshaveenabledthosetwocoloniestosurmountalltheobstacleswhichtheoppressivegeniusofanexclusivecompanymayhaveoccasionallyopposedtotheirgrowth。TheyhaveenabledBataviatosurmounttheadditionaldisadvantageofperhapsthemostunwholesomeclimateintheworld。
TheEnglishandDutchcompanies,thoughtheyhaveestablishednoconsiderablecolonies,exceptthetwoabovementioned,havebothmadeconsiderableconquestsintheEastIndies。Butinthemannerinwhichtheybothgoverntheirnewsubjects,thenaturalgeniusofanexclusivecompanyhasshownitselfmostdistinctly。InthespiceislandstheDutcharesaidtoburnallthespicerieswhichafertileseasonproducesbeyondwhattheyexpecttodisposeofinEuropewithsuchaprofitastheythinksufficient。Intheislandswheretheyhavenosettlements,theygiveapremiumtothosewhocollecttheyoungblossomsandgreenleavesofthecloveandnutmegtreeswhichnaturallygrowthere,butwhichthesavagepolicyhasnow,itissaid,almostcompletelyextirpated。Evenintheislandswheretheyhavesettlementstheyhaveverymuchreduced,itissaid,thenumberofthosetrees。Iftheproduceevenoftheirownislandswasmuchgreaterthanwhatsuitedtheirmarket,thenatives,theysuspect,mightfindmeanstoconveysomepartofittoothernations;andthebestway,theyimagine,tosecuretheirownmonopolyistotakecarethatnomoreshallgrowthanwhattheythemselvescarrytomarket。BydifferentartsofoppressiontheyhavereducedthepopulationofseveraloftheMoluccasnearlytothenumberwhichissufficienttosupplywithfreshprovisionsandothernecessariesoflifetheirowninsignificantgarrisons,andsuchoftheirshipsasoccasionallycomethereforacargoofspices。UnderthegovernmentevenofthePortuguese,however,thoseislandsaresaidtohavebeentolerablywellinhabited。TheEnglishcompanyhavenotyethadtimetoestablishinBengalsoperfectlydestructiveasystem。Theplanoftheirgovernment,however,hashadexactlythesametendency。Ithasnotbeenuncommon,Iamwellassured,forthechief,thatis,thefirstclerkofafactory,toorderapeasanttoploughuparichfieldofpoppiesandsowitwithriceorsomeothergrain。Thepretencewas,topreventascarcityofprovisions;buttherealreason,togivethechiefanopportunityofsellingatabetterpricealargequantityofopium,whichhehappenedthentohaveuponhand。Uponotheroccasionstheorderhasbeenreversed;andarichfieldofriceorothergrainhasbeenploughedup,inordertomakeroomforaplantationofpoppies;whenthechiefforesawthatextraordinaryprofitwaslikelytobemadebyopium。
Theservantsofthecompanyhaveuponseveraloccasionsattemptedtoestablishintheirownfavourthemonopolyofsomeofthemostimportantbranches,notonlyoftheforeign,butoftheinlandtradeofthecountry。Hadtheybeenallowedtogoon,itisimpossiblethattheyshouldnotatsometimeoranotherhaveattemptedtorestraintheproductionoftheparticulararticlesofwhichtheyhadthususurpedthemonopoly,notonlytothequantitywhichtheythemselvescouldpurchase,buttothatwhichtheycouldexpecttosellwithsuchaprofitastheymightthinksufficient。Inthecourseofthecenturyortwo,thepolicyoftheEnglishcompanywouldinthismannerhaveprobablyprovedascompletelydestructiveasthatoftheDutch。
Nothing,however,canbemoredirectlycontrarytotherealinterestofthosecompanies,consideredasthesovereignsofthecountrieswhichtheyhaveconquered,thanthisdestructiveplan。
Inalmostallcountriestherevenueofthesovereignisdrawnfromthatofthepeople。Thegreatertherevenueofthepeople,therefore,thegreatertheannualproduceoftheirlandandlabour,themoretheycanaffordtothesovereign。Itishisinterest,therefore,toincreaseasmuchaspossiblethatannualproduce。Butifthisistheinterestofeverysovereign,itispeculiarlysoofonewhoserevenue,likethatofthesovereignofBengal,ariseschieflyfromaland—rent。Thatrentmustnecessarilybeinproportiontothequantityandvalueoftheproduce,andboththeoneandtheothermustdependupontheextentofthemarket。Thequantitywillalwaysbesuitedwithmoreorlessexactnesstotheconsumptionofthosewhocanaffordtopayforit,andthepricewhichtheywillpaywillalwaysbeinproportiontotheeagernessoftheircompetition。Itistheinterestofsuchasovereign,therefore,toopenthemostextensivemarketfortheproduceofhiscountry,toallowthemostperfectfreedomofcommerce,inordertoincreaseasmuchaspossiblethenumberandthecompetitionofbuyers;anduponthisaccounttoabolish,notonlyallmonopolies,butallrestraintsuponthetransportationofthehomeproducefromonepartofthecountrytoanother,uponitsexportationtoforeigncountries,orupontheimportationofgoodsofanykindforwhichitcanbeexchanged。Itisinthismannermostlikelytoincreaseboththequantityandvalueofthatproduce,andconsequentlyofhisownshareofit,orofhisownrevenue。
Butacompanyofmerchantsare,itseems,incapableofconsideringthemselvesassovereigns,evenaftertheyhavebecomesuch。Trade,orbuyinginordertosellagain,theystillconsiderastheirprincipalbusiness,andbyastrangeabsurdityregardthecharacterofthesovereignasbutanappendixtothatofthemerchant,assomethingwhichoughttobemadesubservienttoit,orbymeansofwhichtheymaybeenabledtobuycheaperinIndia,andtherebytosellwithabetterprofitinEurope。Theyendeavourforthispurposetokeepoutasmuchaspossibleallcompetitorsfromthemarketofthecountrieswhicharesubjecttotheirgovernment,andconsequentlytoreduce,atleast,somepartofthesurplusproduceofthosecountriestowhatisbarelysufficientforsupplyingtheirowndemand,ortowhattheycanexpecttosellinEuropewithsuchaprofitastheymaythinkreasonable。Theirmercantilehabitsdrawtheminthismanner,almostnecessarily,thoughperhapsinsensibly,topreferuponallordinaryoccasionsthelittleandtransitoryprofitofthemonopolisttothegreatandpermanentrevenueofthesovereign,andwouldgraduallyleadthemtotreatthecountriessubjecttotheirgovernmentnearlyastheDutchtreattheMoluceas。ItistheinterestoftheEastIndiaCompany,consideredassovereigns,thattheEuropeangoodswhicharecarriedtotheirIndiandominionsshouldbesoldthereascheapaspossible;andthattheIndiangoodswhicharebroughtfromthenceshouldbringthereasgoodaprice,orshouldbesoldthereasdearaspossible。Butthereverseofthisistheirinterestasmerchants。Assovereigns,theirinterestisexactlythesamewiththatofthecountrywhichtheygovern。Asmerchantstheirinterestisdirectlyoppositetothatinterest。
Butifthegeniusofsuchagovernment,evenastowhatconcernsitsdirectioninEurope,isinthismanneressentiallyandperhapsincurablyfaulty,thatofitsadministrationinIndiaisstillmoreso。Thatadministrationisnecessarilycomposedofacouncilofmerchants,aprofessionnodoubtextremelyrespectable,butwhichinnocountryintheworldcarriesalongwithitthatsortofauthoritywhichnaturallyoverawesthepeople,andwithoutforcecommandstheirwillingobedience。Suchacouncilcancommandobedienceonlybythemilitaryforcewithwhichtheyareaccompanied,andtheirgovernmentisthereforenecessarilymilitaryanddespotical。Theirproperbusiness,however,isthatofmerchants。Itistosell,upontheirmasters’
account,theEuropeangoodsconsignedtothem,andtobuyinreturnIndiangoodsfortheEuropeanmarket。Itistoselltheoneasdearandtobuytheotherascheapaspossible,andconsequentlytoexcludeasmuchaspossibleallrivalsfromtheparticularmarketwheretheykeeptheirshop。Thegeniusoftheadministrationtherefore,sofarasconcernsthetradeofthecompany,isthesameasthatofthedirection。Ittendstomakegovernmentsubservienttotheinterestofmonopoly,andconsequentlytostuntthenaturalgrowthofsomepartsatleastofthesurplusproduceofthecountrytowhatisbarelysufficientforansweringthedemandofthecompany。
Allthemembersoftheadministration,besides,trademoreorlessupontheirownaccount,anditisinvaintoprohibitthemfromdoingso。Nothingcanbemorecompletelyfoolishthantoexpectthattheclerksofagreatcounting—houseattenthousandmilesdistance,andconsequentlyalmostquiteoutofsight,should,uponasimpleorderfromtheirmasters,giveupatoncedoinganysortofbusinessupontheirownaccount,abandonforeverallhopesofmakingafortune,ofwhichtheyhavethemeansintheirhands,andcontentthemselveswiththemoderatesalarieswhichthosemastersallowthem,andwhich,moderateastheyare,canseldombeaugmented,beingcommonlyaslargeastherealprofitsofthecompanytradecanafford。Insuchcircumstances,toprohibittheservantsofthecompanyfromtradingupontheirownaccountcanhavescarceanyothereffectthantoenablethesuperiorservants,underpretenceofexecutingtheirmasters’order,tooppresssuchoftheinferioronesashavehadthemisfortunetofallundertheirdispleasure。Theservantsnaturallyendeavourtoestablishthesamemonopolyinfavouroftheirownprivatetradeasofthepublictradeofthecompany。Iftheyaresufferedtoactastheycouldwish,theywillestablishthismonopolyopenlyanddirectly,byfairlyprohibitingallotherpeoplefromtradinginthearticlesinwhichtheychoosetodeal;andthis,perhaps,isthebestandleastoppressivewayofestablishingit。ButifbyanorderfromEuropetheyareprohibitedfromdoingthis,theywill,notwithstanding,endeavourtoestablishamonopolyofthesamekind,secretlyandindirectly,inawaythatismuchmoredestructivetothecountry。Theywillemploythewholeauthorityofgovernment,andperverttheadministrationofjustice,inordertoharassandruinthosewhointerferewiththeminanybranchofcommerce,whichbymeansofagents,eitherconcealed,oratleastnotpubliclyavowed,theymaychoosetocarryon。Buttheprivatetradeoftheservantswillnaturallyextendtoamuchgreatervarietyofarticlesthanthepublictradeofthecompany。
ThepublictradeofthecompanyextendsnofurtherthanthetradewithEurope,andcomprehendsapartonlyoftheforeigntradeofthecountry。Buttheprivatetradeoftheservantsmayextendtoallthedifferentbranchesbothofitsinlandandforeigntrade。
Themonopolyofthecompanycantendonlytostuntthenaturalgrowthofthatpartofthesurplusproducewhich,inthecaseofafreetrade,wouldbeexportedtoEurope。Thatoftheservantstendstostuntthenaturalgrowthofeverypartoftheproduceinwhichtheychoosetodeal,ofwhatisdestinedforhomeconsumption,aswellasofwhatisdestinedforexportation;andconsequentlytodegradethecultivationofthewholecountry,andtoreducethenumberofitsinhabitants。Ittendstoreducethequantityofeverysortofproduce,eventhatofthenecessariesoflife,whenevertheservantsofthecompanychoosetodealinthem,towhatthoseservantscanbothaffordtobuyandexpecttosellwithsuchaprofitaspleasesthem。
Fromthenatureoftheirsituation,too,theservantsmustbemoredisposedtosupportwithrigorousseveritytheirowninterestagainstthatofthecountrywhichtheygovernthantheirmasterscanbetosupporttheirs。Thecountrybelongstotheirmasters,whocannotavoidhavingsomeregardfortheinterestofwhatbelongstothem。Butitdoesnotbelongtotheservants。Therealinterestoftheirmasters,iftheywerecapableofunderstandingit,isthesamewiththatofthecountry,anditisfromignorancechiefly,andthemeannessofmercantileprejudice,thattheyeveroppressit。Buttherealinterestoftheservantsisbynomeansthesamewiththatofthecountry,andthemostperfectinformationwouldnotnecessarilyputanendtotheiroppressions。TheregulationsaccordinglywhichhavebeensentoutfromEurope,thoughtheyhavebeenfrequentlyweak,haveuponmostoccasionsbeenwell—meaning。Moreintelligenceandperhapslessgood—meaninghassometimesappearedinthoseestablishedbytheservantsinIndia。Itisaverysingulargovernmentinwhicheverymemberoftheadministrationwishestogetoutofthecountry,andconsequentlytohavedonewiththegovernmentassoonashecan,andtowhoseinterest,thedayafterhehasleftitandcarriedhiswholefortunewithhim,itisperfectlyindifferentthoughthewholecountrywasswallowedupbyanearthquake。
Imeannot,however,byanythingwhichIhaveheresaid,tothrowanyodiousimputationuponthegeneralcharacteroftheservantsoftheEastIndiaCompany,andmuchlessuponthatofanyparticularpersons。Itisthesystemofgovernment,thesituationinwhichtheyareplaced,thatImeantocensure,notthecharacterofthosewhohaveactedinit。Theyactedastheirsituationnaturallydirected,andtheywhohaveclamouredtheloudestagainstthemwouldprobablynothaveactedbetterthemselves。Inwarandnegotiation,thecouncilsofMadrasandCalcuttahaveuponseveraloccasionsconductedthemselveswitharesolutionanddecisivewisdomwhichwouldhavedonehonourtothesenateofRomeinthebestdaysofthatrepublic。Themembersofthosecouncils,however,hadbeenbredtoprofessionsverydifferentfromwarandpolities。Buttheirsituationalone,withouteducation,experience,orevenexample,seemstohaveformedinthemallatoncethegreatqualitieswhichitrequired,andtohaveinspiredthembothwithabilitiesandvirtueswhichtheythemselvescouldnotwellknowthattheypossessed。Ifuponsomeoccasions,therefore,ithasanimatedthemtoactionsofmagnanimitywhichcouldnotwellhavebeenexpectedfromthem,weshouldnotwonderifuponothersithaspromptedthemtoexploitsofsomewhatadifferentnature。
Suchexclusivecompanies,therefore,arenuisancesineveryrespect;alwaysmoreorlessinconvenienttothecountriesinwhichtheyareestablished,anddestructivetothosewhichhavethemisfortunetofallundertheirgovernment。
CHAPTERVIII
ConclusionoftheMercantileSystemTHOUGHtheencouragementofexportationandthediscouragementofimportationarethetwogreatenginesbywhichthemercantilesystemproposestoenricheverycountry,yetwithregardtosomeparticularcommoditiesitseemstofollowanoppositeplan:todiscourageexportationandtoencourageimportation。Itsultimateobject,however,itpretends,isalwaysthesame,toenrichthecountrybyanadvantageousbalanceoftrade。Itdiscouragestheexportationofthematerialsofmanufacture,andoftheinstrumentsoftrade,inordertogiveourownworkmenanadvantage,andtoenablethemtoundersellthoseofothernationsinallforeignmarkets;andbyrestraining,inthismanner,theexportationofafewcommodities,ofnogreatprice,itproposestooccasionamuchgreaterandmorevaluableexportationofothers。Itencouragestheimportationofthematerialsofmanufactureinorderthatourownpeoplemaybeenabledtoworkthemupmorecheaply,andtherebypreventagreaterandmorevaluableimportationofthemanufacturedcommodities。Idonotobserve,atleastinourStatuteBook,anyencouragementgiventotheimportationoftheinstrumentsoftrade。Whenmanufactureshaveadvancedtoacertainpitchofgreatness,thefabricationoftheinstrumentsoftradebecomesitselftheobjectofagreatnumberofveryimportantmanufactures。Togiveanyparticularencouragementtotheimportationofsuchinstrumentswouldinterferetoomuchwiththeinterestofthosemanufactures。Suchimportation,therefore,insteadofbeingencouraged,hasfrequentlybeenprohibited。Thustheimportationofwoolcards,exceptfromIreland,orwhenbroughtinaswreckorprizegoods,wasprohibitedbythe3rdofEdwardIV;whichprohibitionwasrenewedbythe39thofElizabeth,andhasbeencontinuedandrenderedperpetualbysubsequentlaws。
Theimportationofthematerialsofmanufacturehassometimesbeenencouragedbyanexemptionfromthedutiestowhichothergoodsaresubject,andsometimesbybounties。
Theimportationofsheep’swoolfromseveraldifferentcountries,ofcottonwoolfromallcountries,ofundressedflax,ofthegreaterpartofdyeingdrugs,ofthegreaterpartofundressedhidesfromIrelandortheBritishcolonies,ofsealskinsfromtheBritishGreenlandfishery,ofpigandbarironfromtheBritishcolonies,aswellasofseveralothermaterialsofmanufacture,hasbeenencouragedbyanexemptionfromallduties,ifproperlyenteredatthecustomhouse。Theprivateinterestofourmerchantsandmanufacturersmay,perhaps,haveextortedfromthelegislaturetheseexemptionsaswellasthegreaterpartofourothercommercialregulations。Theyare,however,perfectlyjustandreasonable,andif,consistentlywiththenecessitiesofthestate,theycouldbeextendedtoalltheothermaterialsofmanufacture,thepublicwouldcertainlybeagainer。
Theavidityofourgreatmanufacturers,however,hasinsomecasesextendedtheseexemptionsagooddealbeyondwhatcanjustlybeconsideredastherudematerialsoftheirwork。Bythe24thGeorgeIII,c。46,asmalldutyofonlyonepennythepoundwasimposedupontheimportationofforeignbrownlinenyam,insteadofmuchhigherdutiestowhichithadbeensubjectedbefore,viz。ofsixpencethepounduponsailyarn,ofoneshillingthepounduponallFrenchandDutchyarn,andoftwopoundsthirteenshillingsandfourpenceuponthehundredweightofallspruceorMuscoviayarn。Butourmanufacturerswerenotlongsatisfiedwiththisreduction。Bythe29thofthesameking,c。
15,thesamelawwhichgaveabountyupontheexportationofBritishandIrishlinenofwhichthepricedidnotexceedeighteenpencetheyard,eventhissmalldutyupontheimportationofbrownlinenyarnwastakenaway。Inthedifferentoperations,however,whicharenecessaryforthepreparationoflinenyarn,agooddealmoreindustryisemployedthaninthesubsequentoperationofpreparinglinenclothfromlinenyarn。Tosaynothingoftheindustryoftheflax—growersandflax—dressers,threeorfourspinners,atleast,arenecessaryinordertokeeponeweaverinconstantemployment;andmorethanfour—fifthsofthewholequantityoflabournecessaryforthepreparationoflinenclothisemployedinthatoflinenyarn;butourspinnersarepoorpeople,womencommonlyscatteredaboutinalldifferentpartsofthecountry,withoutsupportorprotection。Itisnotbythesaleoftheirwork,butbythatofthecompleteworkoftheweavers,thatourgreatmastermanufacturersmaketheirprofits。
Asitistheirinteresttosellthecompletemanufactureasdear,soisittobuythematerialsascheapaspossible。Byextortingfromthelegislaturebountiesupontheexportationoftheirownlinen,highdutiesupontheimportationofallforeignlinen,andatotalprohibitionofthehomeconsumptionofsomesortsofFrenchlinen,theyendeavourtoselltheirowngoodsasdearaspossible。Byencouragingtheimportationofforeignlinenyarn,andtherebybringingitintocompetitionwiththatwhichismadebyourownpeople,theyendeavourtobuytheworkofthepoorspinnersascheapaspossible。Theyareasintenttokeepdownthewagesoftheirownweaversastheearningsofthepoorspinners,anditisbynomeansforthebenefitoftheworkmanthattheyendeavoureithertoraisethepriceofthecompleteworkortolowerthatoftherudematerials。Itistheindustrywhichiscarriedonforthebenefitoftherichandthepowerfulthatisprincipallyencouragedbyourmercantilesystem。Thatwhichiscarriedonforthebenefitofthepoorandtheindigentistooofteneitherneglectedoroppressed。
Boththebountyupontheexportationoflinen,andtheexemptionfromdutyupontheimportationofforeignyarn,whichweregrantedonlyforfifteenyears,butcontinuedbytwodifferentprolongations,expirewiththeendofthesessionofParliamentwhichshallimmediatelyfollowthe24thofJune1786。
TheencouragementgiventotheimportationofthematerialsofmanufacturebybountieshasbeenprincipallyconfinedtosuchaswereimportedfromourAmericanplantations。
ThefirstbountiesofthiskindwerethosegrantedaboutthebeginningofthepresentcenturyupontheimportationofnavalstoresfromAmerica。Underthisdenominationwerecomprehendedtimberfitformasts,yards,andbowsprits;hemp;tar,pitch,andturpentine。Thebounty,however,ofonepoundthetonuponmasting—timber,andthatofsixpoundsthetonuponhemp,wereextendedtosuchasshouldbeimportedintoEnglandfromScotland。Boththesebountiescontinuedwithoutanyvariation,atthesamerate,tilltheywereseverallyallowedtoexpire;thatuponhemponthe1stofJanuary1741,andthatuponmasting—timberattheendofthesessionofParliamentimmediatelyfollowingthe24thJune1781。
Thebountiesupontheimportationoftar,pitch,andturpentineunderwent,duringtheircontinuance,severalalterations。Originallythatupontarwasfourpoundstheton;
thatuponpitchthesame;andthatuponturpentine,threepoundstheton。Thebountyoffourpoundsthetonupontarwasafterwardsconfinedtosuchashadbeenpreparedinaparticularmanner;thatuponothergood,clean,andmerchantabletarwasreducedtotwopoundsfourshillingstheton。Thebountyuponpitchwaslikewisereducedtoonepound;andthatuponturpentinetoonepoundtenshillingstheton。
Thesecondbountyupontheimportationofanyofthematerialsofmanufacture,accordingtotheorderoftime,wasthatgrantedbythe21stGeorgeII,c。30,upontheimportationofindigofromtheBritishplantations。Whentheplantationindigowasworththree—fourthsofthepriceofthebestFrenchindigo,itwasbythisactentitledtoabountyofsixpencethepound。Thisbounty,which,likemostothers,wasgrantedonlyforalimitedtime,wascontinuedbyseveralprolongations,butwasreducedtofourpencethepound。ItwasallowedtoexpirewiththeendofthesessionofParliamentwhichfollowedthe25thMarch1781。
Thethirdbountyofthiskindwasthatgranted(muchaboutthetimethatwewerebeginningsometimestocourtandsometimestoquarrelwithourAmericancolonies)bythe4thGeorgeIII,c。
26,upontheimportationofhemp,orundressedflax,fromtheBritishplantations。Thisbountywasgrantedfortwenty—oneyears,fromthe24thJune1764tothe24thJune1785。Forthefirstsevenyearsitwastobeattherateofeightpoundstheton,forthesecondatsixpounds,andforthethirdatfourpounds。ItwasnotextendedtoScotland,ofwhichtheclimate(althoughhempissometimesraisedthereinsmallquantitiesandofaninferiorquality)isnotveryfitforthatproduce。SuchabountyupontheimportationofScotchflaxintoEnglandwouldhavebeentoogreatadiscouragementtothenativeproduceofthesouthernpartoftheUnitedKingdom。
Thefourthbountyofthiskindwasthatgrantedbythe5thGeorgeIII,c。45,upontheimportationofwoodfromAmerica。Itwasgrantedfornineyears,fromthe1stJanuary1766tothe1stJanuary1775。Duringthefirstthreeyears,itwastobeforeveryhundredandtwentygooddeals,attherateofonepound,andforeveryloadcontainingfiftycubicfeetofothersquaredtimberattherateoftwelveshillings。Forthesecondthreeyears,itwasfordealstobeat。therateoffifteenshillings,andforothersquaredtimberattherateofeightshillings;andforthethirdthreeyears,itwasfordealstobeattherateoftenshillings,andforothersquaredtimberattherateoffiveshillings。
Thefifthbountyofthiskindwasthatgrantedbythe9thGeorgeIII,c。38,upontheimportationofrawsilkfromtheBritishplantations。Itwasgrantedfortwenty—oneyears,fromthe1stJanuary1770tothe1stJanuary1791。Forthefirstsevenyearsitwastobeattherateoftwenty—fivepoundsforeveryhundredpoundsvalue;forthesecondattwentypounds;andforthethirdatfifteenpounds。Themanagementofthesilkworm,andthepreparationofsilk,requiressomuchhandlabour,andlabourissoverydearinAmericathateventhisgreatbounty,Ihavebeeninformed,wasnotlikelytoproduceanyconsiderableeffect。
Thesixthbountyofthiskindwasthatgrantedby2ndGeorgeIII,c。50,fortheimportationofpipe,hogshead,andbarrelstavesandheadingfromtheBritishplantations。Itwasgrantedfornineyears,from1stJanuary1772tothe1stJanuary1781。
Forthefirstthreeyearsitwasforacertainquantityofeachtobeattherateofsixpounds;forthesecondthreeyearsatfourpounds;andforthethirdthreeyearsattwopounds。
Theseventhandlastbountyofthiskindwasthatgrantedbythe19thGeorgeIII,c。37,upontheimportationofhempfromIreland。ItwasgrantedinthesamemannerasthatfortheimportationofhempandundressedflaxfromAmerica,fortwenty—oneyears,fromthe24thJune1779tothe24thJune1800。
Thistermisdivided,likewise,intothreeperiodsofsevenyearseach;andineachofthoseperiodstherateoftheIrishbountyisthesamewiththatoftheAmerican。Itdoesnot,however,liketheAmericanbounty,extendtotheimportationofundressedflax。
ItwouldhavebeentoogreatadiscouragementtothecultivationofthatplantinGreatBritain。Whenthislastbountywasgranted,theBritishandIrishlegislatureswerenotinmuchbetterhumourwithoneanotherthantheBritishandAmericanhadbeenbefore。ButthisboontoIreland,itistobehoped,hasbeengrantedundermorefortunateauspicesthanallthosetoAmerica。
ThesamecommoditiesuponwhichwethusgavebountieswhenimportedfromAmericaweresubjectedtoconsiderabledutieswhenimportedfromanyothercountry。TheinterestofourAmericancolonieswasregardedasthesamewiththatofthemothercountry。Theirwealthwasconsideredasourwealth。Whatevermoneywassentouttothem,itwassaid,cameallbacktousbythebalanceoftrade,andwecouldneverbecomeafarthingthepoorerbyanyexpensewhichwecouldlayoutuponthem。Theywereourownineveryrespect,anditwasanexpenselaidoutupontheimprovementofourownpropertyandfortheprofitableemploymentofourownpeople。Itisunnecessary,Iapprehend,atpresenttosayanythingfurtherinordertoexposethefollyofasystemwhichfatalexperiencehasnowsufficientlyexposed。HadourAmericancoloniesreallybeenapartofGreatBritain,thosebountiesmighthavebeenconsideredasbountiesuponproduction,andwouldstillhavebeenliabletoalltheobjectionstowhichsuchbountiesareliable,buttonoother。
Theexportationofthematerialsofmanufactureissometimesdiscouragedbyabsoluteprohibitions,andsometimesbyhighduties。
Ourwoollenmanufacturershavebeenmoresuccessfulthananyotherclassofworkmeninpersuadingthelegislaturethattheprosperityofthenationdependeduponthesuccessandextensionoftheirparticularbusiness。Theyhavenotonlyobtainedamonopolyagainsttheconsumersbyanabsoluteprohibitionofimportingwoollenclothsfromanyforeigncountry,buttheyhavelikewiseobtainedanothermonopolyagainstthesheepfarmersandgrowersofwoolbyasimilarprohibitionoftheexportationoflivesheepandwool。Theseverityofmanyofthelawswhichhavebeenenactedforthesecurityoftherevenueisveryjustlycomplainedof,asimposingheavypenaltiesuponactionswhich,antecedenttothestatutesthatdeclaredthemtobecrimes,hadalwaysbeenunderstoodtobeinnocent。Butthecruellestofourrevenuelaws,Iwillventuretoaffirm,aremildandgentleincomparisonofsomeofthosewhichtheclamourofourmerchantsandmanufacturershasextortedfromthelegislatureforthesupportoftheirownabsurdandoppressivemonopolies。LikethelawsofDraco,theselawsmaybesaidtobeallwritteninblood。
Bythe8thofElizabeth,c。3,theexporterofsheep,lambs,orramswasforthefirstoffencetoforfeitallhisgoodsforever,tosufferayear’simprisonment,andthentohavehislefthandcutoffinamarkettownuponamarketday,tobetherenailedup;andforthesecondoffencetobeadjudgedafelon,andtosufferdeathaccordingly。Topreventthebreedofoursheepfrombeingpropagatedinforeigncountriesseemstohavebeentheobjectofthislaw。Bythe13thand14thofCharlesII,c。18,theexportationofwoolwasmadefelony,andtheexportersubjectedtothesamepenaltiesandforfeituresasafelon。
Forthehonourofthenationalhumanity,itistobehopedthatneitherofthesestatuteswereeverexecuted。Thefirstofthem,however;sofarasIknow,hasneverbeendirectlyrepealed,andSerjeantHawkinsseemstoconsideritasstillinforce。Itmayhowever,perhaps,beconsideredasvirtuallyrepealedbythe12thofCharlesII,c。32,sect。3,which,withoutexpresslytakingawaythepenaltiesimposedbyformerstatutes,imposesanewpenalty,viz。,thatoftwentyshillingsforeverysheepexported,orattemptedtobeexported,togetherwiththeforfeitureofthesheepandoftheowner’sshareoftheship。Thesecondofthemwasexpresslyrepealedbythe7thand8thofWilliamIII,c。28,sect。4。Bywhichitisdeclaredthat,\"Whereasthestatuteofthe13thand14thofKingCharlesII,madeagainsttheexportationofwool,amongotherthingsinthesaidactmentioned,dothenactthesametobedeemedfelony;bytheseverityofwhichpenaltytheprosecutionofoffendershathnotbeensoeffectuallyputinexecution:Beit,therefore,enactedbytheauthorityaforesaid,thatsomuchofthesaidact,whichrelatestothemakingthesaidoffencefelony,berepealedandmadevoid。\"
Thepenalties,however,whichareeitherimposedbythismilderstatute,orwhich,thoughimposedbyformerstatutes,arenotrepealedbythisone,arestillsufficientlysevere。Besidestheforfeitureofthegoods,theexporterincursthepenaltyofthreeshillingsforeverypoundweightofwooleitherexportedorattemptedtobeexported,thatisaboutfourorfivetimesthevalue。Anymerchantorotherpersonconvictedofthisoffenceisdisabledfromrequiringanydebtoraccountbelongingtohimfromanyfactororotherperson。Lethisfortunebewhatitwill,whetherheisorisnotabletopaythoseheavypenalties,thelawmeanstoruinhimcompletely。Butasthemoralsofthegreatbodyofthepeoplearenotyetsocorruptasthoseofthecontriversofthisstatute,Ihavenotheardthatanyadvantagehaseverbeentakenofthisclause。Ifthepersonconvictedofthisoffenceisnotabletopaythepenaltieswithinthreemonthsafterjudgment,heistobetransportedforsevenyears,andifhereturnsbeforetheexpirationofthatterm,heisliabletothepainsoffelony,withoutbenefitofclergy。Theowneroftheship,knowingthisoffence,forfeitsallhisinterestintheshipandfurniture。Themasterandmariners,knowingthisoffence,forfeitalltheirgoodsandchattels,andsufferthreemonths’
imprisonment。Byasubsequentstatutethemastersufferssixmonths’imprisonment。