andtheirclergy,whoarefarfrombeingnumerous,aremaintainedeitherbymoderatestipends,orbythevoluntarycontributionsofthepeople。ThepowerofSpainandPortugal,onthecontrary,derivessomesupportfromthetaxesleviedupontheircolonies。France,indeed,hasneverdrawnanyconsiderablerevenuefromitscolonies,thetaxeswhichitleviesuponthembeinggenerallyspentamongthem。Butthecolonygovernmentofallthesethreenationsisconducteduponamuchmoreexpensiveceremonial。ThesumsspentuponthereceptionofanewviceroyofPeru,forexample,havefrequentlybeenenormous。Suchceremonialsarenotonlyrealtaxespaidbytherichcolonistsuponthoseparticularoccasions,buttheyservetointroduceamongthemthehabitofvanityandexpenseuponallotheroccasions。Theyarenotonlyverygrievousoccasionaltaxes,buttheycontributetoestablishperpetualtaxesofthesamekindstillmoregrievous;theruinoustaxesofprivateluxuryandextravagance。Inthecoloniesofallthosethreenationstoo,theecclesiasticalgovernmentisextremelyoppressive。Tithestakeplaceinallofthem,andareleviedwiththeutmostrigourinthoseofSpainandPortugal。Allofthem,besides,areoppressedwithanumerousraceofmendicantfriars,whosebeggarybeingnotonlylicensedbutconsecratedbyreligion,isamostgrievoustaxuponthepoorpeople,whoaremostcarefullytaughtthatitisadutytogive,andaverygreatsintorefusethemtheircharity。Overandaboveallthis,theclergyare,inallofthem,thegreatestengrossersofland。
Fourthly,inthedisposaloftheirsurplusproduce,orofwhatisoverandabovetheirownconsumption,theEnglishcolonieshavebeenmorefavoured,andhavebeenallowedamoreextensivemarket,thanthoseofanyotherEuropeannation。EveryEuropeannationhasendeavouredmoreorlesstomonopolisetoitselfthecommerceofitscolonies,and,uponthataccount,hasprohibitedtheshipsofforeignnationsfromtradingtothem,andhasprohibitedthemfromimportingEuropeangoodsfromanyforeignnation。Butthemannerinwhichthismonopolyhasbeenexercisedindifferentnationshasbeenverydifferent。
Somenationshavegivenupthewholecommerceoftheircoloniestoanexclusivecompany,ofwhomthecolonistswereobligedtobuyallsuchEuropeangoodsastheywanted,andtowhomtheywereobligedtosellthewholeoftheirownsurplusproduce。Itwastheinterestofthecompany,therefore,notonlytoselltheformerasdear,andtobuythelatterascheapaspossible,buttobuynomoreofthelatter,evenatthislowpricethanwhattheycoulddisposeofforaveryhighpriceinEurope。Itwastheirinterest,notonlytodegradeinallcasesthevalueofthesurplusproduceofthecolony,butinmanycasestodiscourageandkeepdownthenaturalincreaseofitsquantity。
Ofalltheexpedientsthatcanwellbecontrivedtostuntthenaturalgrowthofanewcolony,thatofanexclusivecompanyisundoubtedlythemosteffectual。This,however,hasbeenthepolicyofHolland,thoughtheircompany,inthecourseofthepresentcentury,hasgivenupinmanyrespectstheexertionoftheirexclusiveprivilege。This,too,wasthepolicyofDenmarktillthereignofthelateking。IthasoccasionallybeenthepolicyofFrance,andoflate,since1755,afterithadbeenabandonedbyallothernationsonaccountofitsabsurdity,ithasbecomethepolicyofPortugalwithregardatleasttotwooftheprincipalprovincesofBrazil,FernambucoandMarannon。
Othernations,withoutestablishinganexclusivecompany,haveconfinedthewholecommerceoftheircoloniestoaparticularportofthemothercountry,fromwhencenoshipwasallowedtosail,buteitherinafleetandataparticularseason,or,ifsingle,inconsequenceofaparticularlicence,whichinmostcaseswasverywellpaidfor。Thispolicyopened,indeed,thetradeofthecoloniestoallthenativesofthemothercountry,providedtheytradedfromtheproperport,attheproperseason,andinthepropervessels。Butasallthedifferentmerchants,whojoinedtheirstocksinordertofitoutthoselicensedvessels,wouldfinditfortheirinteresttoactinconcert,thetradewhichwascarriedoninthismannerwouldnecessarilybeconductedverynearlyuponthesameprinciplesasthatofanexclusivecompany。Theprofitofthosemerchantswouldbealmostequallyexorbitantandoppressive。Thecolonieswouldbeillsupplied,andwouldbeobligedbothtobuyverydear,andtosellverycheap。This,however,tillwithinthesefewyears,hadalwaysbeenthepolicyofSpain,andthepriceofallEuropeangoods,accordingly,issaidtohavebeenenormousintheSpanishWestIndies。AtQuito,wearetoldbyUlloa,apoundofironsoldforaboutfourandsixpence,andapoundofsteelforaboutsixandninepencesterling。ButitischieflyinordertopurchaseEuropeangoodsthatthecoloniespartwiththeirownproduce。Themore,therefore,theypayfortheone,thelesstheyreallygetfortheother,andthedearnessoftheoneisthesamethingwiththecheapnessoftheother。ThepolicyofPortugalisinthisrespectthesameastheancientpolicyofSpainwithregardtoallitscolonies,exceptFernambucoandMarannon,andwithregardtotheseithaslatelyadoptedastillworse。
Othernationsleavethetradeoftheircoloniesfreetoalltheirsubjectswhomaycarryitonfromallthedifferentportsofthemothercountry,andwhohaveoccasionfornootherlicencethanthecommondespatchesofthecustom—house。Inthiscasethenumberanddispersedsituationofthedifferenttradersrendersitimpossibleforthemtoenterintoanygeneralcombination,andtheircompetitionissufficienttohinderthemfrommakingveryexorbitantprofits。UndersoliberalapolicythecoloniesareenabledbothtoselltheirownproduceandtobuythegoodsofEuropeatareasonableprice。ButsincethedissolutionofthePlymouthCompany,whenourcolonieswerebutintheirinfancy,thishasalwaysbeenthepolicyofEngland。Ithasgenerally,too,beenthatofFrance,andhasbeenuniformlysosincethedissolutionofwhat,inEngland,iscommonlycalledtheirMississippiCompany。Theprofitsofthetrade,therefore,whichFranceandEnglandcarryonwiththeircolonies,thoughnodoubtsomewhathigherthanifthecompetitionwasfreetoallothernations,are,however,bynomeansexorbitant;andthepriceofEuropeangoodsaccordinglyisnotextravagantlyhighinthegreaterpartofthecoloniesofeitherofthosenations。
Intheexportationoftheirownsurplusproducetoo,itisonlywithregardtocertaincommoditiesthatthecoloniesofGreatBritainareconfinedtothemarketofthemothercountry。
ThesecommoditieshavingbeenenumeratedintheActofNavigationandinsomeothersubsequentacts,haveuponthataccountbeencalledenumeratedcommodities。Therestarecallednon—enumerated,andmaybeexporteddirectlytoothercountriesprovideditisinBritishorPlantationships,ofwhichtheownersandthree—fourthsofthemarinersareBritishsubjects。
Amongthenon—enumeratedcommoditiesaresomeofthemostimportantproductionsofAmericaandtheWestIndies;grainofallsorts,lumber,saltprovisions,fish,sugarandrum。
Grainisnaturallythefirstandprincipalobjectofthecultureofallnewcolonies。Byallowingthemaveryextensivemarketforit,thelawencouragesthemtoextendthisculturemuchbeyondtheconsumptionofathinlyinhabitedcountry,andthustoprovidebeforehandanamplesubsistenceforacontinuallyincreasingpopulation。
Inacountryquitecoveredwithwood,wheretimberconsequentlyisoflittleornovalue,theexpenseofclearingthegroundistheprincipalobstacletoimprovement。Byallowingthecoloniesaveryextensivemarketfortheirlumber,thelawendeavourstofacilitateimprovementbyraisingthepriceofacommoditywhichwouldotherwisebeoflittlevalue,andtherebyenablingthemtomakesomeprofitofwhatwouldotherwisebeamereexpense。
Inacountryneitherhalf—peoplednorhalf—cultivated,cattlenaturallymultiplybeyondtheconsumptionoftheinhabitants,andareoftenuponthataccountoflittleornovalue。Butitisnecessary,ithasalreadybeenshown,thatthepriceofcattleshouldbearacertainproportiontothatofcornbeforethegreaterpartofthelandsofanycountrycanbeimproved。ByallowingtoAmericancattle,inallshapes,deadoralive,averyextensivemarket,thelawendeavorstoraisethevalueofacommodityofwhichthehighpriceissoveryessentialtoimprovement。Thegoodeffectsofthisliberty,however,mustbesomewhatdiminishedbythe4thofGeorgeIII,c。15,whichputshidesandskinsamongtheenumeratedcommodities,andtherebytendstoreducethevalueofAmericancattle。
ToincreasetheshippingandnavalpowerofGreatBritain,bytheextensionofthefisheriesofourcolonies,isanobjectwhichthelegislatureseemstohavehadalmostconstantlyinview。Thosefisheries,uponthisaccount,havehadalltheencouragementwhichfreedomcangivethem,andtheyhaveflourishedaccordingly。TheNewEnglandfisheryinparticularwas,beforethelatedisturbances,oneofthemostimportant,perhaps,intheworld。Thewhale—fisherywhich,notwithstandinganextravagantbounty,isinGreatBritaincarriedontosolittlepurposethatintheopinionofmanypeople(whichIdonot,however,pretendtowarrant)thewholeproducedoesnotmuchexceedthevalueofthebountieswhichareannuallypaidforit,isinNewEnglandcarriedonwithoutanybountytoaverygreatextent。FishisoneoftheprincipalarticleswithwhichtheNorthAmericanstradetoSpain,Portugal,andtheMediterranean。
SugarwasoriginallyanenumeratedcommoditywhichcouldbeexportedonlytoGreatBritain。Butin1731,uponarepresentationofthesugar—planters,itsexportationwaspermittedtoallpartsoftheworld。Therestrictions,however,withwhichthislibertywasgranted,joinedtothehighpriceofsugarinGreatBritain,haverenderedit,inagreatmeasure,ineffectual。GreatBritainandhercoloniesstillcontinuetobealmostthesolemarketforallthesugarproducedintheBritishplantations。Theirconsumptionincreasessofastthat,thoughinconsequenceoftheincreasingimprovementofJamaica,aswellasoftheCededIslands,theimportationofsugarhasincreasedverygreatlywithinthesetwentyyears,theexportationtoforeigncountriesissaidtobenotmuchgreaterthanbefore。
RumisaveryimportantarticleinthetradewhichtheAmericanscarryontothecoastofAfrica,fromwhichtheybringbacknegroslavesinreturn。
IfthewholesurplusproduceofAmericaingrainofallsorts,insaltprovisionsandinfish,hadbeenputintotheenumeration,andtherebyforcedintothemarketofGreatBritain,itwouldhaveinterferedtoomuchwiththeproduceoftheindustryofourownpeople。ItwasprobablynotsomuchfromanyregardtotheinterestofAmericaasfromajealousyofthisinterferencethatthoseimportantcommoditieshavenotonlybeenkeptoutoftheenumeration,butthattheimportationintoGreatBritainofallgrain,exceptrice,andofsaltprovisions,has,intheordinarystateofthelaw,beenprohibited。
Thenon—enumeratedcommoditiescouldoriginallybeexportedtoallpartsoftheworld。Lumberandrice,havingbeenonceputintotheenumeration,whentheywereafterwardstakenoutofit,wereconfined,astotheEuropeanmarket,tothecountriesthatliesouthofCapeFinisterre。Bythe6thofGeorgeIII,c。52,allnon—enumeratedcommoditiesweresubjectedtothelikerestriction。ThepartsofEuropewhichliesouthofCapeFinisterrearenotmanufacturingcountries,andwewerelessjealousofthecolonyshipscarryinghomefromthemanymanufactureswhichcouldinterferewithourown。
Theenumeratedcommoditiesareoftwosorts:first,suchasareeitherthepeculiarproduceofAmerica,orascannotbeproduced,oratleastarenotproduced,inthemothercountry。Ofthiskindaremolasses,coffee,cocoa—nuts,tobacco,pimento,ginger,whalefins,rawsilk,cotton—wool,beaver,andotherpeltryofAmerica,indigo,fustic,andotherdyeingwoods;
secondly,suchasarenotthepeculiarproduceofAmerica,butwhichareandmaybeproducedinthemothercountry,thoughnotinsuchquantitiesastosupplythegreaterpartofherdemand,whichisprincipallysuppliedfromforeigncountries。Ofthiskindareallnavalstores,masts,yards,andbowsprits,tar,pitch,andturpentine,pigandbariron,copperore,hidesandskins,potandpearlashes。Thelargestimportationofcommoditiesofthefirstkindcouldnotdiscouragethegrowthorinterferewiththesaleofanypartoftheproduceofthemothercountry。Byconfiningthemtothehomemarket,ourmerchants,itwasexpected,wouldnotonlybeenabledtobuythemcheaperintheplantations,andconsequentlytosellthemwithabetterprofitathome,buttoestablishbetweentheplantationsandforeigncountriesanadvantageouscarryingtrade,ofwhichGreatBritainwasnecessarilytobethecentreoremporium,astheEuropeancountryintowhichthosecommoditieswerefirsttobeimported。Theimportationofcommoditiesofthesecondkindmightbesomanagedtoo,itwassupposed,astointerfere,notwiththesaleofthoseofthesamekindwhichwereproducedathome,butwiththatofthosewhichwereimportedfromforeigncountries;
because,bymeansofproperduties,theymightberenderedalwayssomewhatdearerthantheformer,andyetagooddealcheaperthanthelatter。Byconfiningsuchcommoditiestothehomemarket,therefore,itwasproposedtodiscouragetheproduce,notofGreatBritain,butofsomeforeigncountrieswithwhichthebalanceoftradewasbelievedtobeunfavourabletoGreatBritain。
Theprohibitionofexportingfromthecolonies,toanyothercountrybutGreatBritain,masts,yards,andbowsprits,tar,pitch,andturpentine,naturallytendedtolowerthepriceoftimberinthecolonies,andconsequentlytoincreasetheexpenseofclearingtheirlands,theprincipalobstacletotheirimprovement。Butaboutthebeginningofthepresentcentury,in1703,thepitchandtarcompanyofSwedenendeavouredtoraisethepriceoftheircommoditiestoGreatBritain,byprohibitingtheirexportation,exceptintheirownships,attheirownprice,andinsuchquantitiesastheythoughtproper。Inordertocounteractthisnotablepieceofmercantilepolicy,andtorenderherselfasmuchaspossibleindependent,notonlyofSweden,butofalltheothernorthernpowers,GreatBritaingaveabountyupontheimportationofnavalstoresfromAmerica,andtheeffectofthisbountywastoraisethepriceoftimberinAmericamuchmorethantheconfinementtothehomemarketcouldlowerit;andasbothregulationswereenactedatthesametime,theirjointeffectwasrathertoencouragethantodiscouragetheclearingoflandinAmerica。
Thoughpigandbarirontoohavebeenputamongtheenumeratedcommodities,yetas,whenimportedfromAmerica,theywereexemptedfromconsiderabledutiestowhichtheyaresubjectwhenimportedfromanyothercountry,theonepartoftheregulationcontributesmoretoencouragetheerectionoffurnacesinAmericathantheothertodiscourageit。Thereisnomanufacturewhichoccasionssogreataconsumptionofwoodasafurnace,orwhichcancontributesomuchtotheclearingofacountryovergrownwithit。
ThetendencyofsomeoftheseregulationstoraisethevalueoftimberinAmerica,andtherebytofacilitatetheclearingoftheland,wasneither,perhaps,intendednorunderstoodbythelegislature。Thoughtheirbeneficialeffects,however,havebeeninthisrespectaccidental,theyhavenotuponthataccountbeenlessreal。
ThemostperfectfreedomoftradeispermittedbetweentheBritishcoloniesofAmericaandtheWestIndies,bothintheenumeratedandinthenon—enumeratedcommodities。Thosecoloniesarenowbecomesopopulousandthrivingthateachofthemfindsinsomeoftheothersagreatandextensivemarketforeverypartofitsproduce。Allofthemtakentogether,theymakeagreatinternalmarketfortheproduceofoneanother。
TheliberalityofEngland,however,towardsthetradeofhercolonieshasbeenconfinedchieflytowhatconcernsthemarketfortheirproduce,eitherinitsrudestate,orinwhatmaybecalledtheveryfirststageofmanufacture。Themoreadvancedormorerefinedmanufacturesevenofthecolonyproduce,themerchantsandmanufacturersofGreatBritainchoosetoreservetothemselves,andhaveprevaileduponthelegislaturetopreventtheirestablishmentinthecolonies,sometimesbyhighduties,andsometimesbyabsoluteprohibitions。
While,forexample,MuskovadosugarsfromtheBritishplantationspayuponimportationonly6s。4d。thehundredweight;
whitesugarspayL11s。1d。;andrefined,eitherdoubleorsingle,inloavesL42s。58/20d。Whenthosehighdutieswereimposed,GreatBritainwasthesole,andshestillcontinuestobetheprincipalmarkettowhichthesugarsoftheBritishcoloniescouldbeexported。Theyamounted,therefore,toaprohibition,atfirstofclayingorrefiningsugarforanyforeignmarket,andatpresentofclayingorrefiningitforthemarket,whichtakesoff,perhaps,morethannine—tenthsofthewholeproduce。Themanufactureofclayingorrefiningsugaraccordingly,thoughithasflourishedinallthesugarcoloniesofFrance,hasbeenlittlecultivatedinanyofthoseofEnglandexceptforthemarketofthecoloniesthemselves。WhileGrenadawasinthehandsoftheFrenchtherewasarefineryofsugar,byclayingatleast,uponalmosteveryplantation。SinceitfellintothoseoftheEnglish,almostallworksofthiskindhavebeengiventip,andthereareatpresent,October1773,Iamassurednotabovetwoorthreeremainingintheisland。Atpresent,however,byanindulgenceofthecustom—house,clayedorrefinedsugar,ifreducedfromloavesintopowder,iscommonlyimportedasMuskovado。
WhileGreatBritainencouragesinAmericathemanufacturesofpigandbariron,byexemptingthemfromdutiestowhichthelikecommoditiesaresubjectwhenimportedfromanyothercountry,sheimposesanabsoluteprohibitionupontheerectionofsteelfurnacesandslitmillsinanyofherAmericanplantations。
Shewillnotsufferhercoloniststoworkinthosemorerefinedmanufacturesevenfortheirownconsumption;butinsistsupontheirpurchasingofhermerchantsandmanufacturersallgoodsofthiskindwhichtheyhaveoccasionfor。
Sheprohibitstheexportationfromoneprovincetoanotherbywater,andeventhecarriagebylanduponhorsebackorinacart,ofhats,ofwoolsandwoollengoods,oftheproduceofAmerica;aregulationwhicheffectuallypreventstheestablishmentofanymanufactureofsuchcommoditiesfordistantsale,andconfinestheindustryofhercolonistsinthiswaytosuchcoarseandhouseholdmanufacturesasaprivatefamilycommonlymakesforitsownuseorforthatofsomeofitsneighboursinthesameprovince。
Toprohibitagreatpeople,however,frommakingallthattheycanofeverypartoftheirownproduce,orfromemployingtheirstockandindustryinthewaythattheyjudgemostadvantageoustothemselves,isamanifestviolationofthemostsacredrightsofmankind。Unjust,however,assuchprohibitionsmaybe,theyhavenothithertobeenveryhurtfultothecolonies。
Landisstillsocheap,and,consequently,laboursodearamongthem,thattheycanimportfromthemothercountryalmostallthemorerefinedormoreadvancedmanufacturescheaperthantheycouldmakeforthemselves。Thoughtheyhadnot,therefore,beenprohibitedfromestablishingsuchmanufactures,yetintheirpresentstateofimprovementaregardtotheirowninterestwould,probably,havepreventedthemfromdoingso。Intheirpresentstateofimprovementthoseprohibitions,perhaps,withoutcrampingtheirindustry,orrestrainingitfromanyemploymenttowhichitwouldhavegoneofitsownaccord,areonlyimpertinentbadgesofslaveryimposeduponthem,withoutanysufficientreason,bythegroundlessjealousyofthemerchantsandmanufacturersofthemothercountry。Inamoreadvancedstatetheymightbereallyoppressiveandinsupportable。
GreatBritaintoo,assheconfinestoherownmarketsomeofthemostimportantproductionsofthecolonies,soincompensationshegivestosomeofthemanadvantageinthatmarket,sometimesbyimposinghigherdutiesuponthelikeproductionswhenimportedfromothercountries,andsometimesbygivingbountiesupontheirimportationfromthecolonies。Inthefirstwayshegivesanadvantageinthehomemarkettothesugar,tobacco,andironofherowncolonies,andinthesecondtotheirrawsilk,totheirhempandflax,totheirindigo,totheirnavalstores,andtotheirbuildingtimber。Thissecondwayofencouragingthecolonyproducebybountiesuponimportation,is,sofarasIhavebeenabletolearn,peculiartoGreatBritain。
Thefirstisnot。Portugaldoesnotcontentherselfwithimposinghigherdutiesupontheimportationoftobaccofromanyothercountry,butprohibitsitundertheseverestpenalties。
WithregardtotheimportationofgoodsfromEurope,Englandhaslikewisedealtmoreliberallywithhercoloniesthananyothernation。
GreatBritainallowsapart,almostalwaysthehalf,generallyalargerportion,andsometimesthewholeofthedutywhichispaidupontheimportationofforeigngoods,tobedrawnbackupontheirexportationtoanyforeigncountry。Noindependentforeigncountry,itwaseasytoforesee,wouldreceivethemiftheycametoitloadedwiththeheavydutiestowhichalmostallforeigngoodsaresubjectedontheirimportationintoGreatBritain。Unless,therefore,somepartofthosedutieswasdrawnbackuponexportation,therewasanendofthecarryingtrade;atradesomuchfavouredbythemercantilesystem。
Ourcolonies,however,arebynomeansindependentforeigncountries;andGreatBritainhavingassumedtoherselftheexclusiverightofsupplyingthemwithallgoodsfromEurope,mighthaveforcedthem(inthesamemannerasothercountrieshavedonetheircolonies)toreceivesuchgoods,loadedwithallthesamedutieswhichtheypaidinthemothercountry。But,onthecontrary,till1763,thesamedrawbackswerepaidupontheexportationofthegreaterpartofforeigngoodstoourcoloniesastoanyindependentforeigncountry。In1763,indeed,bythe4thofGeorgeIII,c。15,thisindulgencewasagooddealabated,anditwasenacted,\"ThatnopartofthedutycalledtheOldSubsidyshouldbedrawnbackforanygoodsofthegrowth,production,ormanufactureofEuropeortheEastIndies,whichshouldbeexportedfromthiskingdomtoanyBritishcolonyorplantationinAmerica;wines,whitecalicoesandmuslinsexcepted。\"Beforethislaw,manydifferentsortsofforeigngoodsmighthavebeenboughtcheaperintheplantationsthaninthemothercountry;andsomemaystill。
Ofthegreaterpartoftheregulationsconcerningthecolonytrade,themerchantswhocarryiton,itmustbeobserved,havebeentheprincipaladvisers。Wemustnotwonder,therefore,if,inthegreaterpartofthem,theirinteresthasbeenmoreconsideredthaneitherthatofthecoloniesorthatofthemothercountry。IntheirexclusiveprivilegeofsupplyingthecolonieswithallthegoodswhichtheywantedfromEurope,andofpurchasingallsuchpartsoftheirsurplusproduceascouldnotinterferewithanyofthetradeswhichtheythemselvescarriedonathome,theinterestofthecolonieswassacrificedtotheinterestofthosemerchants。Inallowingthesamedrawbacksuponthere—exportationofthegreaterpartofEuropeanandEastIndiagoodstothecoloniesasupontheirre—exportationtoanyindependentcountry,theinterestofthemothercountrywassacrificedtoit,evenaccordingtothemercantileideasofthatinterest。Itwasfortheinterestofthemerchantstopayaslittleaspossiblefortheforeignwhichtheysenttothecolonies,and,consequently,togetbackasmuchaspossibleofthedutieswhichtheyadvancedupontheirimportationintoGreatBritain。Theymighttherebybeenabledtosellinthecolonieseitherthesamequantityofgoodswithagreaterprofit,oragreaterquantitywiththesameprofit,and,consequently,togainsomethingeitherintheonewayortheother。Itwaslikewisefortheinterestofthecoloniestogetallsuchgoodsascheapandinasgreatabundanceaspossible。Butthismightnotalwaysbefortheinterestofthemothercountry。Shemightfrequentlysufferbothinherrevenue,bygivingbackagreatpartofthedutieswhichhadbeenpaidupontheimportationofsuchgoods;
andinhermanufactures,bybeingundersoldinthecolonymarket,inconsequenceoftheeasytermsuponwhichforeignmanufacturescouldbecarriedthitherbymeansofthosedrawbacks。TheprogressofthelinenmanufactureofGreatBritain,itiscommonlysaid,hasbeenagooddealretardedbythedrawbacksuponthere—exportationofGermanlinentotheAmericancolonies。
ButthoughthepolicyofGreatBritainwithregardtothetradeofhercolonieshasbeendictatedbythesamemercantilespiritasthatofothernations,ithas,however,uponthewhole,beenlessilliberalandoppressivethanthatofanyofthem。
Ineverything,excepttheirforeigntrade,thelibertyoftheEnglishcoloniststomanagetheirownaffairstheirownwayiscomplete。Itisineveryrespectequaltothatoftheirfellow—citizensathome,andissecuredinthesamemanner,byanassemblyoftherepresentativesofthepeople,whoclaimthesolerightofimposingtaxesforthesupportofthecolonygovernment。
Theauthorityofthisassemblyoverawestheexecutivepower,andneitherthemeanestnorthemostobnoxiouscolonist,aslongasheobeysthelaw,hasanythingtofearfromtheresentment,eitherofthegovernororofanyothercivilormilitaryofficerintheprovince。Thecolonyassembliesthough,liketheHouseofCommonsinEngland,arenotalwaysaveryequalrepresentationofthepeople,yettheyapproachmorenearlytothatcharacter;andastheexecutivepowereitherhasnotthemeanstocorruptthem,or,onaccountofthesupportwhichitreceivesfromthemothercountry,isnotunderthenecessityofdoingso,theyareperhapsingeneralmoreinfluencedbytheinclinationsoftheirconstituents。Thecouncilswhich,inthecolonylegislatures,correspondtotheHouseofLordsinGreatBritain,arenotcomposedofanhereditarynobility。Insomeofthecolonies,asinthreeofthegovernmentsofNewEngland,thosecouncilsarenotappointedbytheking,butchosenbytherepresentativesofthepeople。InnoneoftheEnglishcoloniesisthereanyhereditarynobility。Inallofthem,indeed,asinallotherfreecountries,thedescendantofanoldcolonyfamilyismorerespectedthananupstartofequalmeritandfortune;butheisonlymorerespected,andhehasnoprivilegesbywhichhecanbetroublesometohisneighbours。Beforethecommencementofthepresentdisturbances,thecolonyassemblieshadnotonlythelegislativebutapartoftheexecutivepower。InConnecticutandRhodeIsland,theyelectedthegovernor。Intheothercoloniestheyappointedtherevenueofficerswhocollectedthetaxesimposedbythoserespectiveassemblies,towhomthoseofficerswereimmediatelyresponsible。Thereismoreequality,therefore,amongtheEnglishcoloniststhanamongtheinhabitantsofthemothercountry。Theirmannersaremorerepublican,andtheirgovernments,thoseofthreeoftheprovincesofNewEnglandinparticular,havehithertobeenmorerepublicantoo。
TheabsolutegovernmentsofSpain,Portugal,andFrance,onthecontrary,takeplaceintheircolonies;andthediscretionarypowerswhichsuchgovernmentscommonlydelegatetoalltheirinferiorofficersare,onaccountofthegreatdistance,naturallyexercisedtherewithmorethanordinaryviolence。Underallabsolutegovernmentsthereismorelibertyinthecapitalthaninanyotherpartofthecountry。Thesovereignhimselfcanneverhaveeitherinterestorinclinationtoperverttheorderofjustice,ortooppressthegreatbodyofthepeople。Inthecapitalhispresenceoverawesmoreorlessallhisinferiorofficers,whointheremoterprovinces,fromwhencethecomplaintsofthepeoplearelesslikelytoreachhim,canexercisetheirtyrannywithmuchmoresafety。ButtheEuropeancoloniesinAmericaaremoreremotethanthemostdistantprovincesofthegreatestempireswhichhadeverbeenknownbefore。ThegovernmentoftheEnglishcoloniesisperhapstheonlyonewhich,sincetheworldbegan,couldgiveperfectsecuritytotheinhabitantsofsoverydistantaprovince。TheadministrationoftheFrenchcolonies,however,hasalwaysbeenconductedwithmoregentlenessandmoderationthanthatoftheSpanishandPortugese。ThissuperiorityofconductissuitablebothtothecharacteroftheFrenchnation,andtowhatformsthecharacterofeverynation,thenatureoftheirgovernment,whichthougharbitraryandviolentincomparisonwiththatofGreatBritain,islegalandfreeincomparisonwiththoseofSpainandPortugal。
ItisintheprogressoftheNorthAmericancolonies,however,thatthesuperiorityoftheEnglishpolicychieflyappears。TheprogressofthesugarcoloniesofFrancehasbeenatleastequal,perhapssuperior,tothatofthegreaterpartofthoseofEngland,andyetthesugarcoloniesofEnglandenjoyafreegovernmentnearlyofthesamekindwiththatwhichtakesplaceinhercoloniesofNorthAmerica。ButthesugarcoloniesofFrancearenotdiscouraged,likethoseofEngland,fromrefiningtheirownsugar;and,whatisofstillgreaterimportance,thegeniusoftheirgovernmentnaturallyintroducesabettermanagementoftheirnegroslaves。
InallEuropeancoloniesthecultureofthesugar—caneiscarriedonbynegroslaves。TheconstitutionofthosewhohavebeenborninthetemperateclimateofEuropecouldnot,itissupposed,supportthelabourofdiggingthegroundundertheburningsunoftheWestIndies;andthecultureofthesugarcane,asitismanagedatpresent,isallhandlabour,though,intheopinionofmany,thedrillploughmightbeintroducedintoitwithgreatadvantage。But,astheprofitandsuccessofthecultivationwhichiscarriedonbymeansofcattle,dependverymuchuponthegoodmanagementofthosecattle,sotheprofitandsuccessofthatwhichiscarriedonbyslavesmustdependequallyuponthegoodmanagementofthoseslaves;andinthegoodmanagementoftheirslavestheFrenchplanters,Ithinkitisgenerallyallowed,aresuperiortotheEnglish。Thelaw,sofarasitgivessomeweakprotectiontotheslaveagainsttheviolenceofhismaster,islikelytobebetterexecutedinacolonywherethegovernmentisinagreatmeasurearbitrarythaninonewhereitisaltogetherfree。Ineverycountrywheretheunfortunatelawofslaveryisestablished,themagistrate,whenheprotectstheslave,intermeddlesinsomemeasureinthemanagementoftheprivatepropertyofthemaster;and,inafreecountry,wherethemasterisperhapseitheramemberofthecolonyassembly,oranelectorofsuchamember,hedarenotdothisbutwiththegreatestcautionandcircumspection。Therespectwhichheisobligedtopaytothemasterrendersitmoredifficultforhimtoprotecttheslave。Butinacountrywherethegovernmentisinagreatmeasurearbitrary,whereitisusualforthemagistratetointermeddleeveninthemanagementoftheprivatepropertyofindividuals,andtosendthem,perhaps,alettredecachetiftheydonotmanageitaccordingtohisliking,itismucheasierforhimtogivesomeprotectiontotheslave;andcommonhumanitynaturallydisposeshimtodoso。Theprotectionofthemagistraterenderstheslavelesscontemptibleintheeyesofhismaster,whoistherebyinducedtoconsiderhimwithmoreregard,andtotreathimwithmoregentleness。Gentleusagerenderstheslavenotonlymorefaithful,butmoreintelligent,andtherefore,uponadoubleaccount,moreuseful。
Heapproachesmoretotheconditionofafreeservant,andmaypossesssomedegreeofintegrityandattachmenttohismaster’sinterest,virtueswhichfrequentlybelongtofreeservants,butwhichnevercanbelongtoaslavewhoistreatedasslavescommonlyareincountrieswherethemasterisperfectlyfreeandsecure。
Thattheconditionofaslaveisbetterunderanarbitrarythanunderafreegovernmentis,Ibelieve,supportedbythehistoryofallagesandnations。IntheRomanhistory,thefirsttimewereadofthemagistrateinterposingtoprotecttheslavefromtheviolenceofhismasterisundertheemperors。WhenVediusPollio,inthepresenceofAugustus,orderedoneofhisslaves,whohadcommittedaslightfault,tobecutintopiecesandthrownintohisfishpondinordertofeedhisfishes,theemperorcommandedhim,withindignation,toemancipateimmediately,notonlythatslave,butalltheothersthatbelongedtohim。Undertherepublicnomagistratecouldhavehadauthorityenoughtoprotecttheslave,muchlesstopunishthemaster。
Thestock,itistobeobserved,whichhasimprovedthesugarcoloniesofFrance,particularlythegreatcolonyofSt。
Domingo,hasbeenraisedalmostentirelyfromthegradualimprovementandcultivationofthosecolonies。Ithasbeenalmostaltogethertheproduceofthesoilandoftheindustryofthecolonies,or,whatcomestothesamething,thepriceofthatproducegraduallyaccumulatedbygoodmanagement,andemployedinraisingastillgreaterproduce。ButthestockwhichhasimprovedandcultivatedthesugarcoloniesofEnglandhas,agreatpartofit,beensentoutfromEngland,andhasbynomeansbeenaltogethertheproduceofthesoilandindustryofthecolonists。
TheprosperityoftheEnglishsugarcolonieshasbeen,inagreatmeasure,owingtothegreatrichesofEngland,ofwhichaparthasoverflowed,ifonemaysayso,uponthosecolonies。ButtheprosperityofthesugarcoloniesofFrancehasbeenentirelyowingtothegoodconductofthecolonists,whichmustthereforehavehadsomesuperiorityoverthatoftheEnglish;andthissuperiorityhasbeenremarkedinnothingsomuchasinthegoodmanagementoftheirslaves。
SuchhavebeenthegeneraloutlinesofthepolicyofthedifferentEuropeannationswithregardtotheircolonies。
ThepolicyofEurope,therefore,hasverylittletoboastof,eitherintheoriginalestablishmentor,sofarasconcernstheirinternalgovernment,inthesubsequentprosperityofthecoloniesofAmerica。
Follyandinjusticeseemtohavebeentheprincipleswhichpresidedoveranddirectedthefirstprojectofestablishingthosecolonies;thefollyofhuntingaftergoldandsilvermines,andtheinjusticeofcovetingthepossessionofacountrywhoseharmlessnatives,farfromhavingeverinjuredthepeopleofEurope,hadreceivedthefirstadventurerswitheverymarkofkindnessandhospitality。
Theadventurers,indeed,whoformedsomeofthelaterestablishments,joinedtothechimericalprojectoffindinggoldandsilverminesothermotivesmorereasonableandmorelaudable;
buteventhesemotivesdoverylittlehonourtothepolicyofEurope。
TheEnglishPuritans,restrainedathome,fledforfreedomtoAmerica,andestablishedtherethefourgovernmentsofNewEngland。TheEnglishCatholics,treatedwithmuchgreaterinjustice,establishedthatofMaryland;theQuakers,thatofPennsylvania。ThePortugueseJews,persecutedbytheInquisition,strippedoftheirfortunes,andbanishedtoBrazil,introducedbytheirexamplesomesortoforderandindustryamongthetransportedfelonsandstrumpetsbywhomthatcolonywasoriginallypeopled,andtaughtthemthecultureofthesugar—cane。Uponallthesedifferentoccasionsitwasnotthewisdomandpolicy,butthedisorderandinjusticeoftheEuropeangovernmentswhichpeopledandcultivatedAmerica。