andtheirclergy，whoarefarfrombeingnumerous，aremaintainedeitherbymoderatestipends，orbythevoluntarycontributionsofthepeople。ThepowerofSpainandPortugal，onthecontrary，derivessomesupportfromthetaxesleviedupontheircolonies。France，indeed，hasneverdrawnanyconsiderablerevenuefromitscolonies，thetaxeswhichitleviesuponthembeinggenerallyspentamongthem。Butthecolonygovernmentofallthesethreenationsisconducteduponamuchmoreexpensiveceremonial。ThesumsspentuponthereceptionofanewviceroyofPeru，forexample，havefrequentlybeenenormous。Suchceremonialsarenotonlyrealtaxespaidbytherichcolonistsuponthoseparticularoccasions，buttheyservetointroduceamongthemthehabitofvanityandexpenseuponallotheroccasions。Theyarenotonlyverygrievousoccasionaltaxes，buttheycontributetoestablishperpetualtaxesofthesamekindstillmoregrievous;theruinoustaxesofprivateluxuryandextravagance。Inthecoloniesofallthosethreenationstoo，theecclesiasticalgovernmentisextremelyoppressive。Tithestakeplaceinallofthem，andareleviedwiththeutmostrigourinthoseofSpainandPortugal。Allofthem，besides，areoppressedwithanumerousraceofmendicantfriars，whosebeggarybeingnotonlylicensedbutconsecratedbyreligion，isamostgrievoustaxuponthepoorpeople，whoaremostcarefullytaughtthatitisadutytogive，andaverygreatsintorefusethemtheircharity。Overandaboveallthis，theclergyare，inallofthem，thegreatestengrossersofland。
Fourthly，inthedisposaloftheirsurplusproduce，orofwhatisoverandabovetheirownconsumption，theEnglishcolonieshavebeenmorefavoured，andhavebeenallowedamoreextensivemarket，thanthoseofanyotherEuropeannation。EveryEuropeannationhasendeavouredmoreorlesstomonopolisetoitselfthecommerceofitscolonies，and，uponthataccount，hasprohibitedtheshipsofforeignnationsfromtradingtothem，andhasprohibitedthemfromimportingEuropeangoodsfromanyforeignnation。Butthemannerinwhichthismonopolyhasbeenexercisedindifferentnationshasbeenverydifferent。
Somenationshavegivenupthewholecommerceoftheircoloniestoanexclusivecompany，ofwhomthecolonistswereobligedtobuyallsuchEuropeangoodsastheywanted，andtowhomtheywereobligedtosellthewholeoftheirownsurplusproduce。Itwastheinterestofthecompany，therefore，notonlytoselltheformerasdear，andtobuythelatterascheapaspossible，buttobuynomoreofthelatter，evenatthislowpricethanwhattheycoulddisposeofforaveryhighpriceinEurope。Itwastheirinterest，notonlytodegradeinallcasesthevalueofthesurplusproduceofthecolony，butinmanycasestodiscourageandkeepdownthenaturalincreaseofitsquantity。
Ofalltheexpedientsthatcanwellbecontrivedtostuntthenaturalgrowthofanewcolony，thatofanexclusivecompanyisundoubtedlythemosteffectual。This，however，hasbeenthepolicyofHolland，thoughtheircompany，inthecourseofthepresentcentury，hasgivenupinmanyrespectstheexertionoftheirexclusiveprivilege。This，too，wasthepolicyofDenmarktillthereignofthelateking。IthasoccasionallybeenthepolicyofFrance，andoflate，since1755，afterithadbeenabandonedbyallothernationsonaccountofitsabsurdity，ithasbecomethepolicyofPortugalwithregardatleasttotwooftheprincipalprovincesofBrazil，FernambucoandMarannon。
Othernations，withoutestablishinganexclusivecompany，haveconfinedthewholecommerceoftheircoloniestoaparticularportofthemothercountry，fromwhencenoshipwasallowedtosail，buteitherinafleetandataparticularseason，or，ifsingle，inconsequenceofaparticularlicence，whichinmostcaseswasverywellpaidfor。Thispolicyopened，indeed，thetradeofthecoloniestoallthenativesofthemothercountry，providedtheytradedfromtheproperport，attheproperseason，andinthepropervessels。Butasallthedifferentmerchants，whojoinedtheirstocksinordertofitoutthoselicensedvessels，wouldfinditfortheirinteresttoactinconcert，thetradewhichwascarriedoninthismannerwouldnecessarilybeconductedverynearlyuponthesameprinciplesasthatofanexclusivecompany。Theprofitofthosemerchantswouldbealmostequallyexorbitantandoppressive。Thecolonieswouldbeillsupplied，andwouldbeobligedbothtobuyverydear，andtosellverycheap。This，however，tillwithinthesefewyears，hadalwaysbeenthepolicyofSpain，andthepriceofallEuropeangoods，accordingly，issaidtohavebeenenormousintheSpanishWestIndies。AtQuito，wearetoldbyUlloa，apoundofironsoldforaboutfourandsixpence，andapoundofsteelforaboutsixandninepencesterling。ButitischieflyinordertopurchaseEuropeangoodsthatthecoloniespartwiththeirownproduce。Themore，therefore，theypayfortheone，thelesstheyreallygetfortheother，andthedearnessoftheoneisthesamethingwiththecheapnessoftheother。ThepolicyofPortugalisinthisrespectthesameastheancientpolicyofSpainwithregardtoallitscolonies，exceptFernambucoandMarannon，andwithregardtotheseithaslatelyadoptedastillworse。
Othernationsleavethetradeoftheircoloniesfreetoalltheirsubjectswhomaycarryitonfromallthedifferentportsofthemothercountry，andwhohaveoccasionfornootherlicencethanthecommondespatchesofthecustom—house。Inthiscasethenumberanddispersedsituationofthedifferenttradersrendersitimpossibleforthemtoenterintoanygeneralcombination，andtheircompetitionissufficienttohinderthemfrommakingveryexorbitantprofits。UndersoliberalapolicythecoloniesareenabledbothtoselltheirownproduceandtobuythegoodsofEuropeatareasonableprice。ButsincethedissolutionofthePlymouthCompany，whenourcolonieswerebutintheirinfancy，thishasalwaysbeenthepolicyofEngland。Ithasgenerally，too，beenthatofFrance，andhasbeenuniformlysosincethedissolutionofwhat，inEngland，iscommonlycalledtheirMississippiCompany。Theprofitsofthetrade，therefore，whichFranceandEnglandcarryonwiththeircolonies，thoughnodoubtsomewhathigherthanifthecompetitionwasfreetoallothernations，are，however，bynomeansexorbitant;andthepriceofEuropeangoodsaccordinglyisnotextravagantlyhighinthegreaterpartofthecoloniesofeitherofthosenations。
Intheexportationoftheirownsurplusproducetoo，itisonlywithregardtocertaincommoditiesthatthecoloniesofGreatBritainareconfinedtothemarketofthemothercountry。
ThesecommoditieshavingbeenenumeratedintheActofNavigationandinsomeothersubsequentacts，haveuponthataccountbeencalledenumeratedcommodities。Therestarecallednon—enumerated，andmaybeexporteddirectlytoothercountriesprovideditisinBritishorPlantationships，ofwhichtheownersandthree—fourthsofthemarinersareBritishsubjects。
Amongthenon—enumeratedcommoditiesaresomeofthemostimportantproductionsofAmericaandtheWestIndies;grainofallsorts，lumber，saltprovisions，fish，sugarandrum。
Grainisnaturallythefirstandprincipalobjectofthecultureofallnewcolonies。Byallowingthemaveryextensivemarketforit，thelawencouragesthemtoextendthisculturemuchbeyondtheconsumptionofathinlyinhabitedcountry，andthustoprovidebeforehandanamplesubsistenceforacontinuallyincreasingpopulation。
Inacountryquitecoveredwithwood，wheretimberconsequentlyisoflittleornovalue，theexpenseofclearingthegroundistheprincipalobstacletoimprovement。Byallowingthecoloniesaveryextensivemarketfortheirlumber，thelawendeavourstofacilitateimprovementbyraisingthepriceofacommoditywhichwouldotherwisebeoflittlevalue，andtherebyenablingthemtomakesomeprofitofwhatwouldotherwisebeamereexpense。
Inacountryneitherhalf—peoplednorhalf—cultivated，cattlenaturallymultiplybeyondtheconsumptionoftheinhabitants，andareoftenuponthataccountoflittleornovalue。Butitisnecessary，ithasalreadybeenshown，thatthepriceofcattleshouldbearacertainproportiontothatofcornbeforethegreaterpartofthelandsofanycountrycanbeimproved。ByallowingtoAmericancattle，inallshapes，deadoralive，averyextensivemarket，thelawendeavorstoraisethevalueofacommodityofwhichthehighpriceissoveryessentialtoimprovement。Thegoodeffectsofthisliberty，however，mustbesomewhatdiminishedbythe4thofGeorgeIII，c。15，whichputshidesandskinsamongtheenumeratedcommodities，andtherebytendstoreducethevalueofAmericancattle。
ToincreasetheshippingandnavalpowerofGreatBritain，bytheextensionofthefisheriesofourcolonies，isanobjectwhichthelegislatureseemstohavehadalmostconstantlyinview。Thosefisheries，uponthisaccount，havehadalltheencouragementwhichfreedomcangivethem，andtheyhaveflourishedaccordingly。TheNewEnglandfisheryinparticularwas，beforethelatedisturbances，oneofthemostimportant，perhaps，intheworld。Thewhale—fisherywhich，notwithstandinganextravagantbounty，isinGreatBritaincarriedontosolittlepurposethatintheopinionofmanypeople（whichIdonot，however，pretendtowarrant）thewholeproducedoesnotmuchexceedthevalueofthebountieswhichareannuallypaidforit，isinNewEnglandcarriedonwithoutanybountytoaverygreatextent。FishisoneoftheprincipalarticleswithwhichtheNorthAmericanstradetoSpain，Portugal，andtheMediterranean。
SugarwasoriginallyanenumeratedcommoditywhichcouldbeexportedonlytoGreatBritain。Butin1731，uponarepresentationofthesugar—planters，itsexportationwaspermittedtoallpartsoftheworld。Therestrictions，however，withwhichthislibertywasgranted，joinedtothehighpriceofsugarinGreatBritain，haverenderedit，inagreatmeasure，ineffectual。GreatBritainandhercoloniesstillcontinuetobealmostthesolemarketforallthesugarproducedintheBritishplantations。Theirconsumptionincreasessofastthat，thoughinconsequenceoftheincreasingimprovementofJamaica，aswellasoftheCededIslands，theimportationofsugarhasincreasedverygreatlywithinthesetwentyyears，theexportationtoforeigncountriesissaidtobenotmuchgreaterthanbefore。
RumisaveryimportantarticleinthetradewhichtheAmericanscarryontothecoastofAfrica，fromwhichtheybringbacknegroslavesinreturn。
IfthewholesurplusproduceofAmericaingrainofallsorts，insaltprovisionsandinfish，hadbeenputintotheenumeration，andtherebyforcedintothemarketofGreatBritain，itwouldhaveinterferedtoomuchwiththeproduceoftheindustryofourownpeople。ItwasprobablynotsomuchfromanyregardtotheinterestofAmericaasfromajealousyofthisinterferencethatthoseimportantcommoditieshavenotonlybeenkeptoutoftheenumeration，butthattheimportationintoGreatBritainofallgrain，exceptrice，andofsaltprovisions，has，intheordinarystateofthelaw，beenprohibited。
Thenon—enumeratedcommoditiescouldoriginallybeexportedtoallpartsoftheworld。Lumberandrice，havingbeenonceputintotheenumeration，whentheywereafterwardstakenoutofit，wereconfined，astotheEuropeanmarket，tothecountriesthatliesouthofCapeFinisterre。Bythe6thofGeorgeIII，c。52，allnon—enumeratedcommoditiesweresubjectedtothelikerestriction。ThepartsofEuropewhichliesouthofCapeFinisterrearenotmanufacturingcountries，andwewerelessjealousofthecolonyshipscarryinghomefromthemanymanufactureswhichcouldinterferewithourown。
Theenumeratedcommoditiesareoftwosorts:first，suchasareeitherthepeculiarproduceofAmerica，orascannotbeproduced，oratleastarenotproduced，inthemothercountry。Ofthiskindaremolasses，coffee，cocoa—nuts，tobacco，pimento，ginger，whalefins，rawsilk，cotton—wool，beaver，andotherpeltryofAmerica，indigo，fustic，andotherdyeingwoods;
secondly，suchasarenotthepeculiarproduceofAmerica，butwhichareandmaybeproducedinthemothercountry，thoughnotinsuchquantitiesastosupplythegreaterpartofherdemand，whichisprincipallysuppliedfromforeigncountries。Ofthiskindareallnavalstores，masts，yards，andbowsprits，tar，pitch，andturpentine，pigandbariron，copperore，hidesandskins，potandpearlashes。Thelargestimportationofcommoditiesofthefirstkindcouldnotdiscouragethegrowthorinterferewiththesaleofanypartoftheproduceofthemothercountry。Byconfiningthemtothehomemarket，ourmerchants，itwasexpected，wouldnotonlybeenabledtobuythemcheaperintheplantations，andconsequentlytosellthemwithabetterprofitathome，buttoestablishbetweentheplantationsandforeigncountriesanadvantageouscarryingtrade，ofwhichGreatBritainwasnecessarilytobethecentreoremporium，astheEuropeancountryintowhichthosecommoditieswerefirsttobeimported。Theimportationofcommoditiesofthesecondkindmightbesomanagedtoo，itwassupposed，astointerfere，notwiththesaleofthoseofthesamekindwhichwereproducedathome，butwiththatofthosewhichwereimportedfromforeigncountries;
because，bymeansofproperduties，theymightberenderedalwayssomewhatdearerthantheformer，andyetagooddealcheaperthanthelatter。Byconfiningsuchcommoditiestothehomemarket，therefore，itwasproposedtodiscouragetheproduce，notofGreatBritain，butofsomeforeigncountrieswithwhichthebalanceoftradewasbelievedtobeunfavourabletoGreatBritain。
Theprohibitionofexportingfromthecolonies，toanyothercountrybutGreatBritain，masts，yards，andbowsprits，tar，pitch，andturpentine，naturallytendedtolowerthepriceoftimberinthecolonies，andconsequentlytoincreasetheexpenseofclearingtheirlands，theprincipalobstacletotheirimprovement。Butaboutthebeginningofthepresentcentury，in1703，thepitchandtarcompanyofSwedenendeavouredtoraisethepriceoftheircommoditiestoGreatBritain，byprohibitingtheirexportation，exceptintheirownships，attheirownprice，andinsuchquantitiesastheythoughtproper。Inordertocounteractthisnotablepieceofmercantilepolicy，andtorenderherselfasmuchaspossibleindependent，notonlyofSweden，butofalltheothernorthernpowers，GreatBritaingaveabountyupontheimportationofnavalstoresfromAmerica，andtheeffectofthisbountywastoraisethepriceoftimberinAmericamuchmorethantheconfinementtothehomemarketcouldlowerit;andasbothregulationswereenactedatthesametime，theirjointeffectwasrathertoencouragethantodiscouragetheclearingoflandinAmerica。
Thoughpigandbarirontoohavebeenputamongtheenumeratedcommodities，yetas，whenimportedfromAmerica，theywereexemptedfromconsiderabledutiestowhichtheyaresubjectwhenimportedfromanyothercountry，theonepartoftheregulationcontributesmoretoencouragetheerectionoffurnacesinAmericathantheothertodiscourageit。Thereisnomanufacturewhichoccasionssogreataconsumptionofwoodasafurnace，orwhichcancontributesomuchtotheclearingofacountryovergrownwithit。
ThetendencyofsomeoftheseregulationstoraisethevalueoftimberinAmerica，andtherebytofacilitatetheclearingoftheland，wasneither，perhaps，intendednorunderstoodbythelegislature。Thoughtheirbeneficialeffects，however，havebeeninthisrespectaccidental，theyhavenotuponthataccountbeenlessreal。
ThemostperfectfreedomoftradeispermittedbetweentheBritishcoloniesofAmericaandtheWestIndies，bothintheenumeratedandinthenon—enumeratedcommodities。Thosecoloniesarenowbecomesopopulousandthrivingthateachofthemfindsinsomeoftheothersagreatandextensivemarketforeverypartofitsproduce。Allofthemtakentogether，theymakeagreatinternalmarketfortheproduceofoneanother。
TheliberalityofEngland，however，towardsthetradeofhercolonieshasbeenconfinedchieflytowhatconcernsthemarketfortheirproduce，eitherinitsrudestate，orinwhatmaybecalledtheveryfirststageofmanufacture。Themoreadvancedormorerefinedmanufacturesevenofthecolonyproduce，themerchantsandmanufacturersofGreatBritainchoosetoreservetothemselves，andhaveprevaileduponthelegislaturetopreventtheirestablishmentinthecolonies，sometimesbyhighduties，andsometimesbyabsoluteprohibitions。
While，forexample，MuskovadosugarsfromtheBritishplantationspayuponimportationonly6s。4d。thehundredweight;
whitesugarspayL11s。1d。;andrefined，eitherdoubleorsingle，inloavesL42s。58/20d。Whenthosehighdutieswereimposed，GreatBritainwasthesole，andshestillcontinuestobetheprincipalmarkettowhichthesugarsoftheBritishcoloniescouldbeexported。Theyamounted，therefore，toaprohibition，atfirstofclayingorrefiningsugarforanyforeignmarket，andatpresentofclayingorrefiningitforthemarket，whichtakesoff，perhaps，morethannine—tenthsofthewholeproduce。Themanufactureofclayingorrefiningsugaraccordingly，thoughithasflourishedinallthesugarcoloniesofFrance，hasbeenlittlecultivatedinanyofthoseofEnglandexceptforthemarketofthecoloniesthemselves。WhileGrenadawasinthehandsoftheFrenchtherewasarefineryofsugar，byclayingatleast，uponalmosteveryplantation。SinceitfellintothoseoftheEnglish，almostallworksofthiskindhavebeengiventip，andthereareatpresent，October1773，Iamassurednotabovetwoorthreeremainingintheisland。Atpresent，however，byanindulgenceofthecustom—house，clayedorrefinedsugar，ifreducedfromloavesintopowder，iscommonlyimportedasMuskovado。
WhileGreatBritainencouragesinAmericathemanufacturesofpigandbariron，byexemptingthemfromdutiestowhichthelikecommoditiesaresubjectwhenimportedfromanyothercountry，sheimposesanabsoluteprohibitionupontheerectionofsteelfurnacesandslitmillsinanyofherAmericanplantations。
Shewillnotsufferhercoloniststoworkinthosemorerefinedmanufacturesevenfortheirownconsumption;butinsistsupontheirpurchasingofhermerchantsandmanufacturersallgoodsofthiskindwhichtheyhaveoccasionfor。
Sheprohibitstheexportationfromoneprovincetoanotherbywater，andeventhecarriagebylanduponhorsebackorinacart，ofhats，ofwoolsandwoollengoods，oftheproduceofAmerica;aregulationwhicheffectuallypreventstheestablishmentofanymanufactureofsuchcommoditiesfordistantsale，andconfinestheindustryofhercolonistsinthiswaytosuchcoarseandhouseholdmanufacturesasaprivatefamilycommonlymakesforitsownuseorforthatofsomeofitsneighboursinthesameprovince。
Toprohibitagreatpeople，however，frommakingallthattheycanofeverypartoftheirownproduce，orfromemployingtheirstockandindustryinthewaythattheyjudgemostadvantageoustothemselves，isamanifestviolationofthemostsacredrightsofmankind。Unjust，however，assuchprohibitionsmaybe，theyhavenothithertobeenveryhurtfultothecolonies。
Landisstillsocheap，and，consequently，laboursodearamongthem，thattheycanimportfromthemothercountryalmostallthemorerefinedormoreadvancedmanufacturescheaperthantheycouldmakeforthemselves。Thoughtheyhadnot，therefore，beenprohibitedfromestablishingsuchmanufactures，yetintheirpresentstateofimprovementaregardtotheirowninterestwould，probably，havepreventedthemfromdoingso。Intheirpresentstateofimprovementthoseprohibitions，perhaps，withoutcrampingtheirindustry，orrestrainingitfromanyemploymenttowhichitwouldhavegoneofitsownaccord，areonlyimpertinentbadgesofslaveryimposeduponthem，withoutanysufficientreason，bythegroundlessjealousyofthemerchantsandmanufacturersofthemothercountry。Inamoreadvancedstatetheymightbereallyoppressiveandinsupportable。
GreatBritaintoo，assheconfinestoherownmarketsomeofthemostimportantproductionsofthecolonies，soincompensationshegivestosomeofthemanadvantageinthatmarket，sometimesbyimposinghigherdutiesuponthelikeproductionswhenimportedfromothercountries，andsometimesbygivingbountiesupontheirimportationfromthecolonies。Inthefirstwayshegivesanadvantageinthehomemarkettothesugar，tobacco，andironofherowncolonies，andinthesecondtotheirrawsilk，totheirhempandflax，totheirindigo，totheirnavalstores，andtotheirbuildingtimber。Thissecondwayofencouragingthecolonyproducebybountiesuponimportation，is，sofarasIhavebeenabletolearn，peculiartoGreatBritain。
Thefirstisnot。Portugaldoesnotcontentherselfwithimposinghigherdutiesupontheimportationoftobaccofromanyothercountry，butprohibitsitundertheseverestpenalties。
WithregardtotheimportationofgoodsfromEurope，Englandhaslikewisedealtmoreliberallywithhercoloniesthananyothernation。
GreatBritainallowsapart，almostalwaysthehalf，generallyalargerportion，andsometimesthewholeofthedutywhichispaidupontheimportationofforeigngoods，tobedrawnbackupontheirexportationtoanyforeigncountry。Noindependentforeigncountry，itwaseasytoforesee，wouldreceivethemiftheycametoitloadedwiththeheavydutiestowhichalmostallforeigngoodsaresubjectedontheirimportationintoGreatBritain。Unless，therefore，somepartofthosedutieswasdrawnbackuponexportation，therewasanendofthecarryingtrade;atradesomuchfavouredbythemercantilesystem。
Ourcolonies，however，arebynomeansindependentforeigncountries;andGreatBritainhavingassumedtoherselftheexclusiverightofsupplyingthemwithallgoodsfromEurope，mighthaveforcedthem（inthesamemannerasothercountrieshavedonetheircolonies）toreceivesuchgoods，loadedwithallthesamedutieswhichtheypaidinthemothercountry。But，onthecontrary，till1763，thesamedrawbackswerepaidupontheexportationofthegreaterpartofforeigngoodstoourcoloniesastoanyindependentforeigncountry。In1763，indeed，bythe4thofGeorgeIII，c。15，thisindulgencewasagooddealabated，anditwasenacted，\"ThatnopartofthedutycalledtheOldSubsidyshouldbedrawnbackforanygoodsofthegrowth，production，ormanufactureofEuropeortheEastIndies，whichshouldbeexportedfromthiskingdomtoanyBritishcolonyorplantationinAmerica;wines，whitecalicoesandmuslinsexcepted。\"Beforethislaw，manydifferentsortsofforeigngoodsmighthavebeenboughtcheaperintheplantationsthaninthemothercountry;andsomemaystill。
Ofthegreaterpartoftheregulationsconcerningthecolonytrade，themerchantswhocarryiton，itmustbeobserved，havebeentheprincipaladvisers。Wemustnotwonder，therefore，if，inthegreaterpartofthem，theirinteresthasbeenmoreconsideredthaneitherthatofthecoloniesorthatofthemothercountry。IntheirexclusiveprivilegeofsupplyingthecolonieswithallthegoodswhichtheywantedfromEurope，andofpurchasingallsuchpartsoftheirsurplusproduceascouldnotinterferewithanyofthetradeswhichtheythemselvescarriedonathome，theinterestofthecolonieswassacrificedtotheinterestofthosemerchants。Inallowingthesamedrawbacksuponthere—exportationofthegreaterpartofEuropeanandEastIndiagoodstothecoloniesasupontheirre—exportationtoanyindependentcountry，theinterestofthemothercountrywassacrificedtoit，evenaccordingtothemercantileideasofthatinterest。Itwasfortheinterestofthemerchantstopayaslittleaspossiblefortheforeignwhichtheysenttothecolonies，and，consequently，togetbackasmuchaspossibleofthedutieswhichtheyadvancedupontheirimportationintoGreatBritain。Theymighttherebybeenabledtosellinthecolonieseitherthesamequantityofgoodswithagreaterprofit，oragreaterquantitywiththesameprofit，and，consequently，togainsomethingeitherintheonewayortheother。Itwaslikewisefortheinterestofthecoloniestogetallsuchgoodsascheapandinasgreatabundanceaspossible。Butthismightnotalwaysbefortheinterestofthemothercountry。Shemightfrequentlysufferbothinherrevenue，bygivingbackagreatpartofthedutieswhichhadbeenpaidupontheimportationofsuchgoods;
andinhermanufactures，bybeingundersoldinthecolonymarket，inconsequenceoftheeasytermsuponwhichforeignmanufacturescouldbecarriedthitherbymeansofthosedrawbacks。TheprogressofthelinenmanufactureofGreatBritain，itiscommonlysaid，hasbeenagooddealretardedbythedrawbacksuponthere—exportationofGermanlinentotheAmericancolonies。
ButthoughthepolicyofGreatBritainwithregardtothetradeofhercolonieshasbeendictatedbythesamemercantilespiritasthatofothernations，ithas，however，uponthewhole，beenlessilliberalandoppressivethanthatofanyofthem。
Ineverything，excepttheirforeigntrade，thelibertyoftheEnglishcoloniststomanagetheirownaffairstheirownwayiscomplete。Itisineveryrespectequaltothatoftheirfellow—citizensathome，andissecuredinthesamemanner，byanassemblyoftherepresentativesofthepeople，whoclaimthesolerightofimposingtaxesforthesupportofthecolonygovernment。
Theauthorityofthisassemblyoverawestheexecutivepower，andneitherthemeanestnorthemostobnoxiouscolonist，aslongasheobeysthelaw，hasanythingtofearfromtheresentment，eitherofthegovernororofanyothercivilormilitaryofficerintheprovince。Thecolonyassembliesthough，liketheHouseofCommonsinEngland，arenotalwaysaveryequalrepresentationofthepeople，yettheyapproachmorenearlytothatcharacter;andastheexecutivepowereitherhasnotthemeanstocorruptthem，or，onaccountofthesupportwhichitreceivesfromthemothercountry，isnotunderthenecessityofdoingso，theyareperhapsingeneralmoreinfluencedbytheinclinationsoftheirconstituents。Thecouncilswhich，inthecolonylegislatures，correspondtotheHouseofLordsinGreatBritain，arenotcomposedofanhereditarynobility。Insomeofthecolonies，asinthreeofthegovernmentsofNewEngland，thosecouncilsarenotappointedbytheking，butchosenbytherepresentativesofthepeople。InnoneoftheEnglishcoloniesisthereanyhereditarynobility。Inallofthem，indeed，asinallotherfreecountries，thedescendantofanoldcolonyfamilyismorerespectedthananupstartofequalmeritandfortune;butheisonlymorerespected，andhehasnoprivilegesbywhichhecanbetroublesometohisneighbours。Beforethecommencementofthepresentdisturbances，thecolonyassemblieshadnotonlythelegislativebutapartoftheexecutivepower。InConnecticutandRhodeIsland，theyelectedthegovernor。Intheothercoloniestheyappointedtherevenueofficerswhocollectedthetaxesimposedbythoserespectiveassemblies，towhomthoseofficerswereimmediatelyresponsible。Thereismoreequality，therefore，amongtheEnglishcoloniststhanamongtheinhabitantsofthemothercountry。Theirmannersaremorerepublican，andtheirgovernments，thoseofthreeoftheprovincesofNewEnglandinparticular，havehithertobeenmorerepublicantoo。
TheabsolutegovernmentsofSpain，Portugal，andFrance，onthecontrary，takeplaceintheircolonies;andthediscretionarypowerswhichsuchgovernmentscommonlydelegatetoalltheirinferiorofficersare，onaccountofthegreatdistance，naturallyexercisedtherewithmorethanordinaryviolence。Underallabsolutegovernmentsthereismorelibertyinthecapitalthaninanyotherpartofthecountry。Thesovereignhimselfcanneverhaveeitherinterestorinclinationtoperverttheorderofjustice，ortooppressthegreatbodyofthepeople。Inthecapitalhispresenceoverawesmoreorlessallhisinferiorofficers，whointheremoterprovinces，fromwhencethecomplaintsofthepeoplearelesslikelytoreachhim，canexercisetheirtyrannywithmuchmoresafety。ButtheEuropeancoloniesinAmericaaremoreremotethanthemostdistantprovincesofthegreatestempireswhichhadeverbeenknownbefore。ThegovernmentoftheEnglishcoloniesisperhapstheonlyonewhich，sincetheworldbegan，couldgiveperfectsecuritytotheinhabitantsofsoverydistantaprovince。TheadministrationoftheFrenchcolonies，however，hasalwaysbeenconductedwithmoregentlenessandmoderationthanthatoftheSpanishandPortugese。ThissuperiorityofconductissuitablebothtothecharacteroftheFrenchnation，andtowhatformsthecharacterofeverynation，thenatureoftheirgovernment，whichthougharbitraryandviolentincomparisonwiththatofGreatBritain，islegalandfreeincomparisonwiththoseofSpainandPortugal。
ItisintheprogressoftheNorthAmericancolonies，however，thatthesuperiorityoftheEnglishpolicychieflyappears。TheprogressofthesugarcoloniesofFrancehasbeenatleastequal，perhapssuperior，tothatofthegreaterpartofthoseofEngland，andyetthesugarcoloniesofEnglandenjoyafreegovernmentnearlyofthesamekindwiththatwhichtakesplaceinhercoloniesofNorthAmerica。ButthesugarcoloniesofFrancearenotdiscouraged，likethoseofEngland，fromrefiningtheirownsugar;and，whatisofstillgreaterimportance，thegeniusoftheirgovernmentnaturallyintroducesabettermanagementoftheirnegroslaves。
InallEuropeancoloniesthecultureofthesugar—caneiscarriedonbynegroslaves。TheconstitutionofthosewhohavebeenborninthetemperateclimateofEuropecouldnot，itissupposed，supportthelabourofdiggingthegroundundertheburningsunoftheWestIndies;andthecultureofthesugarcane，asitismanagedatpresent，isallhandlabour，though，intheopinionofmany，thedrillploughmightbeintroducedintoitwithgreatadvantage。But，astheprofitandsuccessofthecultivationwhichiscarriedonbymeansofcattle，dependverymuchuponthegoodmanagementofthosecattle，sotheprofitandsuccessofthatwhichiscarriedonbyslavesmustdependequallyuponthegoodmanagementofthoseslaves;andinthegoodmanagementoftheirslavestheFrenchplanters，Ithinkitisgenerallyallowed，aresuperiortotheEnglish。Thelaw，sofarasitgivessomeweakprotectiontotheslaveagainsttheviolenceofhismaster，islikelytobebetterexecutedinacolonywherethegovernmentisinagreatmeasurearbitrarythaninonewhereitisaltogetherfree。Ineverycountrywheretheunfortunatelawofslaveryisestablished，themagistrate，whenheprotectstheslave，intermeddlesinsomemeasureinthemanagementoftheprivatepropertyofthemaster;and，inafreecountry，wherethemasterisperhapseitheramemberofthecolonyassembly，oranelectorofsuchamember，hedarenotdothisbutwiththegreatestcautionandcircumspection。Therespectwhichheisobligedtopaytothemasterrendersitmoredifficultforhimtoprotecttheslave。Butinacountrywherethegovernmentisinagreatmeasurearbitrary，whereitisusualforthemagistratetointermeddleeveninthemanagementoftheprivatepropertyofindividuals，andtosendthem，perhaps，alettredecachetiftheydonotmanageitaccordingtohisliking，itismucheasierforhimtogivesomeprotectiontotheslave;andcommonhumanitynaturallydisposeshimtodoso。Theprotectionofthemagistraterenderstheslavelesscontemptibleintheeyesofhismaster，whoistherebyinducedtoconsiderhimwithmoreregard，andtotreathimwithmoregentleness。Gentleusagerenderstheslavenotonlymorefaithful，butmoreintelligent，andtherefore，uponadoubleaccount，moreuseful。
Heapproachesmoretotheconditionofafreeservant，andmaypossesssomedegreeofintegrityandattachmenttohismaster’sinterest，virtueswhichfrequentlybelongtofreeservants，butwhichnevercanbelongtoaslavewhoistreatedasslavescommonlyareincountrieswherethemasterisperfectlyfreeandsecure。
Thattheconditionofaslaveisbetterunderanarbitrarythanunderafreegovernmentis，Ibelieve，supportedbythehistoryofallagesandnations。IntheRomanhistory，thefirsttimewereadofthemagistrateinterposingtoprotecttheslavefromtheviolenceofhismasterisundertheemperors。WhenVediusPollio，inthepresenceofAugustus，orderedoneofhisslaves，whohadcommittedaslightfault，tobecutintopiecesandthrownintohisfishpondinordertofeedhisfishes，theemperorcommandedhim，withindignation，toemancipateimmediately，notonlythatslave，butalltheothersthatbelongedtohim。Undertherepublicnomagistratecouldhavehadauthorityenoughtoprotecttheslave，muchlesstopunishthemaster。
Thestock，itistobeobserved，whichhasimprovedthesugarcoloniesofFrance，particularlythegreatcolonyofSt。
Domingo，hasbeenraisedalmostentirelyfromthegradualimprovementandcultivationofthosecolonies。Ithasbeenalmostaltogethertheproduceofthesoilandoftheindustryofthecolonies，or，whatcomestothesamething，thepriceofthatproducegraduallyaccumulatedbygoodmanagement，andemployedinraisingastillgreaterproduce。ButthestockwhichhasimprovedandcultivatedthesugarcoloniesofEnglandhas，agreatpartofit，beensentoutfromEngland，andhasbynomeansbeenaltogethertheproduceofthesoilandindustryofthecolonists。
TheprosperityoftheEnglishsugarcolonieshasbeen，inagreatmeasure，owingtothegreatrichesofEngland，ofwhichaparthasoverflowed，ifonemaysayso，uponthosecolonies。ButtheprosperityofthesugarcoloniesofFrancehasbeenentirelyowingtothegoodconductofthecolonists，whichmustthereforehavehadsomesuperiorityoverthatoftheEnglish;andthissuperiorityhasbeenremarkedinnothingsomuchasinthegoodmanagementoftheirslaves。
SuchhavebeenthegeneraloutlinesofthepolicyofthedifferentEuropeannationswithregardtotheircolonies。
ThepolicyofEurope，therefore，hasverylittletoboastof，eitherintheoriginalestablishmentor，sofarasconcernstheirinternalgovernment，inthesubsequentprosperityofthecoloniesofAmerica。
Follyandinjusticeseemtohavebeentheprincipleswhichpresidedoveranddirectedthefirstprojectofestablishingthosecolonies;thefollyofhuntingaftergoldandsilvermines，andtheinjusticeofcovetingthepossessionofacountrywhoseharmlessnatives，farfromhavingeverinjuredthepeopleofEurope，hadreceivedthefirstadventurerswitheverymarkofkindnessandhospitality。
Theadventurers，indeed，whoformedsomeofthelaterestablishments，joinedtothechimericalprojectoffindinggoldandsilverminesothermotivesmorereasonableandmorelaudable;
buteventhesemotivesdoverylittlehonourtothepolicyofEurope。
TheEnglishPuritans，restrainedathome，fledforfreedomtoAmerica，andestablishedtherethefourgovernmentsofNewEngland。TheEnglishCatholics，treatedwithmuchgreaterinjustice，establishedthatofMaryland;theQuakers，thatofPennsylvania。ThePortugueseJews，persecutedbytheInquisition，strippedoftheirfortunes，andbanishedtoBrazil，introducedbytheirexamplesomesortoforderandindustryamongthetransportedfelonsandstrumpetsbywhomthatcolonywasoriginallypeopled，andtaughtthemthecultureofthesugar—cane。Uponallthesedifferentoccasionsitwasnotthewisdomandpolicy，butthedisorderandinjusticeoftheEuropeangovernmentswhichpeopledandcultivatedAmerica。