ButthecountrieswhichColumbusdiscovered,eitherinthisorinanyofhissubsequentvoyages,hadnoresemblancetothosewhichhehadgoneinquestof。Insteadofthewealth,cultivation,andpopulousnessofChinaandIndostan,hefound,inSt。Domingo,andinalltheotherpartsofthenewworldwhichheevervisited,nothingbutacountryquitecoveredwithwood,uncultivated,andinhabitedonlybysometribesofnakedandmiserablesavages。Hewasnotverywilling,however,tobelievethattheywerenotthesamewithsomeofthecountriesdescribedbyMarcoPolo,thefirstEuropeanwhohadvisited,oratleasthadleftbehindhim,anydescriptionofChinaortheEastIndies;
andaveryslightresemblance,suchasthatwhichhefoundbetweenthenameofCibao,amountaininSt。Domingo,andthatofCipangomentionedbyMarcoPolo,wasfrequentlysufficienttomakehimreturntothisfavouriteprepossession,thoughcontrarytotheclearestevidence。InhisletterstoFerdinandandIsabellahecalledthecountrieswhichhehaddiscoveredtheIndies。HeentertainednodoubtbutthattheyweretheextremityofthosewhichhadbeendescribedbyMarcoPolo,andthattheywerenotverydistantfromtheGanges,orfromthecountrieswhichhadbeenconqueredbyAlexander。Evenwhenatlastconvincedthattheyweredifferent,hestillflatteredhimselfthatthoserichcountrieswereatnogreatdistance,and,inasubsequentvoyage,accordingly,wentinquestofthemalongthecoastofTerraFirma,andtowardstheIsthmusofDarien。
InconsequenceofthismistakeofColumbus,thenameoftheIndieshasstucktothoseunfortunatecountrieseversince;andwhenitwasatlastclearlydiscoveredthatthenewwerealtogetherdifferentfromtheoldIndies,theformerwerecalledtheWest,incontradistinctiontothelatter,whichwerecalledtheEastIndies。
ItwasofimportancetoColumbus,however,thatthecountrieswhichhehaddiscovered,whatevertheywere,shouldberepresentedtothecourtofSpainasofverygreatconsequence;
and,inwhatconstitutestherealrichesofeverycountry,theanimalandvegetableproductionsofthesoil,therewasatthattimenothingwhichcouldwelljustifysucharepresentationofthem。
TheCori,somethingbetweenaratandarabbit,andsupposedbyMr。BuffontobethesamewiththeApereaofBrazil,wasthelargestviviparousquadrupedinSt。Domingo。Thisspeciesseemsnevertohavebeenverynumerous,andthedogsandcatsoftheSpaniardsaresaidtohavelongagoalmostentirelyextirpatedit,aswellassomeothertribesofastillsmallersize。These,however,togetherwithaprettylargelizard,calledtheivana,origuana,constitutedtheprincipalpartoftheanimalfoodwhichthelandafforded。
Thevegetablefoodoftheinhabitants,thoughfromtheirwantofindustrynotveryabundant,wasnotaltogethersoscanty。
ItconsistedinIndiancorn,yams,potatoes,bananas,etc。,plantswhichwerethenaltogetherunknowninEurope,andwhichhaveneversincebeenverymuchesteemedinit,orsupposedtoyieldasustenanceequaltowhatisdrawnfromthecommonsortsofgrainandpulse,whichhavebeencultivatedinthispartoftheworldtimeoutofmind。
Thecottonplant,indeed,affordedthematerialofaveryimportantmanufacture,andwasatthattimetoEuropeansundoubtedlythemostvaluableofallthevegetableproductionsofthoseislands。ButthoughintheendofthefifteenthcenturythemuslinsandothercottongoodsoftheEastIndiesweremuchesteemedineverypartofEurope,thecottonmanufactureitselfwasnotcultivatedinanypartofit。Eventhisproduction,therefore,couldnotatthattimeappearintheeyesofEuropeanstobeofverygreatconsequence。
Findingnothingeitherintheanimalsorvegetablesofthenewlydiscoveredcountrieswhichcouldjustifyaveryadvantageousrepresentationofthem,Columbusturnedhisviewtowardstheirminerals;andintherichnessoftheproductionsofthisthirdkingdom,heflatteredhimselfhehadfoundafullcompensationfortheinsignificancyofthoseoftheothertwo。
Thelittlebitsofgoldwithwhichtheinhabitantsornamentedtheirdress,andwhich,hewasinformed,theyfrequentlyfoundintherivuletsandtorrentsthatfellfromthemountains,weresufficienttosatisfyhimthatthosemountainsaboundedwiththerichestgoldmines。St。Domingo,therefore,wasrepresentedasacountryaboundingwithgold,and,uponthataccount,(accordingtotheprejudicesnotonlyofthepresenttime,butofthosetimes)aninexhaustiblesourceofrealwealthtothecrownandkingdomofSpain。WhenColumbus,uponhisreturnfromhisfirstvoyage,wasintroducedwithasortoftriumphalhonourstothesovereignsofCastileandArragon,theprincipalproductionsofthecountrieswhichhehaddiscoveredwerecarriedinsolemnprocessionbeforehim。Theonlyvaluablepartofthemconsistedinsomelittlefillets,bracelets,andotherornamentsofgold,andinsomebalesofcotton。Therestweremereobjectsofvulgarwonderandcuriosity;somereedsofanextraordinarysize,somebirdsofaverybeautifulplumage,andsomestuffedskinsofthehugealligatorandmanati;allofwhichwereprecededbysixorsevenofthewretchednatives,whosesingularcolourandappearanceaddedgreatlytothenoveltyoftheshow。
InconsequenceoftherepresentationsofColumbus,thecouncilofCastiledeterminedtotakepossessionofcountriesofwhichtheinhabitantswereplainlyincapableofdefendingthemselves。ThepiouspurposeofconvertingthemtoChristianitysanctifiedtheinjusticeoftheproject。Butthehopeoffindingtreasuresofgoldtherewasthesolemotivewhichpromptedhimtoundertakeit;andtogivethismotivethegreaterweight,itwasproposedbyColumbusthatthehalfofallthegoldandsilverthatshouldbefoundthereshouldbelongtothecrown。Thisproposalwasapprovedofbythecouncil。
Aslongasthewholeorthefargreaterpartofthegold,whichthefirstadventurersimportedintoEurope,wasgotbysoveryeasyamethodastheplunderingofthedefencelessnatives,itwasnotperhapsverydifficulttopayeventhisheavytax。Butwhenthenativeswereoncefairlystrippedofallthattheyhad,which,inSt。Domingo,andinalltheothercountriesdiscoveredbyColumbus,wasdonecompletelyinsixoreightyears,andwheninordertofindmoreithadbecomenecessarytodigforitinthemines,therewasnolongeranypossibilityofpayingthistax。Therigorousexactionofit,accordingly,firstoccasioned,itissaid,thetotalabandoningoftheminesofSt。Domingo,whichhaveneverbeenwroughtsince。Itwassoonreducedthereforetoathird;thentoafifth;afterwardstoatenth;andatlasttoatwentiethpartofthegrossproduceofthegoldmines。Thetaxuponsilvercontinuedforalongtimetobeafifthofthegrossproduce。Itwasreducedtoatenthonlyinthecourseofthepresentcentury。Butthefirstadventurersdonotappeartohavebeenmuchinterestedaboutsilver。Nothinglesspreciousthangoldseemedworthyoftheirattention。
AlltheotherenterprisesoftheSpaniardsinthenewworld,subsequenttothoseofColumbus,seemtohavebeenpromptedbythesamemotive。ItwasthesacredthirstofgoldthatcarriedOieda,Nicuessa,andVascoNugnesdeBalboa,totheIsthmusofDarien,thatcarriedCorteztoMexico,andAlmagroandPizzarrotoChiliandPeru。Whenthoseadventurersarriveduponanyunknowncoast,theirfirstinquirywasalwaysiftherewasanygoldtobefoundthere;andaccordingtotheinformationwhichtheyreceivedconcerningthisparticular,theydeterminedeithertoquitthecountryortosettleinit。
Ofallthoseexpensiveanduncertainprojects,however,whichbringbankruptcyuponthegreaterpartofthepeoplewhoengageinthem,thereisnoneperhapsmoreruinousthanthesearchafternewsilverandgoldmines。Itisperhapsthemostdisadvantageouslotteryintheworld,ortheoneinwhichthegainofthosewhodrawtheprizesbearstheleastproportiontothelossofthosewhodrawtheblanks:forthoughtheprizesarefewandtheblanksmany,thecommonpriceofaticketisthewholefortuneofaveryrichman。Projectsofmining,insteadofreplacingthecapitalemployedinthem,togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsofstock,commonlyabsorbbothcapitalandprofit。Theyaretheprojects,therefore,towhichofallothersaprudentlawgiver,whodesiredtoincreasethecapitalofhisnation,wouldleastchoosetogiveanyextraordinaryencouragement,ortoturntowardsthemagreatershareofthatcapitalthanthatwouldgotothemofitsownaccord。Suchinrealityistheabsurdconfidencewhichalmostallmenhaveintheirowngoodfortunethat,whereverthereistheleastprobabilityofsuccess,toogreatashareofitisapttogotothemofitsownaccord。
Butthoughthejudgmentofsoberreasonandexperienceconcerningsuchprojectshasalwaysbeenextremelyunfavourable,thatofhumanavidityhascommonlybeenquiteotherwise。Thesamepassionwhichhassuggestedtosomanypeopletheabsurdideaofthephilosopher’sstone,hassuggestedtootherstheequallyabsurdoneofimmenserichminesofgoldandsilver。Theydidnotconsiderthatthevalueofthosemetalshas,inallagesandnations,arisenchieflyfromtheirscarcity,andthattheirscarcityhasarisenfromtheverysmallquantitiesofthemwhichnaturehasanywheredepositedinoneplace,fromthehardandintractablesubstanceswithwhichshehasalmosteverywheresurroundedthosesmallquantities,andconsequentlyfromthelabourandexpensewhichareeverywherenecessaryinordertopenetratetoandgetatthem。Theyflatteredthemselvesthatveinsofthosemetalsmightinmanyplacesbefoundaslargeandasabundantasthosewhicharecommonlyfoundoflead,orcopper,ortin,oriron。ThedreamofSirWalterRaleighconcerningthegoldencityandcountryofEldorado,maysatisfyusthatevenwisemenarenotalwaysexemptfromsuchstrangedelusions。Morethanahundredyearsafterthedeathofthatgreatman,theJesuitGumilawasstillconvincedoftherealityofthatwonderfulcountry,andexpressedwithgreatwarmth,andIdaretosaywithgreatsincerity,howhappyheshouldbetocarrythelightofthegospeltoapeoplewhocouldsowellrewardthepiouslaboursoftheirmissionary。
InthecountriesfirstdiscoveredbytheSpaniards,nogoldorsilverminesareatpresentknownwhicharesupposedtobeworththeworking。Thequantitiesofthosemetalswhichthefirstadventurersaresaidtohavefoundtherehadprobablybeenverymuchmagnified,aswellasthefertilityofthemineswhichwerewroughtimmediatelyafterthefirstdiscovery。Whatthoseadventurerswerereportedtohavefound,however,wassufficienttoinflametheavidityofalltheircountrymen。EverySpaniardwhosailedtoAmericaexpectedtofindanEldorado。Fortune,too,diduponthiswhatshehasdoneuponveryfewotheroccasions。
Sherealizedinsomemeasuretheextravaganthopesofhervotaries,andinthediscoveryandconquestofMexicoandPeru(ofwhichtheonehappenedaboutthirty,theotheraboutfortyyearsafterthefirstexpeditionofColumbus),shepresentedthemwithsomethingnotveryunlikethatprofusionofthepreciousmetalswhichtheysoughtfor。
AprojectofcommercetotheEastIndies,therefore,gaveoccasiontothefirstdiscoveryoftheWest。AprojectofconquestgaveoccasiontoalltheestablishmentsoftheSpaniardsinthosenewlydiscoveredcountries。Themotivewhichexcitedthemtothisconquestwasaprojectofgoldandsilvermines;andacourseofaccidents,whichnohumanwisdomcouldforesee,renderedthisprojectmuchmoresuccessfulthantheundertakershadanyreasonablegroundsforexpecting。
ThefirstadventurersofalltheothernationsofEuropewhoattemptedtomakesettlementsinAmericawereanimatedbythelikechimericalviews;buttheywerenotequallysuccessful。ItwasmorethanahundredyearsafterthefirstsettlementoftheBrazilsbeforeanysilver,gold,ordiamondmineswerediscoveredthere。IntheEnglish,French,Dutch,andDanishcolonies,nonehaveeveryetbeendiscovered;atleastnonethatareatpresentsupposedtobeworththeworking。ThefirstEnglishsettlersinNorthAmerica,however,offeredafifthofallthegoldandsilverwhichshouldbefoundtheretotheking,asamotiveforgrantingthemtheirpatents。InthepatentstoSirWalterRaleigh,totheLondonandPlymouthCompanies,totheCouncilofPlymouth,etc。,thisfifthwasaccordinglyreservedtothecrown。
Totheexpectationoffindinggoldandsilvermines,thosefirstsettlers,too,joinedthatofdiscoveringanorthwestpassagetotheEastIndies。Theyhavehithertobeendisappointedinboth。
PART2
CausesofProsperityofNewColoniesTHEcolonyofacivilisednationwhichtakespossessioneitherofawastecountry,orofonesothinlyinhabitedthatthenativeseasilygiveplacetothenewsettlers,advancesmorerapidlytowealthandgreatnessthananyotherhumansociety。
Thecolonistscarryoutwiththemaknowledgeofagricultureandofotherusefulartssuperiortowhatcangrowupofitsownaccordinthecourseofmanycenturiesamongsavageandbarbarousnations。Theycarryoutwiththem,too,thehabitofsubordination,somenotionoftheregulargovernmentwhichtakesplaceintheirowncountry,ofthesystemoflawswhichsupportit,andofaregularadministrationofjustice;andtheynaturallyestablishsomethingofthesamekindinthenewsettlement。Butamongsavageandbarbarousnations,thenaturalprogressoflawandgovernmentisstillslowerthanthenaturalprogressofarts,afterlawandgovernmenthavebeengofarestablishedasisnecessaryfortheirprotection。Everycolonistgetsmorelandthanhecanpossiblycultivate。Hehasnorent,andscarceanytaxestopay。Nolandlordshareswithhiminitsproduce,andtheshareofthesovereigniscommonlybutatrifle。
Hehaseverymotivetorenderasgreataspossibleaproduce,whichisthustobealmostentirelyhisown。Buthislandiscommonlysoextensivethat,withallhisownindustry,andwithalltheindustryofotherpeoplewhomhecangettoemploy,hecanseldommakeitproducethetenthpartofwhatitiscapableofproducing。Heiseager,therefore,tocollectlabourersfromallquarters,andtorewardthemwiththemostliberalwages。Butthoseliberalwages,joinedtotheplentyandcheapnessofland,soonmakethoselabourersleavehim,inordertobecomelandlordsthemselves,andtoreward,withequalliberality,otherlabourers,whosoonleavethemforthesamereasonthattheylefttheirfirstmaster。Theliberalrewardoflabourencouragesmarriage。Thechildren,duringthetenderyearsofinfancy,arewellfedandproperlytakencareof,andwhentheyaregrownup,thevalueoftheirlabourgreatlyoverpaystheirmaintenance。
Whenarrivedatmaturity,thehighpriceoflabour,andthelowpriceofland,enablethemtoestablishthemselvesinthesamemannerastheirfathersdidbeforethem。
Inothercountries,rentandprofiteatupwages,andthetwosuperiorordersofpeopleoppresstheinferiorone。Butinnewcoloniestheinterestofthetwosuperiorordersobligesthemtotreattheinferioronewithmoregenerosityandhumanity;atleastwherethatinferioroneisnotinastateofslavery。Wastelandsofthegreatestnaturalfertilityaretobehadforatrifle。Theincreaseofrevenuewhichtheproprietor,whoisalwaystheundertaker,expectsfromtheirimprovement,constituteshisprofitwhichinthesecircumstancesiscommonlyverygreat。Butthisgreatprofitcannotbemadewithoutemployingthelabourofotherpeopleinclearingandcultivatingtheland;andthedisproportionbetweenthegreatextentofthelandandthesmallnumberofthepeople,whichcommonlytakesplaceinnewcolonies,makesitdifficultforhimtogetthislabour。Hedoesnot,therefore,disputeaboutwages,butiswillingtoemploylabouratanyprice。Thehighwagesoflabourencouragepopulation。Thecheapnessandplentyofgoodlandencourageimprovement,andenabletheproprietortopaythosehighwages。Inthosewagesconsistsalmostthewholepriceoftheland;andthoughtheyarehighconsideredasthewagesoflabour,theyarelowconsideredasthepriceofwhatissoveryvaluable。
Whatencouragestheprogressofpopulationandimprovementencouragesthatofrealwealthandgreatness。
TheprogressofmanyoftheancientGreekcoloniestowardswealthandgreatnessseemsaccordinglytohavebeenveryrapid。
Inthecourseofacenturyortwo,severalofthemappeartohaverivalled,andeventohavesurpassedtheirmothercities。
SyracuseandAgrigentuminSicily,TarentumandLocriinItaly,EphesusandMiletusinLesserAsia,appearbyallaccountstohavebeenatleastequaltoanyofthecitiesofancientGreece。
Thoughposteriorintheirestablishment,yetalltheartsofrefinement,philosophy,poetry,andeloquenceseemtohavebeencultivatedasearly,andtohavebeenimprovedashighlyinthemasinanypartofthemothercountry。TheschoolsofthetwooldestGreekphilosophers,thoseofThalesandPythagoras,wereestablished,itisremarkable,notinancientGreece,buttheoneinanAsiatic,theotherinanItaliancolony。Allthosecolonieshadestablishedthemselvesincountriesinhabitedbysavageandbarbarousnations,whoeasilygaveplacetothenewsettlers。
Theyhadplentyofgoodland,andastheywerealtogetherindependentofthemothercity,theywereatlibertytomanagetheirownaffairsinthewaythattheyjudgedwasmostsuitabletotheirowninterest。
ThehistoryoftheRomancoloniesisbynomeanssobrilliant。Someofthem,indeed,suchasFlorence,haveinthecourseofmanyages,andafterthefallofthemothercity,grownuptobeconsiderablestates。Buttheprogressofnooneofthemseemsevertohavebeenveryrapid。Theywereallestablishedinconqueredprovinces,whichinmostcaseshadbeenfullyinhabitedbefore。Thequantityoflandassignedtoeachcolonistwasseldomveryconsiderable,andasthecolonywasnotindependent,theywerenotalwaysatlibertytomanagetheirownaffairsinthewaytheyjudgedwasmostsuitabletotheirowninterest。
Intheplentyofgoodland,theEuropeancoloniesestablishedinAmericaandtheWestIndiesresemble,andevengreatlysurpass,thoseofancientGreece。Intheirdependencyuponthemotherstate,theyresemblethoseofancientRome;buttheirgreatdistancefromEuropehasinallofthemalleviatedmoreorlesstheeffectsofthisdependency。Theirsituationhasplacedthemlessintheviewandlessinthepoweroftheirmothercountry。Inpursuingtheirinteresttheirownway,theirconducthas,uponmanyoccasions,beenoverlooked,eitherbecausenotknownornotunderstoodinEurope;anduponsomeoccasionsithasbeenfairlysufferedandsubmittedto,becausetheirdistancerendereditdifficulttorestrainit。EventheviolentandarbitrarygovernmentofSpainhas,uponmanyoccasions,beenobligedtorecallorsoftentheorderswhichhadbeengivenforthegovernmentofhercoloniesforfearofageneralinsurrection。TheprogressofalltheEuropeancoloniesinwealth,population,andimprovement,hasaccordinglybeenverygreat。
ThecrownofSpain,byitsshareofthegoldandsilver,derivedsomerevenuefromitscoloniesfromthemomentoftheirfirstestablishment。Itwasarevenue,too,ofanaturetoexciteinhumanaviditythemostextravagantexpectationsofstillgreaterriches。TheSpanishcolonies,therefore,fromthemomentoftheirfirstestablishment,attractedverymuchtheattentionoftheirmothercountry,whilethoseoftheotherEuropeannationswereforalongtimeinagreatmeasureneglected。Theformerdidnot,perhaps,thrivethebetterinconsequenceofthisattention;northelattertheworseinconsequenceofthisneglect。Inproportiontotheextentofthecountrywhichtheyinsomemeasurepossess,theSpanishcoloniesareconsideredaslesspopulousandthrivingthanthoseofalmostanyotherEuropeannation。TheprogressevenoftheSpanishcolonies,however,inpopulationandimprovement,hascertainlybeenveryrapidandverygreat。ThecityofLima,foundedsincetheconquest,isrepresentedbyUlloaascontainingfiftythousandinhabitantsnearthirtyyearsago。Quito,whichhadbeenbutamiserablehamletofIndians,isrepresentedbythesameauthorasinhistimeequallypopulous。GemelliCarreri,apretendedtraveller,itissaid,indeed,butwhoseemseverywheretohavewrittenuponextremelygoodinformation,representsthecityofMexicoascontainingahundredthousandinhabitants;anumberwhich,inspiteofalltheexaggerationsoftheSpanishwriters,is,probably,morethanfivetimesgreaterthanwhatitcontainedinthetimeofMontezuma。ThesenumbersexceedgreatlythoseofBoston,NewYork,andPhiladelphia,thethreegreatestcitiesoftheEnglishcolonies。BeforetheconquestoftheSpaniardstherewerenocattlefitfordraughteitherinMexicoorPeru。Thellamawastheironlybeastofburden,anditsstrengthseemstohavebeenagooddealinferiortothatofacommonass。Theploughwasunknownamongthem。Theywereignorantoftheuseofiron。Theyhadnocoinedmoney,noranyestablishedinstrumentofcommerceofanykind。Theircommercewascarriedonbybarter。A
sortofwoodenspadewastheirprincipalinstrumentofagriculture。Sharpstonesservedthemforknivesandhatchetstocutwith;fishbonesandthehardsinewsofcertainanimalsservedthemforneedlestosewwith;andtheseseemtohavebeentheirprincipalinstrumentsoftrade。Inthisstateofthings,itseemsimpossiblethateitherofthoseempirescouldhavebeensomuchimprovedorsowellcultivatedasatpresent,whentheyareplentifullyfurnishedwithallsortsofEuropeancattle,andwhentheuseofiron,oftheplough,andofmanyoftheartsofEurope,hasbeenintroducedamongthem。Butthepopulousnessofeverycountrymustbeinproportiontothedegreeofitsimprovementandcultivation。Inspiteofthecrueldestructionofthenativeswhichfollowedtheconquest,thesetwogreatempiresare,probably,morepopulousnowthantheyeverwerebefore:andthepeoplearesurelyverydifferent;forwemustacknowledge,I
apprehend,thattheSpanishcreolesareinmanyrespectssuperiortotheancientIndians。
AfterthesettlementsoftheSpaniards,thatofthePortugueseinBrazilistheoldestofanyEuropeannationinAmerica。Butasforalongtimeafterthefirstdiscoveryneithergoldnorsilvermineswerefoundinit,andasitafforded,uponthataccount,littleornorevenuetothecrown,itwasforalongtimeinagreatmeasureneglected;andduringthisstateofneglectitgrewuptobeagreatandpowerfulcolony。WhilePortugalwasunderthedominionofSpain,BrazilwasattackedbytheDutch,whogotpossessionofsevenofthefourteenprovincesintowhichitisdivided。Theyexpectedsoontoconquertheotherseven,whenPortugalrecovereditsindependencybytheelevationofthefamilyofBraganzatothethrone。TheDutchthen,asenemiestotheSpaniards,becamefriendstothePortuguese,whowerelikewisetheenemiesoftheSpaniards。Theyagreed,therefore,toleavethatpartofBrazil,whichtheyhadnotconquered,totheKingofPortugal,whoagreedtoleavethatpartwhichtheyhadconqueredtothem,asamatternotworthdisputingaboutwithsuchgoodallies。ButtheDutchgovernmentsoonbegantooppressthePortuguesecolonists,who,insteadofamusingthemselveswithcomplaints,tookarmsagainsttheirnewmasters,andbytheirownvalourandresolution,withtheconnivance,indeed,butwithoutanyavowedassistancefromthemothercountry,drovethemoutofBrazil。TheDutch,therefore,findingitimpossibletokeepanypartofthecountrytothemselves,werecontentedthatitshouldbeentirelyrestoredtothecrownofPortugal。Inthiscolonytherearesaidtobemorethansixhundredthousandpeople,eitherPortugueseordescendedfromPortuguese,creoles,mulattoes,andamixedracebetweenPortugueseandBrazilians。NoonecolonyinAmericaissupposedtocontainsogreatanumberofpeopleofEuropeanextraction。
Towardstheendofthefifteenth,andduringthegreaterpartofthesixteenthcentury,SpainandPortugalwerethetwogreatnavalpowersupontheocean;forthoughthecommerceofVeniceextendedtoeverypartofEurope,itsfleetshadscarceeversailedbeyondtheMediterranean。TheSpaniards,invirtueofthefirstdiscovery,claimedallAmericaastheirown;andthoughtheycouldnothindersogreatanavalpowerasthatofPortugalfromsettlinginBrazil,suchwas,atthattime,theterroroftheirname,thatthegreaterpartoftheothernationsofEuropewereafraidtoestablishthemselvesinanyotherpartofthatgreatcontinent。TheFrench,whoattemptedtosettleinFlorida,wereallmurderedbytheSpaniards。Butthedeclensionofthenavalpowerofthislatternation,inconsequenceofthedefeatormiscarriageofwhattheycalledtheirInvincibleArmada,whichhappenedtowardstheendofthesixteenthcentury,putitoutoftheirpowertoobstructanylongerthesettlementsoftheotherEuropeannations。Inthecourseoftheseventeenthcentury,therefore,theEnglish,French,Dutch,Danes,andSwedes,allthegreatnationswhohadanyportsupontheocean,attemptedtomakesomesettlementsinthenewworld。
TheSwedesestablishedthemselvesinNewJersey;andthenumberofSwedishfamiliesstilltobefoundtheresufficientlydemonstratesthatthiscolonywasverylikelytoprosperhaditbeenprotectedbythemothercountry。ButbeingneglectedbySweden,itwassoonswallowedupbytheDutchcolonyofNewYork,whichagain,in1674,fellunderthedominionoftheEnglish。
ThesmallislandsofSt。ThomasandSantaCruzaretheonlycountriesinthenewworldthathaveeverbeenpossessedBytheDanes。Theselittlesettlements,too,wereunderthegovernmentofanexclusivecompany,whichhadthesoleright,bothofpurchasingthesurplusproduceofthecolonists,andofsupplyingthemwithsuchgoodsofothercountriesastheywanted,andwhich,therefore,bothinitspurchasesandsales,hadnotonlythepowerofoppressingthem,butthegreatesttemptationtodoso。Thegovernmentofanexclusivecompanyofmerchantsis,perhaps,theworstofallgovernmentsforanycountrywhatever。
Itwasnot,however,abletostopaltogethertheprogressofthesecolonies,thoughitrendereditmoreslowandlanguid。ThelateKingofDenmarkdissolvedthiscompany,andsincethattimetheprosperityofthesecolonieshasbeenverygreat。
TheDutchsettlementsintheWest,aswellasthoseintheEastIndies,wereoriginallyputunderthegovernmentofanexclusivecompany。Theprogressofsomeofthem,therefore,thoughithasbeenconsiderable,incomparisonwiththatofalmostanycountrythathasbeenlongpeopledandestablished,hasbeenlanguidandslowincomparisonwiththatofthegreaterpartofnewcolonies。ThecolonyofSurinam,thoughveryconsiderable,isstillinferiortothegreaterpartofthesugarcoloniesoftheotherEuropeannations。ThecolonyofNovaBelgia,nowdividedintothetwoprovincesofNewYorkandNewJersey,wouldprobablyhavesoonbecomeconsiderabletoo,eventhoughithadremainedunderthegovernmentoftheDutch。Theplentyandcheapnessofgoodlandaresuchpowerfulcausesofprosperitythattheveryworstgovernmentisscarcecapableofcheckingaltogethertheefficacyoftheiroperation。Thegreatdistance,too,fromthemothercountrywouldenablethecoloniststoevademoreorless,bysmuggling,themonopolywhichthecompanyenjoyedagainstthem。AtpresentthecompanyallowsallDutchshipstotradetoSurinamuponpayingtwoandahalfpercentuponthevalueoftheircargoforalicence;andonlyreservestoitselfexclusivelythedirecttradefromAfricatoAmerica,whichconsistsalmostentirelyintheslavetrade。Thisrelaxationintheexclusiveprivilegesofthecompanyisprobablytheprincipalcauseofthatdegreeofprosperitywhichthatcolonyatpresentenjoys。CuracoaandEustatia,thetwoprincipalislandsbelongingtotheDutch,arefreeportsopentotheshipsofallnations;andthisfreedom,inthemidstofbettercolonieswhoseportsareopentothoseofonenationonly,hasbeenthegreatcauseoftheprosperityofthosetwobarrenislands。
TheFrenchcolonyofCanadawas,duringthegreaterpartofthelastcentury,andsomepartofthepresent,underthegovernmentofanexclusivecompany。Undersounfavourableanadministrationitsprogresswasnecessarilyveryslowincomparisonwiththatofothernewcolonies;butitbecamemuchmorerapidwhenthiscompanywasdissolvedafterthefallofwhatiscalledtheMississippischeme。WhentheEnglishgotpossessionofthiscountry,theyfoundinitneardoublethenumberofinhabitantswhichFatherCharlevoixhadassignedtoitbetweentwentyandthirtyyearsbefore。ThatJesuithadtravelledoverthewholecountry,andhadnoinclinationtorepresentitaslessconsiderablethanitreallywas。
TheFrenchcolonyofSt。Domingowasestablishedbypiratesandfreebooters,who,foralongtime,neitherrequiredtheprotection,noracknowledgedtheauthorityofFrance;andwhenthatraceofbandittibecamesofarcitizensastoacknowledgethisauthority,itwasforalongtimenecessarytoexerciseitwithverygreatgentleness。Duringthisperiodthepopulationandimprovementofthiscolonyincreasedveryfast。Eventheoppressionoftheexclusivecompany,towhichitwasforsometimesubjected,withalltheothercoloniesofFrance,thoughitnodoubtretarded,hadnotbeenabletostopitsprogressaltogether。Thecourseofitsprosperityreturnedassoonasitwasrelievedfromthatoppression。ItisnowthemostimportantofthesugarcoloniesoftheWestIndies,anditsproduceissaidtobegreaterthanthatofalltheEnglishsugarcoloniesputtogether。TheothersugarcoloniesofFranceareingeneralallverythriving。
ButtherearenocoloniesofwhichtheprogresshasbeenmorerapidthanthatoftheEnglishinNorthAmerica。
Plentyofgoodland,andlibertytomanagetheirownaffairstheirownway,seemtobethetwogreatcausesoftheprosperityofallnewcolonies。
IntheplentyofgoodlandtheEnglishcoloniesofNorthAmerica,thoughnodoubtveryabundantlyprovided,arehoweverinferiortothoseoftheSpaniardsandPortuguese,andnotsuperiortosomeofthosepossessedbytheFrenchbeforethelatewar。ButthepoliticalinstitutionsoftheEnglishcolonieshavebeenmorefavourabletotheimprovementandcultivationofthislandthanthoseofanyoftheotherthreenations。
First,theengrossingofuncultivatedland,thoughithasbynomeansbeenpreventedaltogether,hasbeenmorerestrainedintheEnglishcoloniesthaninanyother。Thecolonylawwhichimposesuponeveryproprietortheobligationofimprovingandcultivating,withinalimitedtime,acertainproportionofhislands,andwhichincaseoffailure,declaresthoseneglectedlandsgrantabletoanyotherperson,thoughithasnot,perhaps,beenverystrictlyexecuted,has,however,hadsomeeffect。
Secondly,inPennsylvaniathereisnorightofprimogeniture,andlands,likemovables,aredividedequallyamongallthechildrenofthefamily。InthreeoftheprovincesofNewEnglandtheoldesthasonlyadoubleshare,asintheMosaicallaw。Thoughinthoseprovinces,therefore,toogreataquantityoflandshouldsometimesbeengrossedbyaparticularindividual,itislikely,inthecourseofagenerationortwo,tobesufficientlydividedagain。IntheotherEnglishcolonies,indeed,therightofprimogenituretakesplace,asinthelawofEngland。ButinalltheEnglishcoloniesthetenureofthelands,whichareallheldbyfreesocage,facilitatesalienation,andthegranteeofanyextensivetractoflandgenerallyfindsitforhisinteresttoalienate,asfastashecan,thegreaterpartofit,reservingonlyasmallquit—rent。IntheSpanishandPortuguesecolonies,whatiscalledtherightofMajorazzotakesplaceinthesuccessionofallthosegreatestatestowhichanytitleofhonourisannexed。Suchestatesgoalltooneperson,andareineffectentailedandunalienable。TheFrenchcolonies,indeed,aresubjecttothecustomofParis,which,intheinheritanceofland,ismuchmorefavourabletotheyoungerchildrenthanthelawofEngland。ButintheFrenchcolonies,ifanypartofanestate,heldbythenobletenureofchivalryandhomage,isalienated,itis,foralimitedtime,subjecttotherightofredemption,eitherbytheheirofthesuperiororbytheheirofthefamily;andallthelargestestatesofthecountryareheldbysuchnobletenures,whichnecessarilyembarrassalienation。Butinanewcolonyagreatuncultivatedestateislikelytobemuchmorespeedilydividedbyalienationthanbysuccession。Theplentyandcheapnessofgoodland,ithasalreadybeenobserved,aretheprincipalcausesoftherapidprosperityofnewcolonies。Theengrossingofland,ineffect,destroysthisplentyandcheapness。Theengrossingofuncultivatedland,besides,isthegreatestobstructiontoitsimprovement。Butthelabourthatisemployedintheimprovementandcultivationoflandaffordsthegreatestandmostvaluableproducetothesociety。Theproduceoflabour,inthiscase,paysnotonlyitsownwages,andtheprofitofthestockwhichemploysit,buttherentofthelandtoouponwhichitisemployed。ThelabouroftheEnglishcolonists,therefore,beingmoreemployedintheimprovementandcultivationofland,islikelytoaffordagreaterandmorevaluableproducethanthatofanyoftheotherthreenations,which,bytheengrossingofland,ismoreorlessdivertedtowardsotheremployments。
Thirdly,thelabouroftheEnglishcolonistsisnotonlylikelytoaffordagreaterandmorevaluableproduce,but,inconsequenceofthemoderationoftheirtaxes,agreaterproportionofthisproducebelongstothemselves,whichtheymaystoreupandemployinputtingintomotionastillgreaterquantityoflabour。TheEnglishcolonistshaveneveryetcontributedanythingtowardsthedefenceofthemothercountry,ortowardsthesupportofitscivilgovernment。Theythemselves,onthecontrary,havehithertobeendefendedalmostentirelyattheexpenseofthemothercountry。Buttheexpenseoffleetsandarmiesisoutofallproportiongreaterthanthenecessaryexpenseofcivilgovernment。Theexpenseoftheirowncivilgovernmenthasalwaysbeenverymoderate。Ithasgenerallybeenconfinedtowhatwasnecessaryforpayingcompetentsalariestothegovernor,tothejudges,andtosomeotherofficersofpolice,andformaintainingafewofthemostusefulpublicworks。TheexpenseofthecivilestablishmentofMassachusettsBay,beforethecommencementofthepresentdisturbances,usedtobebutaboutL18,000ayear。ThatofNewHampshireandRhodeIsland,L3500each。ThatofConnecticut,L4000。ThatofNewYorkandPennsylvania,L4500each。
ThatofNewJersey,L1200。ThatofVirginiaandSouthCarolina,L8000each。ThecivilestablishmentsofNovaScotiaandGeorgiaarepartlysupportedbyanannualgrantofParliament。ButNovaScotiapays,besides,aboutL7000ayeartowardsthepublicexpensesofthecolony;andGeorgiaaboutL2500ayear。AllthedifferentcivilestablishmentsinNorthAmerica,inshort,exclusiveofthoseofMarylandandNorthCarolina,ofwhichnoexactaccounthasbeengot,didnot,beforethecommencementofthepresentdisturbances,costtheinhabitantsaboveL64,700ayear;anever—memorableexampleathowsmallanexpensethreemillionsofpeoplemaynotonlybegoverned,butwellgoverned。Themostimportantpartoftheexpenseofgovernment,indeed,thatofdefenceandprotection,hasconstantlyfallenuponthemothercountry。Theceremonial,too,ofthecivilgovernmentinthecolonies,uponthereceptionofanewgovernor,upontheopeningofanewassembly,etc。,thoughsufficientlydecent,isnotaccompaniedwithanyexpensivepomporparade。Theirecclesiasticalgovernmentisconducteduponaplanequallyfrugal。Tithesareunknownamongthem;