andthemoreextensivethatmarket,itisalwaysthemoreadvantageoustoagreatnumber。Thecornwhichgrowswithinamileofthetownsellsthereforthesamepricewiththatwhichcomesfromtwentymilesdistance。Butthepriceofthelattermustgenerallynotonlypaytheexpenseofraisingandbringingittomarket,butafford,too,theordinaryprofitsofagriculturetothefarmer。Theproprietorsandcultivatorsofthecountry,therefore,whichliesintheneighbourhoodofthetown,overandabovetheordinaryprofitsofagriculture,gain,inthepriceofwhattheysell,thewholevalueofthecarriageofthelikeproducethatisbroughtfrommoredistantparts,andtheyhave,besides,thewholevalueofthiscarriageinthepriceofwhattheybuy。Comparethecultivationofthelandsintheneighbourhoodofanyconsiderabletownwiththatofthosewhichlieatsomedistancefromit,andyouwilleasilysatisfyyourselfhowmuchthecountryisbenefitedbythecommerceofthetown。Amongalltheabsurdspeculationsthathavebeenpropagatedconcerningthebalanceoftrade,ithasneverbeenpretendedthateitherthecountrylosesbyitscommercewiththetown,orthetownbythatwiththecountrywhichmaintainsit。
Assubsistenceis,inthenatureofthings,priortoconveniencyandluxury,sotheindustrywhichprocurestheformermustnecessarilybepriortothatwhichministerstothelatter。
Thecultivationandimprovementofthecountry,therefore,whichaffordssubsistence,must,necessarily,bepriortotheincreaseofthetown,whichfurnishesonlythemeansofconveniencyandluxury。Itisthesurplusproduceofthecountryonly,orwhatisoverandabovethemaintenanceofthecultivators,thatconstitutesthesubsistenceofthetown,whichcanthereforeincreaseonlywiththeincreaseofthissurplusproduce。Thetown,indeed,maynotalwaysderiveitswholesubsistencefromthecountryinitsneighbourhood,orevenfromtheterritorytowhichitbelongs,butfromverydistantcountries;andthis,thoughitformsnoexceptionfromthegeneralrule,hasoccasionedconsiderablevariationsintheprogressofopulenceindifferentagesandnations。
Thatorderofthingswhichnecessityimposesingeneral,thoughnotineveryparticularcountry,is,ineveryparticularcountry,promotedbythenaturalinclinationsofman。Ifhumaninstitutionshadneverthwartedthosenaturalinclinations,thetownscouldnowherehaveincreasedbeyondwhattheimprovementandcultivationoftheterritoryinwhichtheyweresituatedcouldsupport;tillsuchtime,atleast,asthewholeofthatterritorywascompletelycultivatedandimproved。Uponequal,ornearlyequalprofits,mostmenwillchoosetoemploytheircapitalsratherintheimprovementandcultivationoflandthaneitherinmanufacturesorinforeigntrade。Themanwhoemployshiscapitalinlandhasitmoreunderhisviewandcommand,andhisfortuneismuchlessliabletoaccidentsthanthatofthetrader,whoisobligedfrequentlytocommitit,notonlytothewindsandthewaves,buttothemoreuncertainelementsofhumanfollyandinjustice,bygivinggreatcreditsindistantcountriestomenwithwhosecharacterandsituationhecanseldombethoroughlyacquainted。Thecapitalofthelandlord,onthecontrary,whichisfixedintheimprovementofhisland,seemstobeaswellsecuredasthenatureofhumanaffairscanadmitof。
Thebeautyofthecountrybesides,thepleasuresofacountrylife,thetranquillityofmindwhichitpromises,andwherevertheinjusticeofhumanlawsdoesnotdisturbit,theindependencywhichitreallyaffords,havecharmsthatmoreorlessattracteverybody;andastocultivatethegroundwastheoriginaldestinationofman,soineverystageofhisexistenceheseemstoretainapredilectionforthisprimitiveemployment。
Withouttheassistanceofsomeartificers,indeed,thecultivationoflandcannotbecarriedonbutwithgreatinconveniencyandcontinualinterruption。Smiths,carpenters,wheelwrights,andploughwrights,masons,andbricklayers,tanners,shoemakers,andtailorsarepeoplewhoseservicethefarmerhasfrequentoccasionfor。Suchartificers,too,standoccasionallyinneedoftheassistanceofoneanother;andastheirresidenceisnot,likethatofthefarmer,necessarilytieddowntoaprecisespot,theynaturallysettleintheneighbourhoodofoneanother,andthusformasmalltownorvillage。Thebutcher,thebrewer,andthebakersoonjointhem,togetherwithmanyotherartificersandretailers,necessaryorusefulforsupplyingtheiroccasionalwants,andwhocontributestillfurthertoaugmentthetown。Theinhabitantsofthetownandthoseofthecountryaremutuallytheservantsofoneanother。Thetownisacontinualfairormarket,towhichtheinhabitantsofthecountryresortinordertoexchangetheirrudeformanufacturedproduce。Itisthiscommercewhichsuppliestheinhabitantsofthetownbothwiththematerialsoftheirwork,andthemeansoftheirsubsistence。Thequantityofthefinishedworkwhichtheyselltotheinhabitantsofthecountrynecessarilyregulatesthequantityofthematerialsandprovisionswhichtheybuy。Neithertheiremploymentnorsubsistence,therefore,canaugmentbutinproportiontotheaugmentationofthedemandfromthecountryforfinishedwork;
andthisdemandcanaugmentonlyinproportiontotheextensionofimprovementandcultivation。Hadhumaninstitutions,therefore,neverdisturbedthenaturalcourseofthings,theprogressivewealthandincreaseofthetownswould,ineverypoliticalsociety,beconsequential,andinproportiontotheimprovementandcultivationoftheterritoryorcountry。
InourNorthAmericancolonies,whereuncultivatedlandisstilltobehaduponeasyterms,nomanufacturesfordistantsalehaveeveryetbeenestablishedinanyoftheirtowns。Whenanartificerhasacquiredalittlemorestockthanisnecessaryforcarryingonhisownbusinessinsupplyingtheneighbouringcountry,hedoesnot,inNorthAmerica,attempttoestablishwithitamanufactureformoredistantsale,butemploysitinthepurchaseandimprovementofuncultivatedland。Fromartificerhebecomesplanter,andneitherthelargewagesnortheeasysubsistencewhichthatcountryaffordstoartificerscanbribehimrathertoworkforotherpeoplethanforhimself。Hefeelsthatanartificeristheservantofhiscustomers,fromwhomhederiveshissubsistence;butthataplanterwhocultivateshisownland,andderiveshisnecessarysubsistencefromthelabourofhisownfamily,isreallyamaster,andindependentofalltheworld。
Incountries,onthecontrary,wherethereiseithernouncultivatedland,ornonethatcanbehaduponeasyterms,everyartificerwhohasacquiredmorestockthanhecanemployintheoccasionaljobsoftheneighbourhoodendeavourstoprepareworkformoredistantsale。Thesmitherectssomesortofiron,theweaversomesortoflinenorwoollenmanufactory。Thosedifferentmanufacturescome,inprocessoftime,tobegraduallysubdivided,andtherebyimprovedandrefinedinagreatvarietyofways,whichmayeasilybeconceived,andwhichitisthereforeunnecessarytoexplainanyfurther。
Inseekingforemploymenttoacapital,manufacturesare,uponequalornearlyequalprofits,naturallypreferredtoforeigncommerce,forthesamereasonthatagricultureisnaturallypreferredtomanufactures。Asthecapitalofthelandlordorfarmerismoresecurethanthatofthemanufacturer,sothecapitalofthemanufacturer,beingatalltimesmorewithinhisviewandcommand,ismoresecurethanthatoftheforeignmerchant。Ineveryperiod,indeed,ofeverysociety,thesurpluspartbothoftherudeandmanufacturedproduce,orthatforwhichthereisnodemandathome,mustbesentabroadinordertobeexchangedforsomethingforwhichthereissomedemandathome。Butwhetherthecapital,whichcarriesthissurplusproduceabroad,beaforeignoradomesticoneisofverylittleimportance。Ifthesocietyhasnotacquiredsufficientcapitalbothtocultivateallitslands,andtomanufactureinthecompletestmannerthewholeofitsrudeproduce,thereisevenaconsiderableadvantagethatrudeproduceshouldbeexportedbyaforeigncapital,inorderthatthewholestockofthesocietymaybeemployedinmoreusefulpurposes。ThewealthofancientEgypt,thatofChinaandIndostan,sufficientlydemonstratethatanationmayattainaveryhighdegreeofopulencethoughthegreaterpartofitsexportationtradebecarriedonbyforeigners。TheprogressofourNorthAmericanandWestIndiancolonieswouldhavebeenmuchlessrapidhadnocapitalbutwhatbelongedtothemselvesbeenemployedinexportingtheirsurplusproduce。
Accordingtothenaturalcourseofthings,therefore,thegreaterpartofthecapitalofeverygrowingsocietyis,first,directedtoagriculture,afterwardstomanufactures,andlastofalltoforeigncommerce。Thisorderofthingsissoverynaturalthatineverysocietythathadanyterritoryithasalways,I
believe,beeninsomedegreeobserved。Someoftheirlandsmusthavebeencultivatedbeforeanyconsiderabletownscouldbeestablished,andsomesortofcoarseindustryofthemanufacturingkindmusthavebeencarriedoninthosetowns,beforetheycouldwellthinkofemployingthemselvesinforeigncommerce。
Butthoughthisnaturalorderofthingsmusthavetakenplaceinsomedegreeineverysuchsociety,ithas,inallthemodernstatesofEurope,been,inmanyrespects,entirelyinverted。Theforeigncommerceofsomeoftheircitieshasintroducedalltheirfinermanufactures,orsuchaswerefitfordistantsale;andmanufacturesandforeigncommercetogetherhavegivenbirthtotheprincipalimprovementsofagriculture。Themannersandcustomswhichthenatureoftheiroriginalgovernmentintroduced,andwhichremainedafterthatgovernmentwasgreatlyaltered,necessarilyforcedthemintothisunnaturalandretrogradeorder。
CHAPTERII
OftheDiscouragementofAgricultureintheancientStateofEuropeaftertheFalloftheRomanEmpireWHENtheGermanandScythiannationsoverranthewesternprovincesoftheRomanempire,theconfusionswhichfollowedsogreatarevolutionlastedforseveralcenturies。Therapineandviolencewhichthebarbariansexercisedagainsttheancientinhabitantsinterruptedthecommercebetweenthetownsandthecountry。Thetownsweredeserted,andthecountrywasleftuncultivated,andthewesternprovincesofEurope,whichhadenjoyedaconsiderabledegreeofopulenceundertheRomanempire,sunkintotheloweststateofpovertyandbarbarism。Duringthecontinuanceofthoseconfusions,thechiefsandprincipalleadersofthosenationsacquiredorusurpedtothemselvesthegreaterpartofthelandsofthosecountries。Agreatpartofthemwasuncultivated;butnopartofthem,whethercultivatedoruncultivated,wasleftwithoutaproprietor。Allofthemwereengrossed,andthegreaterpartbyafewgreatproprietors。
Thisoriginalengrossingofuncultivatedlands,thoughagreat,mighthavebeenbutatransitoryevil。Theymightsoonhavebeendividedagain,andbrokeintosmallparcelseitherbysuccessionorbyalienation。Thelawofprimogeniturehinderedthemfrombeingdividedbysuccession:theintroductionofentailspreventedtheirbeingbrokeintosmallparcelsbyalienation。
Whenland,likemovables,isconsideredasthemeansonlyofsubsistenceandenjoyment,thenaturallawofsuccessiondividesit,likethem,amongallthechildrenofthefamily;ofanofwhomthesubsistenceandenjoymentmaybesupposedequallydeartothefather。ThisnaturallawofsuccessionaccordinglytookplaceamongtheRomans,whomadenomoredistinctionbetweenelderandyounger,betweenmaleandfemale,intheinheritanceoflandsthanwedointhedistributionofmovables。Butwhenlandwasconsideredasthemeans,notofsubsistencemerely,butofpowerandprotection,itwasthoughtbetterthatitshoulddescendundividedtoone。Inthosedisorderlytimeseverygreatlandlordwasasortofpettyprince。Histenantswerehissubjects。Hewastheirjudge,andinsomerespectstheirlegislatorinpeace,andtheirleaderinwar。Hemadewaraccordingtohisowndiscretion,frequentlyagainsthisneighbours,andsometimesagainsthissovereign。Thesecurityofalandedestate,therefore,theprotectionwhichitsownercouldaffordtothosewhodweltonit,dependeduponitsgreatness。Todivideitwastoruinit,andtoexposeeverypartofittobeoppressedandswallowedupbytheincursionsofitsneighbours。
Thelawofprimogeniture,therefore,cametotakeplace,notimmediately,indeed,butinprocessoftime,inthesuccessionoflandedestates,forthesamereasonthatithasgenerallytakenplaceinthatofmonarchies,thoughnotalwaysattheirfirstinstitution。Thatthepower,andconsequentlythesecurityofthemonarchy,maynotbeweakenedbydivision,itmustdescendentiretooneofthechildren。Towhichofthemsoimportantapreferenceshallbegivenmustbedeterminedbysomegeneralrule,foundednotuponthedoubtfuldistinctionsofpersonalmerit,butuponsomeplainandevidentdifferencewhichcanadmitofnodispute。Amongthechildrenofthesamefamily,therecanbenoindisputabledifferencebutthatofsex,andthatofage。
Themalesexisuniversallypreferredtothefemale;andwhenallotherthingsareequal,theeldereverywheretakesplaceoftheyounger。Hencetheoriginoftherightofprimogeniture,andofwhatiscalledlinealsuccession。
Lawsfrequentlycontinueinforcelongafterthecircumstanceswhichfirstgaveoccasiontothem,andwhichcouldalonerenderthemreasonable,arenomore。InthepresentstateofEurope,theproprietorofasingleacreoflandisasperfectlysecureofhispossessionastheproprietorofahundredthousand。Therightofprimogeniture,however,stillcontinuestoberespected,andasofallinstitutionsitisthefittesttosupporttheprideoffamilydistinctions,itisstilllikelytoendureformanycenturies。Ineveryotherrespect,nothingcanbemorecontrarytotherealinterestofanumerousfamilythanarightwhich,inordertoenrichone,beggarsalltherestofthechildren。
Entailsarethenaturalconsequencesofthelawofprimogeniture。Theywereintroducedtopreserveacertainlinealsuccession,ofwhichthelawofprimogeniturefirstgavetheidea,andtohinderanypartoftheoriginalestatefrombeingcarriedoutoftheproposedlineeitherbygift,ordevise,oralienation;eitherbythefolly,orbythemisfortuneofanyofitssuccessiveowners。TheywerealtogetherunknowntotheRomans。Neithertheirsubstitutionsnorfideicommissesbearanyresemblancetoentails,thoughsomeFrenchlawyershavethoughtpropertodressthemoderninstitutioninthelanguageandgarbofthoseancientones。
Whengreatlandedestateswereasortofprincipalities,entailsmightnotbeunreasonable。Likewhatarecalledthefundamentallawsofsomemonarchies,theymightfrequentlyhinderthesecurityofthousandsfrombeingendangeredbythecapriceorextravaganceofoneman。ButinthepresentstateofEurope,whensmallaswellasgreatestatesderivetheirsecurityfromthelawsoftheircountry,nothingcanbemorecompletelyabsurd。
Theyarefoundeduponthemostabsurdofallsuppositions,thesuppositionthateverysuccessivegenerationofmenhavenotanequalrighttotheearth,andtoallthatitpossesses;butthatthepropertyofthepresentgenerationshouldberestrainedandregulatedaccordingtothefancyofthosewhodiedperhapsfivehundredyearsago。Entails,however,arestillrespectedthroughthegreaterpartofEurope,inthosecountriesparticularlyinwhichnoblebirthisanecessaryqualificationfortheenjoymenteitherofcivilormilitaryhonours。Entailsarethoughtnecessaryformaintainingthisexclusiveprivilegeofthenobilitytothegreatofficesandhonoursoftheircountry;andthatorderhavingusurpedoneunjustadvantageovertherestoftheirfellowcitizens,lesttheirpovertyshouldrenderitridiculous,itisthoughtreasonablethattheyshouldhaveanother。ThecommonlawofEngland,indeed,issaidtoabhorperpetuities,andtheyareaccordinglymorerestrictedtherethaninanyotherEuropeanmonarchy;thoughevenEnglandisnotaltogetherwithoutthem。InScotlandmorethanone—fifth,perhapsmorethanone—third,partofthewholelandsofthecountryareatpresentsupposedtobeunderstrictentail。
Greattractsofuncultivatedlandwere,inthismanner,notonlyengrossedbyparticularfamilies,butthepossibilityoftheirbeingdividedagainwasasmuchaspossibleprecludedforever。Itseldomhappens,however,thatagreatproprietorisagreatimprover。Inthedisorderlytimeswhichgavebirthtothosebarbarousinstitutions,thegreatproprietorwassufficientlyemployedindefendinghisownterritories,orinextendinghisjurisdictionandauthorityoverthoseofhisneighbours。Hehadnoleisuretoattendtothecultivationandimprovementofland。
Whentheestablishmentoflawandorderaffordedhimthisleisure,heoftenwantedtheinclination,andalmostalwaystherequisiteabilities。Iftheexpenseofhishouseandpersoneitherequalledorexceededhisrevenue,asitdidveryfrequently,hehadnostocktoemployinthismanner。Ifhewasaneconomist,hegenerallyfounditmoreprofitabletoemployhisannualsavingsinnewpurchasesthanintheimprovementofhisoldestate。Toimprovelandwithprofit,likeallothercommercialprojects,requiresanexactattentiontosmallsavingsandsmallgains,ofwhichamanborntoagreatfortune,eventhoughnaturallyfrugal,isveryseldomcapable。Thesituationofsuchapersonnaturallydisposeshimtoattendrathertoornamentwhichpleaseshisfancythantoprofitforwhichhehassolittleoccasion。Theeleganceofhisdress,ofhisequipage,ofhishouse,andhouseholdfurniture,areobjectswhichfromhisinfancyhehasbeenaccustomedtohavesomeanxietyabout。Theturnofmindwhichthishabitnaturallyformsfollowshimwhenhecomestothinkoftheimprovementofland。Heembellishesperhapsfourorfivehundredacresintheneighbourhoodofhishouse,attentimestheexpensewhichthelandisworthafterallhisimprovements;andfindsthatifhewastoimprovehiswholeestateinthesamemanner,andhehaslittletasteforanyother,hewouldbeabankruptbeforehehadfinishedthetenthpartofit。TherestillremaininbothpartsoftheUnitedKingdomsomegreatestateswhichhavecontinuedwithoutinterruptioninthehandsofthesamefamilysincethetimesoffeudalanarchy。
Comparethepresentconditionofthoseestateswiththepossessionsofthesmallproprietorsintheirneighbourhood,andyouwillrequirenootherargumenttoconvinceyouhowunfavourablesuchextensivepropertyistoimprovement。
Iflittleimprovementwastobeexpectedfromsuchgreatproprietors,stilllesswastobehopedforfromthosewhooccupiedthelandunderthem。IntheancientstateofEurope,theoccupiersoflandwerealltenantsatwill。Theywerealloralmostallslaves;buttheirslaverywasofamilderkindthanthatknownamongtheancientGreeksandRomans,oreveninourWestIndiancolonies。Theyweresupposedtobelongmoredirectlytothelandthantotheirmaster。Theycould,therefore,besoldwithit,butnotseparately。Theycouldmarry,provideditwaswiththeconsentoftheirmaster;andhecouldnotafterwardsdissolvethemarriagebysellingthemanandwifetodifferentpersons。Ifhemaimedormurderedanyofthem,hewasliabletosomepenalty,thoughgenerallybuttoasmallone。Theywerenot,however,capableofacquiringproperty。Whatevertheyacquiredwasacquiredtotheirmaster,andhecouldtakeitfromthematpleasure。Whatevercultivationandimprovementcouldbecarriedonbymeansofsuchslaveswasproperlycarriedonbytheirmaster。Itwasathisexpense。Theseed,thecattle,andtheinstrumentsofhusbandrywereallhis。Itwasforhisbenefit。
Suchslavescouldacquirenothingbuttheirdailymaintenance。Itwasproperlytheproprietorhimself,therefore,that,inthiscase,occupiedhisownlands,andcultivatedthembyhisownbondmen。ThisspeciesofslaverystillsubsistsinRussia,Poland,Hungary,Bohemia,Moravia,andotherpartsofGermany。ItisonlyinthewesternandsouthwesternprovincesofEuropethatithasgraduallybeenabolishedaltogether。
Butifgreatimprovementsareseldomtobeexpectedfromgreatproprietors,theyareleastofalltobeexpectedwhentheyemployslavesfortheirworkmen。Theexperienceofallagesandnations,Ibelieve,demonstratesthattheworkdonebyslaves,thoughitappearstocostonlytheirmaintenance,isintheendthedearestofany。Apersonwhocanacquirenoproperty,canhavenootherinterestbuttoeatasmuch,andtolabouraslittleaspossible。Whateverworkhedoesbeyondwhatissufficienttopurchasehisownmaintenancecanbesqueezedoutofhimbyviolenceonly,andnotbyanyinterestofhisown。InancientItaly,howmuchthecultivationofcorndegenerated,howunprofitableitbecametothemasterwhenitfellunderthemanagementofslaves,isremarkedbybothPlinyandColumella。InthetimeofAristotleithadnotbeenmuchbetterinancientGreece。SpeakingoftheidealrepublicdescribedinthelawsofPlato,tomaintainfivethousandidlemen(thenumberofwarriorssupposednecessaryforitsdefence)togetherwiththeirwomenandservants,wouldrequire,hesays,aterritoryofboundlessextentandfertility,liketheplainsofBabylon。
Theprideofmanmakeshimlovetodomineer,andnothingmortifieshimsomuchastobeobligedtocondescendtopersuadehisinferiors。Whereverthelawallowsit,andthenatureoftheworkcanaffordit,therefore,hewillgenerallyprefertheserviceofslavestothatoffreemen。Theplantingofsugarandtobaccocanaffordtheexpenseofslave—cultivation。Theraisingofcorn,itseems,inthepresenttimes,cannot。IntheEnglishcolonies,ofwhichtheprincipalproduceiscorn,thefargreaterpartoftheworkisdonebyfreemen。ThelateresolutionoftheQuakersinPennsylvaniatosetatlibertyalltheirnegroslavesmaysatisfyusthattheirnumbercannotbeverygreat。Hadtheymadeanyconsiderablepartoftheirproperty,sucharesolutioncouldneverhavebeenagreedto。Inoursugarcolonies,onthecontrary,thewholeworkisdonebyslaves,andinourtobaccocoloniesaverygreatpartofit。Theprofitsofasugar—plantationinanyofourWestIndiancoloniesaregenerallymuchgreaterthanthoseofanyothercultivationthatisknowneitherinEuropeorAmerica;andtheprofitsofatobaccoplantation,thoughinferiortothoseofsugar,aresuperiortothoseofcorn,ashasalreadybeenobserved。Bothcanaffordtheexpenseofslave—cultivation,butsugarcanafforditstillbetterthantobacco。Thenumberofnegroesaccordinglyismuchgreater,inproportiontothatofwhites,inoursugarthaninourtobaccocolonies。
TotheslavecultivatorsofancienttimesgraduallysucceededaspeciesoffarmersknownatpresentinFrancebythenameofmetayers。TheyarecalledinLatin,Colonipartiarii。
TheyhavebeensolongindisuseinEnglandthatatpresentI
knownoEnglishnameforthem。Theproprietorfurnishedthemwiththeseed,cattle,andinstrumentsofhusbandry,thewholestock,inshort,necessaryforcultivatingthefarm。Theproducewasdividedequallybetweentheproprietorandthefarmer,aftersettingasidewhatwasjudgednecessaryforkeepingupthestock,whichwasrestoredtotheproprietorwhenthefarmereitherquitted,orwasturnedoutofthefarm。
Landoccupiedbysuchtenantsisproperlycultivatedattheexpenseoftheproprietorasmuchasthatoccupiedbyslaves。
Thereis,however,oneveryessentialdifferencebetweenthem。
Suchtenants,beingfreemen,arecapableofacquiringproperty,andhavingacertainproportionoftheproduceoftheland,theyhaveaplaininterestthatthewholeproduceshouldbeasgreataspossible,inorderthattheirownproportionmaybeso。A
slave,onthecontrary,whocanacquirenothingbuthismaintenance,consultshisowneasebymakingthelandproduceaslittleaspossibleoverandabovethatmaintenance。Itisprobablethatitwaspartlyuponaccountofthisadvantage,andpartlyuponaccountoftheencroachmentswhichthesovereign,alwaysjealousofthegreatlords,graduallyencouragedtheirvillainstomakeupontheirauthority,andwhichseematlasttohavebeensuchasrenderedthisspeciesofservitudealtogetherinconvenient,thattenureinvillanagegraduallyworeoutthroughthegreaterpartofEurope。Thetimeandmanner,however,inwhichsoimportantarevolutionwasbroughtaboutisoneofthemostobscurepointsinmodernhistory。TheChurchofRomeclaimsgreatmeritinit;anditiscertainthatsoearlyasthetwelfthcentury,AlexanderIIIpublishedabullforthegeneralemancipationofslaves。Itseems,however,tohavebeenratherapiousexhortationthanalawtowhichexactobediencewasrequiredfromthefaithful。Slaverycontinuedtotakeplacealmostuniversallyforseveralcenturiesafterwards,tillitwasgraduallyabolishedbythejointoperationofthetwointerestsabovementioned,thatoftheproprietorontheonehand,andthatofthesovereignontheother。Avillainenfranchised,andatthesametimeallowedtocontinueinpossessionoftheland,havingnostockofhisown,couldcultivateitonlybymeansofwhatthelandlordadvancedtohim,andmust,therefore,havebeenwhattheFrenchcalledametayer。
Itcouldnever,however,betheinterestevenofthislastspeciesofcultivatorstolayout,inthefurtherimprovementoftheland,anypartofthelittlestockwhichtheymightsavefromtheirownshareoftheproduce,becausethelord,wholaidoutnothing,wastogetonehalfofwhateveritproduced。Thetithe,whichisbutatenthoftheproduce,isfoundtobeaverygreathindrancetoimprovement。Atax,therefore,whichamountedtoonehalfmusthavebeenaneffectualbartoit。Itmightbetheinterestofametayertomakethelandproduceasmuchascouldbebroughtoutofitbymeansofthestockfurnishedbytheproprietor;butitcouldneverbehisinteresttomixanypartofhisownwithit。InFrance,wherefivepartsoutofsixofthewholekingdomaresaidtobestilloccupiedbythisspeciesofcultivators,theproprietorscomplainthattheirmetayerstakeeveryopportunityofemployingthemaster’scattleratherincarriagethanincultivation;becauseintheonecasetheygetthewholeprofitstothemselves,intheothertheysharethemwiththeirlandlord。ThisspeciesoftenantsstillsubsistsinsomepartsofScotland。Theyarecalledsteel—bowtenants。ThoseancientEnglishtenants,whoaresaidbyChiefBaronGilbertandDoctorBlackstonetohavebeenratherbailiffsofthelandlordthanfarmersproperlysocalled,wereprobablyofthesamekind。
Tothisspeciesoftenancysucceeded,thoughbyveryslowdegrees,farmersproperlysocalled,whocultivatedthelandwiththeirownstock,payingarentcertaintothelandlord。Whensuchfarmershavealeaseforatermofyears,theymaysometimesfinditfortheirinteresttolayoutpartoftheircapitalinthefurtherimprovementofthefarm;becausetheymaysometimesexpecttorecoverit,withalargeprofit,beforetheexpirationofthelease。Thepossessionevenofsuchfarmers,however,waslongextremelyprecarious,andstillissoinmanypartsofEurope。Theycouldbeforetheexpirationoftheirtermbelegallyoutedoftheirleasebyanewpurchaser;inEngland,evenbythefictitiousactionofacommonrecovery。Iftheywereturnedoutillegallybytheviolenceoftheirmaster,theactionbywhichtheyobtainedredresswasextremelyimperfect。Itdidnotalwaysreinstatetheminthepossessionoftheland,butgavethemdamageswhichneveramountedtotherealloss。EveninEngland,thecountryperhapsofEuropewheretheyeomanryhasalwaysbeenmostrespected,itwasnottillaboutthe14thofHenryVIIthattheactionofejectmentwasinvented,bywhichthetenantrecovers,notdamagesonlybutpossession,andinwhichhisclaimisnotnecessarilyconcludedbytheuncertaindecisionofasingleassize。Thisactionhasbeenfoundsoeffectualaremedythat,inthemodernpractice,whenthelandlordhasoccasiontosueforthepossessionoftheland,heseldommakesuseoftheactionswhichproperlybelongtohimaslandlord,theWritofRightortheWritofEntry,butsuesinthenameofhistenantbytheWritofEjectment。InEngland,therefore,thesecurityofthetenantisequaltothatoftheproprietor。InEngland,besides,aleaseforlifeoffortyshillingsayearvalueisafreehold,andentitlesthelesseetovoteforaMemberofParliament;andasagreatpartoftheyeomanryhavefreeholdsofthiskind,thewholeorderbecomesrespectabletotheirlandlordsonaccountofthepoliticalconsiderationwhichthisgivesthem。Thereis,I
believe,nowhereinEurope,exceptinEngland,anyinstanceofthetenantbuildinguponthelandofwhichhehadnolease,andtrustingthatthehonourofhislandlordwouldtakenoadvantageofsoimportantanimprovement。ThoselawsandcustomssofavourabletotheyeomanryhaveperhapscontributedmoretothepresentgrandeurofEnglandthanalltheirboastedregulationsofcommercetakentogether。
Thelawwhichsecuresthelongestleasesagainstsuccessorsofeverykindis,sofarasIknow,peculiartoGreatBritain。ItwasintroducedintoScotlandsoearlyas1449,alawofJamesII。
Itsbeneficialinfluence,however,hasbeenmuchobstructedbyentails;theheirsofentailbeinggenerallyrestrainedfromlettingleasesforanylongtermofyears,frequentlyformorethanoneyear。AlateActofParliamenthas,inthisrespect,somewhatslackenedtheirfetters,thoughtheyarestillbymuchtoostrait。InScotland,besides,asnoleaseholdgivesavoteforaMemberofParliament,theyeomanryareuponthisaccountlessrespectabletotheirlandlordsthaninEngland。
InotherpartsofEurope,afteritwasfoundconvenienttosecuretenantsbothagainstheirsandpurchasers,thetermoftheirsecuritywasstilllimitedtoaveryshortperiod;inFrance,forexample,tonineyearsfromthecommencementofthelease。Ithasinthatcountry,indeed,beenlatelyextendedtotwenty—seven,aperiodstilltooshorttoencouragethetenanttomakethemostimportantimprovements。TheproprietorsoflandwereancientlythelegislatorsofeverypartofEurope。Thelawsrelatingtoland,therefore,wereallcalculatedforwhattheysupposedtheinterestoftheproprietor。Itwasforhisinterest,theyhadimagined,thatnoleasegrantedbyanyofhispredecessorsshouldhinderhimfromenjoying,duringalongtermofyears,thefullvalueofhisland。Avariceandinjusticearealwaysshort—sighted,andtheydidnotforeseehowmuchthisregulationmustobstructimprovement,andtherebyhurtinthelong—runtherealinterestofthelandlord。
Thefarmerstoo,besidespayingtherent,wereanciently,itwassupposed,boundtoperformagreatnumberofservicestothelandlord,whichwereseldomeitherspecifiedinthelease,orregulatedbyanypreciserule,butbytheuseandwontofthemanororbarony。Theseservices,therefore,beingalmostentirelyarbitrary,subjectedthetenanttomanyvexations。InScotlandtheabolitionofallservicesnotpreciselystipulatedintheleasehasinthecourseofafewyearsverymuchalteredforthebettertheconditionoftheyeomanryofthatcountry。
Thepublicservicestowhichtheyeomanrywereboundwerenotlessarbitrarythantheprivateones。Tomakeandmaintainthehighroads,aservitudewhichstillsubsists,Ibelieve,everywhere,thoughwithdifferentdegreesofoppressionindifferentcountries,wasnottheonlyone。Whentheking’stroops,whenhishouseholdorhisofficersofanykindpassedthroughanypartofthecountry,theyeomanrywereboundtoprovidethemwithhorses,carriages,andprovisions,atapriceregulatedbythepurveyor。GreatBritainis,Ibelieve,theonlymonarchyinEuropewheretheoppressionofpurveyancehasbeenentirelyabolished。ItstillsubsistsinFranceandGermany。
Thepublictaxestowhichtheyweresubjectwereasirregularandoppressiveastheservices。Theancientlords,thoughextremelyunwillingtograntthemselvesanypecuniaryaidtotheirsovereign,easilyallowedhimtotallage,astheycalledittheirtenants,andhadnotknowledgeenoughtoforeseehowmuchthismustintheendaffecttheirownrevenue。Thetaille,asitstillsubsistsinFrance,mayserveasanexampleofthoseancienttallages。Itisataxuponthesupposedprofitsofthefarmer,whichtheyestimatebythestockthathehasuponthefarm。Itishisinterest,therefore,toappeartohaveaslittleaspossible,andconsequentlytoemployaslittleaspossibleinitscultivation,andnoneinitsimprovement。ShouldanystockhappentoaccumulateinthehandsofaFrenchfarmer,thetailleisalmostequaltoaprohibitionofitseverbeingemployedupontheland。Thistax,besides,issupposedtodishonourwhoeverissubjecttoit,andtodegradehimbelow,notonlytherankofagentleman,butthatofaburgher,andwhoeverrentsthelandsofanotherbecomessubjecttoit。Nogentleman,norevenanyburgherwhohasstock,willsubmittothisdegradation。Thistax,therefore,notonlyhindersthestockwhichaccumulatesuponthelandfrombeingemployedinitsimprovement,butdrivesawayanotherstockfromit。Theancienttenthsandfifteenths,sousualinEnglandinformertimes,seem,sofarastheyaffectedtheland,tohavebeentaxesofthesamenaturewiththetaille。
Underallthesediscouragements,littleimprovementcouldbeexpectedfromtheoccupiersofland。Thatorderofpeople,withallthelibertyandsecuritywhichlawcangive,mustalwaysimproveundergreatdisadvantages。Thefarmer,comparedwiththeproprietor,isasamerchantwhotradeswithborrowedmoneycomparedwithonewhotradeswithhisown。Thestockofbothmayimprove,butthatoftheone,withonlyequalgoodconduct,mustalwaysimprovemoreslowlythanthatoftheother,onaccountofthelargeshareoftheprofitswhichisconsumedbytheinterestoftheloan。Thelandscultivatedbythefarmermust,inthesamemanner,withonlyequalgoodconduct,beimprovedmoreslowlythanthosecultivatedbytheproprietor,onaccountofthelargeshareoftheproducewhichisconsumedintherent,andwhich,hadthefarmerbeenproprietor,hemighthaveemployedinthefurtherimprovementoftheland。Thestationofafarmerbesidesis,fromthenatureofthings,inferiortothatofaproprietor。
ThroughthegreaterpartofEuropetheyeomanryareregardedasaninferiorrankofpeople,eventothebettersortoftradesmenandmechanics,andinallpartsofEuropetothegreatmerchantsandmastermanufacturers。Itcanseldomhappen,therefore,thatamanofanyconsiderablestockshouldquitthesuperiorinordertoplacehimselfinaninferiorstation。EveninthepresentstateofEurope,therefore,littlestockislikelytogofromanyotherprofessiontotheimprovementoflandinthewayoffarming。MoredoesperhapsinGreatBritainthaninanyothercountry,thougheventherethegreatstockswhichare,insomeplaces,employedinfarminghavegenerallybeenacquiredbyfarming,thetrade,perhaps,inwhichofallothersstockiscommonlyacquiredmostslowly。Aftersmallproprietors,however,richandgreatfarmersare,ineverycountry,theprincipalimprovers。TherearemoresuchperhapsinEnglandthaninanyotherEuropeanmonarchy。IntherepublicangovernmentsofHollandandofBerneinSwitzerland,thefarmersaresaidtobenotinferiortothoseofEngland。
TheancientpolicyofEuropewas,overandaboveallthis,unfavourabletotheimprovementandcultivationofland,whethercarriedonbytheproprietororbythefarmer;first,bythegeneralprohibitionoftheexportationofcornwithoutaspeciallicence,whichseemstohavebeenaveryuniversalregulation;
andsecondly,bytherestraintswhichwerelaidupontheinlandcommerce,notonlyofcorn,butofalmosteveryotherpartoftheproduceofthefarmbytheabsurdlawsagainstengrossers,regrators,andforestallers,andbytheprivilegesoffairsandmarkets。Ithasalreadybeenobservedinwhatmannertheprohibitionoftheexportationofcorn,togetherwithsomeencouragementgiventotheimportationofforeigncorn,obstructedthecultivationofancientItaly,naturallythemostfertilecountryinEurope,andatthattimetheseatofthegreatestempireintheworld。Towhatdegreesuchrestraintsupontheinlandcommerceofthiscommodity,joinedtothegeneralprohibitionofexportation,musthavediscouragedthecultivationofcountrieslessfertileandlessfavourablycircumstanced,itisnotperhapsveryeasytoimagine。