CHAPTERIII
OftheRiseandProgressofCitiesandTownsaftertheFalloftheRomanEmpireTHEinhabitantsofcitiesandtownswere,afterthefalloftheRomanempire,notmorefavouredthanthoseofthecountry。
Theyconsisted,indeed,ofaverydifferentorderofpeoplefromthefirstinhabitantsoftheancientrepublicsofGreeceandItaly。Theselastwerecomposedchieflyoftheproprietorsoflands,amongwhomthepublicterritorywasoriginallydivided,andwhofounditconvenienttobuildtheirhousesintheneighbourhoodofoneanother,andtosurroundthemwithawall,forthesakeofcommondefence。AfterthefalloftheRomanempire,onthecontrary,theproprietorsoflandseemgenerallytohavelivedinfortifiedcastlesontheirownestates,andinthemidstoftheirowntenantsanddependants。Thetownswerechieflyinhabitedbytradesmenandmechanics,whoseeminthosedaystohavebeenofservile,orverynearlyofservilecondition。TheprivilegeswhichwefindgrantedbyancientcharterstotheinhabitantsofsomeoftheprincipaltownsinEuropesufficientlyshowwhattheywerebeforethosegrants。Thepeopletowhomitisgrantedasaprivilegethattheymightgiveawaytheirowndaughtersinmarriagewithouttheconsentoftheirlord,thatupontheirdeaththeirownchildren,andnottheirlord,shouldsucceedtotheirgoods,andthattheymightdisposeoftheirowneffectsbywill,must,beforethosegrants,havebeeneitheraltogetherorverynearlyinthesamestateofvillanagewiththeoccupiersoflandinthecountry。
Theyseem,indeed,tohavebeenaverypoor,meansetofpeople,whousedtotravelaboutwiththeirgoodsfromplacetoplace,andfromfairtofair,likethehawkersandpedlarsofthepresenttimes。InallthedifferentcountriesofEuropethen,inthesamemannerasinseveraloftheTartargovernmentsofAsiaatpresent,taxesusedtobelevieduponthepersonsandgoodsoftravellerswhentheypassedthroughcertainmanors,whentheywentovercertainbridges,whentheycarriedabouttheirgoodsfromplacetoplaceinafair,whentheyerectedinitaboothorstalltosellthemin。ThesedifferenttaxeswereknowninEnglandbythenamesofpassage,pontage,lastage,andstallage。
Sometimestheking,sometimesagreatlord,whohad,itseems,uponsomeoccasions,authoritytodothis,wouldgranttoparticulartraders,tosuchparticularlyaslivedintheirowndemesnes,ageneralexemptionfromsuchtaxes。Suchtraders,thoughinotherrespectsofservile,orverynearlyofservilecondition,wereuponthisaccountcalledfree—traders。Theyinreturnusuallypaidtotheirprotectorasortofannualpoll—tax。
Inthosedaysprotectionwasseldomgrantedwithoutavaluableconsideration,andthistaxmight,perhaps,beconsideredascompensationforwhattheirpatronsmightlosebytheirexemptionfromothertaxes。Atfirst,boththosepoll—taxesandthoseexemptionsseemtohavebeenaltogetherpersonal,andtohaveaffectedonlyparticularindividualsduringeithertheirlivesorthepleasureoftheirprotectors。IntheveryimperfectaccountswhichhavebeenpublishedfromDomesdayBookofseveralofthetownsofEngland,mentionisfrequentlymadesometimesofthetaxwhichparticularburgherspaid,eachofthem,eithertothekingortosomeothergreatlordforthissortofprotection;andsometimesofthegeneralamountonlyofallthosetaxes。
Buthowservilesoevermayhavebeenoriginallytheconditionoftheinhabitantsofthetowns,itappearsevidentlythattheyarrivedatlibertyandindependencymuchearlierthantheoccupiersoflandinthecountry。Thatpartoftheking’srevenuewhicharosefromsuchpoll—taxesinanyparticulartownusedcommonlytobeletinfarmduringatermofyearsforarentcertain,sometimestothesheriffofthecounty,andsometimestootherpersons。Theburghersthemselvesfrequentlygotcreditenoughtobeadmittedtofarmtherevenuesofthissortwhicharoseoutoftheirowntown,theybecomingjointlyandseverallyanswerableforthewholerent。Toletafarminthismannerwasquiteagreeabletotheusualeconomyof,Ibelieve,thesovereignsofallthedifferentcountriesofEurope,whousedfrequentlytoletwholemanorstoallthetenantsofthosemanors,theybecomingjointlyandseverallyanswerableforthewholerent;butinreturnbeingallowedtocollectitintheirownway,andtopayitintotheking’sexchequerbythehandsoftheirownbailiff,andbeingthusaltogetherfreedfromtheinsolenceoftheking’sofficers—acircumstanceinthosedaysregardedasofthegreatestimportance。
Atfirstthefarmofthetownwasprobablylettotheburghers,inthesamemannerasithadbeentootherfarmers,foratermofyearsonly。Inprocessoftime,however,itseemstohavebecomethegeneralpracticetograntittotheminfee,thatisforever,reservingarentcertainneverafterwardstobeaugmented。Thepaymenthavingthusbecomeperpetual,theexemptions,inreturnforwhichitwasmade,naturallybecameperpetualtoo。Thoseexemptions,therefore,ceasedtobepersonal,andcouldnotafterwardsbeconsideredasbelongingtoindividualsasindividuals,butasburghersofaparticularburgh,which,uponthisaccount,wascalledafreeburgh,forthesamereasonthattheyhadbeencalledfreeburghersorfreetraders。
Alongwiththisgrant,theimportantprivilegesabovementioned,thattheymightgiveawaytheirowndaughtersinmarriage,thattheirchildrenshouldsucceedtothem,andthattheymightdisposeoftheirowneffectsbywill,weregenerallybestowedupontheburghersofthetowntowhomitwasgiven。
Whethersuchprivilegeshadbeforebeenusuallygrantedalongwiththefreedomoftradetoparticularburghers,asindividuals,Iknownot。Ireckonitnotimprobablethattheywere,thoughI
cannotproduceanydirectevidenceofit。Buthoweverthismayhavebeen,theprincipalattributesofvillanageandslaverybeingthustakenawayfromthem,theynow,atleast,becamereallyfreeinourpresentsenseofthewordFreedom。
Norwasthisall。Theyweregenerallyatthesametimeerectedintoacommonaltyorcorporation,withtheprivilegeofhavingmagistratesandatowncounciloftheirown,ofmakingbye—lawsfortheirowngovernment,ofbuildingwallsfortheirowndefence,andofreducingalltheirinhabitantsunderasortofmilitarydisciplinebyobligingthemtowatchandward,thatis,asancientlyunderstood,toguardanddefendthosewallsagainstallattacksandsurprisesbynightaswellasbyday。InEnglandtheyweregenerallyexemptedfromsuittothehundredandcountycourts;andallsuchpleasasshouldariseamongthem,thepleasofthecrownexcepted,werelefttothedecisionoftheirownmagistrates。Inothercountriesmuchgreaterandmoreextensivejurisdictionswerefrequentlygrantedtothem。
Itmight,probably,benecessarytogranttosuchtownsaswereadmittedtofarmtheirownrevenuessomesortofcompulsivejurisdictiontoobligetheirowncitizenstomakepayment。Inthosedisorderlytimesitmighthavebeenextremelyinconvenienttohaveleftthemtoseekthissortofjusticefromanyothertribunal。ButitmustseemextraordinarythatthesovereignsofallthedifferentcountriesofEuropeshouldhaveexchangedinthismannerforarentcertain,nevermoretobeaugmented,thatbranchoftherevenuewhichwas,perhaps,ofallothersthemostlikelytobeimprovedbythenaturalcourseofthings,withouteitherexpenseorattentionoftheirown:andthattheyshould,besides,haveinthismannervoluntarilyerectedasortofindependentrepublicsintheheartoftheirowndominions。
Inordertounderstandthis,itmustberememberedthatinthosedaysthesovereignofperhapsnocountryinEuropewasabletoprotect,throughthewholeextentofhisdominions,theweakerpartofhissubjectsfromtheoppressionofthegreatlords。
Thosewhomthelawcouldnotprotect,andwhowerenotstrongenoughtodefendthemselves,wereobligedeithertohaverecoursetotheprotectionofsomegreatlord,andinordertoobtainittobecomeeitherhisslavesorvassals;ortoenterintoaleagueofmutualdefenceforthecommonprotectionofoneanother。Theinhabitantsofcitiesandburghs,consideredassingleindividuals,hadnopowertodefendthemselves;butbyenteringintoaleagueofmutualdefencewiththeirneighbours,theywerecapableofmakingnocontemptibleresistance。Thelordsdespisedtheburghers,whomtheyconsiderednotonlyasofadifferentorder,butasaparcelofemancipatedslaves,almostofadifferentspeciesfromthemselves。Thewealthoftheburghersneverfailedtoprovoketheirenvyandindignation,andtheyplunderedthemuponeveryoccasionwithoutmercyorremorse。Theburghersnaturallyhatedandfearedthelords。Thekinghatedandfearedthemtoo;butthoughperhapshemightdespise,hehadnoreasoneithertohateorfeartheburghers。Mutualinterest,therefore,disposedthemtosupporttheking,andthekingtosupportthemagainstthelords。Theyweretheenemiesofhisenemies,anditwashisinteresttorenderthemassecureandindependentofthoseenemiesashecould。Bygrantingthemmagistratesoftheirown,theprivilegeofmakingbye—lawsfortheirowngovernment,thatofbuildingwallsfortheirowndefence,andthatofreducingalltheirinhabitantsunderasortofmilitarydiscipline,hegavethemallthemeansofsecurityandindependencyofthebaronswhichitwasinhispowertobestow。Withouttheestablishmentofsomeregulargovernmentofthiskind,withoutsomeauthoritytocompeltheirinhabitantstoactaccordingtosomecertainplanorsystem,novoluntaryleagueofmutualdefencecouldeitherhaveaffordedthemanypermanentsecurity,orhaveenabledthemtogivethekinganyconsiderablesupport。Bygrantingthemthefarmoftheirtowninfee,hetookawayfromthosewhomhewishedtohaveforhisfriends,and,ifonemaysayso,forhisallies,allgroundofjealousyandsuspicionthathewaseverafterwardstooppressthem,eitherbyraisingthefarmrentoftheirtownorbygrantingittosomeotherfarmer。
Theprinceswholivedupontheworsttermswiththeirbaronsseemaccordinglytohavebeenthemostliberalingrantsofthiskindtotheirburghs。KingJohnofEngland,forexample,appearstohavebeenamostmunificentbenefactortohistowns。PhiliptheFirstofFrancelostallauthorityoverhisbarons。Towardstheendofhisreign,hissonLewis,knownafterwardsbythenameofLewistheFat,consulted,accordingtoFatherDaniel,withthebishopsoftheroyaldemesnesconcerningthemostpropermeansofrestrainingtheviolenceofthegreatlords。Theiradviceconsistedoftwodifferentproposals。Onewastoerectaneworderofjurisdiction,byestablishingmagistratesandatowncouncilineveryconsiderabletownofhisdemesnes。Theotherwastoformanewmilitia,bymakingtheinhabitantsofthosetowns,underthecommandoftheirownmagistrates,marchoutuponproperoccasionstotheassistanceoftheking。Itisfromthisperiod,accordingtotheFrenchantiquarians,thatwearetodatetheinstitutionofthemagistratesandcouncilsofcitiesinFrance。
ItwasduringtheunprosperousreignsoftheprincesofthehouseofSuabiathatthegreaterpartofthefreetownsofGermanyreceivedthefirstgrantsoftheirprivileges,andthatthefamousHanseaticleaguefirstbecameformidable。
Themilitiaofthecitiesseems,inthosetimes,nottohavebeeninferiortothatofthecountry,andastheycouldbemorereadilyassembleduponanysuddenoccasion,theyfrequentlyhadtheadvantageintheirdisputeswiththeneighbouringlords。Incountries,suchasItalyandSwitzerland,inwhich,onaccounteitheroftheirdistancefromtheprincipalseatofgovernment,ofthenaturalstrengthofthecountryitself,orofsomeotherreason,thesovereigncametolosethewholeofhisauthority,thecitiesgenerallybecameindependentrepublics,andconqueredallthenobilityintheirneighbourhood,obligingthemtopulldowntheircastlesinthecountryandtolive,likeotherpeaceableinhabitants,inthecity。ThisistheshorthistoryoftherepublicofBerneaswellasofseveralothercitiesinSwitzerland。IfyouexceptVenice,forofthatcitythehistoryissomewhatdifferent,itisthehistoryofalltheconsiderableItalianrepublics,ofwhichsogreatanumberaroseandperishedbetweentheendofthetwelfthandthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury。
IncountriessuchasFranceorEngland,wheretheauthorityofthesovereign,thoughfrequentlyverylow,neverwasdestroyedaltogether,thecitieshadnoopportunityofbecomingentirelyindependent。Theybecame,however,soconsiderablethatthesovereigncouldimposenotaxuponthem,besidesthestatedfarm—rentofthetown,withouttheirownconsent。Theywere,therefore,calledupontosenddeputiestothegeneralassemblyofthestatesofthekingdom,wheretheymightjoinwiththeclergyandthebaronsingranting,uponurgentoccasions,someextraordinaryaidtotheking。Beinggenerally,too,morefavourabletohispower,theirdeputiesseem,sometimes,tohavebeenemployedbyhimasacounterbalanceinthoseassembliestotheauthorityofthegreatlords。Hencetheoriginoftherepresentationofburghsinthestates—generalofallthegreatmonarchiesinEurope。
Orderandgoodgovernment,andalongwiththemthelibertyandsecurityofindividuals,were,inthismanner,establishedincitiesatatimewhentheoccupiersoflandinthecountrywereexposedtoeverysortofviolence。Butmeninthisdefencelessstatenaturallycontentthemselveswiththeirnecessarysubsistence,becausetoacquiremoremightonlytempttheinjusticeoftheiroppressors。Onthecontrary,whentheyaresecureofenjoyingthefruitsoftheirindustry,theynaturallyexertittobettertheircondition,andtoacquirenotonlythenecessaries,buttheconveniencesandeleganciesoflife。Thatindustry,therefore,whichaimsatsomethingmorethannecessarysubsistence,wasestablishedincitieslongbeforeitwascommonlypractisedbytheoccupiersoflandinthecountry。Ifinthehandsofapoorcultivator,oppressedwiththeservitudeofvillanage,somelittlestockshouldaccumulate,hewouldnaturallyconcealitwithgreatcarefromhismaster,towhomitwouldotherwisehavebelonged,andtakethefirstopportunityofrunningawaytoatown。Thelawwasatthattimesoindulgenttotheinhabitantsoftowns,andsodesirousofdiminishingtheauthorityofthelordsoverthoseofthecountry,thatifhecouldconcealhimselftherefromthepursuitofhislordforayear,hewasfreeforever。Whateverstock,therefore,accumulatedinthehandsoftheindustriouspartoftheinhabitantsofthecountrynaturallytookrefugeincitiesastheonlysanctuariesinwhichitcouldbesecuretothepersonthatacquiredit。
Theinhabitantsofacity,itistrue,mustalwaysultimatelyderivetheirsubsistence,andthewholematerialsandmeansoftheirindustry,fromthecountry。Butthoseofacity,situatedneareithertheseacoastorthebanksofanavigableriver,arenotnecessarilyconfinedtoderivethemfromthecountryintheirneighbourhood。Theyhaveamuchwiderrange,andmaydrawthemfromthemostremotecornersoftheworld,eitherinexchangeforthemanufacturedproduceoftheirownindustry,orbyperformingtheofficeofcarriersbetweendistantcountriesandexchangingtheproduceofoneforthatofanother。Acitymightinthismannergrowuptogreatwealthandsplendour,whilenotonlythecountryinitsneighbourhood,butallthosetowhichittraded,wereinpovertyandwretchedness。Eachofthosecountries,perhaps,takensingly,couldafforditbutasmallparteitherofitssubsistenceorofitsemployment,butallofthemtakentogethercouldafforditbothagreatsubsistenceandagreatemployment。Therewere,however,withinthenarrowcircleofthecommerceofthosetimes,somecountriesthatwereopulentandindustrious。SuchwastheGreekempireaslongasitsubsisted,andthatoftheSaracensduringthereignsoftheAbassides。SuchtoowasEgypttillitwasconqueredbytheTurks,somepartofthecoastofBarbary,andallthoseprovincesofSpainwhichwereunderthegovernmentoftheMoors。
ThecitiesofItalyseemtohavebeenthefirstinEuropewhichwereraisedbycommercetoanyconsiderabledegreeofopulence。Italylayinthecentreofwhatwasatthattimetheimprovedandcivilisedpartoftheworld。TheCrusadestoo,thoughbythegreatwasteofstockanddestructionofinhabitantswhichtheyoccasionedtheymustnecessarilyhaveretardedtheprogressofthegreaterpartofEurope,wereextremelyfavourabletothatofsomeItaliancities。ThegreatarmieswhichmarchedfromallpartstotheconquestoftheHolyLandgaveextraordinaryencouragementtotheshippingofVenice,Genoa,andPisa,sometimesintransportingthemthither,andalwaysinsupplyingthemwithprovisions。Theywerethecommissaries,ifonemaysayso,ofthosearmies;andthemostdestructivefrenzythateverbefelltheEuropeannationswasasourceofopulencetothoserepublics。
Theinhabitantsoftradingcities,byimportingtheimprovedmanufacturesandexpensiveluxuriesofrichercountries,affordedsomefoodtothevanityofthegreatproprietors,whoeagerlypurchasedthemwithgreatquantitiesoftherudeproduceoftheirownlands。ThecommerceofagreatpartofEuropeinthosetimes,accordingly,consistedchieflyintheexchangeoftheirownrudeforthe,manufacturedproduceofmorecivilisednations。ThusthewoolofEnglandusedtobeexchangedforthewinesofFranceandthefineclothsofFlanders,inthesamemannerasthecorninPolandisatthisdayexchangedforthewinesandbrandiesofFranceandforthesilksandvelvetsofFranceandItaly。
Atasteforthefinerandmoreimprovedmanufactureswasinthismannerintroducedbyforeigncommerceintocountrieswherenosuchworkswerecarriedon。Butwhenthistastebecamesogeneralastooccasionaconsiderabledemand,themerchants,inordertosavetheexpenseofcarriage,naturallyendeavouredtoestablishsomemanufacturesofthesamekindintheirowncountry。HencetheoriginofthefirstmanufacturesfordistantsalethatseemtohavebeenestablishedinthewesternprovincesofEuropeafterthefalloftheRomanempire。Nolargecountry,itmustbeobserved,everdidorcouldsubsistwithoutsomesortofmanufacturesbeingcarriedoninit;andwhenitissaidofanysuchcountrythatithasnomanufactures,itmustalwaysbeunderstoodofthefinerandmoreimprovedorofsuchasarefitfordistantsale。Ineverylargecountryboththeclothingandhouseholdfurnitureofthefargreaterpartofthepeoplearetheproduceoftheirownindustry。Thisisevenmoreuniversallythecaseinthosepoorcountrieswhicharecommonlysaidtohavenomanufacturesthaninthoserichonesthataresaidtoaboundinthem。Inthelatter,youwillgenerallyfind,bothintheclothesandhouseholdfurnitureofthelowestrankofpeople,amuchgreaterproportionofforeignproductionsthanintheformer。
Thosemanufactureswhicharefitfordistantsaleseemtohavebeenintroducedintodifferentcountriesintwodifferentways。
Sometimestheyhavebeenintroduced,inthemannerabovementioned,bytheviolentoperation,ifonemaysayso,ofthestocksofparticularmerchantsandundertakers,whoestablishedtheminimitationofsomeforeignmanufacturesofthesamekind。
Suchmanufactures,therefore,aretheoffspringofforeigncommerce,andsuchseemtohavebeentheancientmanufacturesofsilks,velvets,andbrocades,whichflourishedinLuccaduringthethirteenthcentury。TheywerebanishedfromthencebythetyrannyofoneofMachiavel’sheroes,CastruccioCastracani。In1310,ninehundredfamiliesweredrivenoutofLucca,ofwhomthirty—oneretiredtoVeniceandofferedtointroducetherethesilkmanufacture。Theirofferwasaccepted;manyprivilegeswereconferreduponthem,andtheybeganthemanufacturewiththreehundredworkmen。Such,too,seemtohavebeenthemanufacturesoffineclothsthatancientlyflourishedinFlanders,andwhichwereintroducedintoEnglandinthebeginningofthereignofElizabeth;andsucharethepresentsilkmanufacturesofLyonsandSpitalfields。Manufacturesintroducedinthismanneraregenerallyemployeduponforeignmaterials,beingimitationsofforeignmanufactures。WhentheVenetianmanufacturewasfirstestablished,thematerialswereallbroughtfromSicilyandtheLevant。ThemoreancientmanufactureofLuccawaslikewisecarriedonwithforeignmaterials。Thecultivationofmulberrytreesandthebreedingofsilk—wormsseemnottohavebeencommoninthenorthernpartsofItalybeforethesixteenthcentury。
ThoseartswerenotintroducedintoFrancetillthereignofCharlesIX。ThemanufacturesofFlanderswerecarriedonchieflywithSpanishandEnglishwool。Spanishwoolwasthematerial,notofthefirstwoollenmanufactureofEngland,butofthefirstthatwasfitfordistantsale。MorethanonehalfthematerialsoftheLyonsmanufactureisatthisday,foreignsilk;whenitwasfirstestablished,thewholeorverynearlythewholewasso。
NopartofthematerialsoftheSpitalfieldsmanufactureiseverlikelybetheproduceofEngland。Theseatofsuchmanufactures,astheyaregenerallyintroducedbytheschemeandprojectofafewindividuals,issometimesestablishedinamaritimecity,andsometimesinaninlandtown,accordingastheirinterest,judgment,orcapricehappentodetermine。
Atothertimes,manufacturesfordistantsalegroupupnaturally,andasitwereoftheirownaccord,bythegradualrefinementofthosehouseholdandcoarsermanufactureswhichmustatalltimesbecarriedoneveninthepoorestandrudestcountries。Suchmanufacturesaregenerallyemployeduponthematerialswhichthecountryproduces,andtheyseemfrequentlytohavebeenfirstrefinedandimprovedinsuchinlandcountriesaswere,notindeedataverygreat,butataconsiderabledistancefromtheseacoast,andsometimesevenfromallwatercarriage。
Aninlandcountry,naturallyfertileandeasilycultivated,producesagreatsurplusofprovisionsbeyondwhatisnecessaryformaintainingthecultivators,andonaccountoftheexpenseoflandcarriage,andinconveniencyofrivernavigation,itmayfrequentlybedifficulttosendthissurplusabroad。Abundance,therefore,rendersprovisionscheap,andencouragesagreatnumberofworkmentosettleintheneighbourhood,whofindthattheirindustrycanthereprocurethemmoreofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifethaninotherplaces。Theyworkupthematerialsofmanufacturewhichthelandproduces,andexchangetheirfinishedwork,orwhatisthesamethingthepriceofit,formorematerialsandprovisions。Theygiveanewvaluetothesurpluspartoftherudeproducebysavingtheexpenseofcarryingittothewatersideortosomedistantmarket;andtheyfurnishthecultivatorswithsomethinginexchangeforitthatiseitherusefuloragreeabletothemuponeasiertermsthantheycouldhaveobtaineditbefore。Thecultivatorsgetabetterpricefortheirsurplusproduce,andcanpurchasecheaperotherconvenienceswhichtheyhaveoccasionfor。Theyarethusbothencouragedandenabledtoincreasethissurplusproducebyafurtherimprovementandbettercultivationoftheland;andasthefertilityofthelandhadgivenbirthtothemanufacture,sotheprogressofthemanufacturereactsuponthelandandincreasesstillfurtheritsfertility。Themanufacturersfirstsupplytheneighbourhood,andafterwards,astheirworkimprovesandrefines,moredistantmarkets。Forthoughneithertherudeproducenoreventhecoarsemanufacturecould,withoutthegreatestdifficulty,supporttheexpenseofaconsiderablelandcarriage,therefinedandimprovedmanufactureeasilymay。Inasmallbulkitfrequentlycontainsthepriceofagreatquantityofrudeproduce。Apieceoffinecloth,forexample,whichweighsonlyeightypounds,containsinit,theprice,notonlyofeightypounds’weightofwool,butsometimesofseveralthousandweightofcorn,themaintenanceofthedifferentworkingpeopleandoftheirimmediateemployers。Thecorn,whichcouldwithdifficultyhavebeencarriedabroadinitsownshape,isinthismannervirtuallyexportedinthatofthecompletemanufacture,andmayeasilybesenttotheremotestcornersoftheworld。Inthismannerhavegrownupnaturally,andasitwereoftheirownaccord,themanufacturesofLeeds,Halifax,Sheffield,Birmingham,andWolverhampton。Suchmanufacturesaretheoffspringofagriculture。InthemodernhistoryofEurope,theirextensionandimprovementhavegenerallybeenposteriortothosewhichweretheoffspringofforeigncommerce。EnglandwasnotedforthemanufactureoffineclothsmadeofSpanishwoolmorethanacenturybeforeanyofthosewhichnowflourishintheplacesabovementionedwerefitforforeignsale。Theextensionandimprovementoftheselastcouldnottakeplacebutinconsequenceoftheextensionandimprovementofagriculturethelastandgreatesteffectofforeigncommerce,andofthemanufacturesimmediatelyintroducedbyit,andwhichIshallnowproceedtoexplain。
CHAPTERIV
HowtheCommerceoftheTownsContributedtotheImprovementoftheCountryTHEincreaseandrichesofcommercialandmanufacturingtownscontributedtotheimprovementandcultivationofthecountriestowhichtheybelongedinthreedifferentways。
First,byaffordingagreatandreadymarketfortherudeproduceofthecountry,theygaveencouragementtoitscultivationandfurtherimprovement。Thisbenefitwasnotevenconfinedtothecountriesinwhichtheyweresituated,butextendedmoreorlesstoallthosewithwhichtheyhadanydealings。Toallofthemtheyaffordedamarketforsomeparteitheroftheirrudeormanufacturedproduce,andconsequentlygavesomeencouragementtotheindustryandimprovementofall。
Theirowncountry,however,onaccountofitsneighbourhood,necessarilyderivedthegreatestbenefitfromthismarket。Itsrudeproducebeingchargedwithlesscarriage,thetraderscouldpaythegrowersabetterpriceforit,andyetafforditascheaptotheconsumersasthatofmoredistantcountries。
Secondly,thewealthacquiredbytheinhabitantsofcitieswasfrequentlyemployedinpurchasingsuchlandsasweretobesold,ofwhichagreatpartwouldfrequentlybeuncultivated。
Merchantsarecommonlyambitiousofbecomingcountrygentlemen,andwhentheydo,theyaregenerallythebestofallimprovers。A
merchantisaccustomedtoemployhismoneychieflyinprofitableprojects,whereasamerecountrygentlemanisaccustomedtoemployitchieflyinexpense。Theoneoftenseeshismoneygofromhimandreturntohimagainwithaprofit;theother,whenoncehepartswithit,veryseldomexpectstoseeanymoreofit。
Thosedifferenthabitsnaturallyaffecttheirtemperanddispositionineverysortofbusiness。Amerchantiscommonlyabold,acountrygentlemanatimidundertaker。Theoneisnotafraidtolayoutatoncealargecapitalupontheimprovementofhislandwhenhehasaprobableprospectofraisingthevalueofitinproportiontotheexpense。Theother,ifhehasanycapital,whichisnotalwaysthecase,seldomventurestoemployitinthismanner。Ifheimprovesatall,itiscommonlynotwithacapital,butwithwhathecansaveoutofhisannualrevenue。
Whoeverhashadthefortunetoliveinamercantiletownsituatedinanunimprovedcountrymusthavefrequentlyobservedhowmuchmorespiritedtheoperationsofmerchantswereinthiswaythanthoseofmerecountrygentlemen。Thehabits,besides,oforder,economy,andattention,towhichmercantilebusinessnaturallyformsamerchant,renderhimmuchfittertoexecute,withprofitandsuccess,anyprojectofimprovement。
Thirdly,andlastly,commerceandmanufacturesgraduallyintroducedorderandgoodgovernment,andwiththem,thelibertyandsecurityofindividuals,amongtheinhabitantsofthecountry,whohadbeforelivedalmostinacontinualstateofwarwiththeirneighboursandofserviledependencyupontheirsuperiors。This,thoughithasbeentheleastobserved,isbyfarthemostimportantofalltheireffects。Mr。Humeistheonlywriterwho,sofarasIknow,hashithertotakennoticeofit。
Inacountrywhichhasneitherforeigncommerce,noranyofthefinermanufactures,agreatproprietor,havingnothingforwhichhecanexchangethegreaterpartoftheproduceofhislandswhichisoverandabovethemaintenanceofthecultivators,consumesthewholeinrustichospitalityathome。Ifthissurplusproduceissufficienttomaintainahundredorathousandmen,hecanmakeuseofitinnootherwaythanbymaintainingahundredorathousandmen。Heisatalltimes,therefore,surroundedwithamultitudeofretainersanddependants,who,havingnoequivalenttogiveinreturnfortheirmaintenance,butbeingfedentirelybyhisbounty,mustobeyhim,forthesamereasonthatsoldiersmustobeytheprincewhopaysthem。BeforetheextensionofcommerceandmanufactureinEurope,thehospitalityoftherich,andthegreat,fromthesovereigndowntothesmallestbaron,exceededeverythingwhichinthepresenttimeswecaneasilyformanotionof。WestminsterHallwasthedining—roomofWilliamRufus,andmightfrequently,perhaps,notbetoolargeforhiscompany。ItwasreckonedapieceofmagnificenceinThomasBecketthathestrewedthefloorofhishallwithcleanhayorrushesintheseason,inorderthattheknightsandsquireswhocouldnotgetseatsmightnotspoiltheirfineclotheswhentheysatdownonthefloortoeattheirdinner。ThegreatEarlofWarwickissaidtohaveentertainedeverydayathisdifferentmanorsthirtythousandpeople,andthoughthenumberheremayhavebeenexaggerated,itmust,however,havebeenverygreattoadmitofsuchexaggeration。AhospitalitynearlyofthesamekindwasexercisednotmanyyearsagoinmanydifferentpartsofthehighlandsofScotland。Itseemstobecommoninallnationstowhomcommerceandmanufacturesarelittleknown。\"Ihaveseen,\"saysDoctorPocock,\"anArabianchiefdineinthestreetsofatownwherehehadcometosellhiscattle,andinviteallpassengers,evencommonbeggars,tositdownwithhimandpartakeofhisbanquet。\"
Theoccupiersoflandwereineveryrespectasdependentuponthegreatproprietorashisretainers。Evensuchofthemaswerenotinastateofvillanageweretenantsatwill,whopaidarentinnorespectequivalenttothesubsistencewhichthelandaffordedthem。Acrown,halfacrown,asheep,alamb,wassomeyearsagointhehighlandsofScotlandacommonrentforlandswhichmaintainedafamily。Insomeplacesitissoatthisday;
norwillmoneyatpresentpurchaseagreaterquantityofcommoditiestherethaninotherplaces。Inacountrywherethesurplusproduceofalargeestatemustbeconsumedupontheestateitself,itwillfrequentlybemoreconvenientfortheproprietorthatpartofitbeconsumedatadistancefromhisownhouseprovidedtheywhoconsumeitareasdependentuponhimaseitherhisretainersorhismenialservants。Heistherebysavedfromtheembarrassmentofeithertoolargeacompanyortoolargeafamily。Atenantatwill,whopossesseslandsufficienttomaintainhisfamilyforlittlemorethanaquit—rent,isasdependentupontheproprietorasanyservantorretainerwhateverandmustobeyhimwithaslittlereserve。Suchaproprietor,ashefeedshisservantsandretainersathisownhouse,sohefeedshistenantsattheirhouses。Thesubsistenceofbothisderivedfromhisbounty,anditscontinuancedependsuponhisgoodpleasure。
Upontheauthoritywhichthegreatproprietornecessarilyhadinsuchastateofthingsovertheirtenantsandretainerswasfoundedthepoweroftheancientbarons。Theynecessarilybecamethejudgesinpeace,andtheleadersinwar,ofallwhodweltupontheirestates。Theycouldmaintainorderandexecutethelawwithintheirrespectivedemesnes,becauseeachofthemcouldthereturnthewholeforceofalltheinhabitantsagainsttheinjusticeofanyone。Nootherpersonshadsufficientauthoritytodothis。Thekinginparticularhadnot。Inthoseancienttimeshewaslittlemorethanthegreatestproprietorinhisdominions,towhom,forthesakeofcommondefenceagainsttheircommonenemies,theothergreatproprietorspaidcertainrespects。Tohaveenforcedpaymentofasmalldebtwithinthelandsofagreatproprietor,wherealltheinhabitantswerearmedandaccustomedtostandbyoneanother,wouldhavecosttheking,hadheattempteditbyhisownauthority,almostthesameeffortastoextinguishacivilwar。Hewas,therefore,obligedtoabandontheadministrationofjusticethroughthegreaterpartofthecountrytothosewhowerecapableofadministeringit;andforthesamereasontoleavethecommandofthecountrymilitiatothosewhomthatmilitiawouldobey。
Itisamistaketoimaginethatthoseterritorialjurisdictionstooktheiroriginfromthefeudallaw。Notonlythehighestjurisdictionsbothcivilandcriminal,butthepoweroflevyingtroops,ofcoiningmoney,andeventhatofmakingbye—lawsforthegovernmentoftheirownpeople,wereallrightspossessedallodiallybythegreatproprietorsoflandseveralcenturiesbeforeeventhenameofthefeudallawwasknowninEurope。TheauthorityandjurisdictionoftheSaxonlordsinEnglandappeartohavebeenasgreatbeforetheConquestasthatofanyoftheNormanlordsafterit。ButthefeudallawisnotsupposedtohavebecomethecommonlawofEnglandtillaftertheConquest。ThatthemostextensiveauthorityandjurisdictionswerepossessedbythegreatlordsinFranceallodiallylongbeforethefeudallawwasintroducedintothatcountryisamatteroffactthatadmitsofnodoubt。Thatauthorityandthosejurisdictionsallnecessarilyflowedfromthestateofpropertyandmannersjustnowdescribed。WithoutremountingtotheremoteantiquitiesofeithertheFrenchorEnglishmonarchies,wemayfindinmuchlatertimesmanyproofsthatsucheffectsmustalwaysflowfromsuchcauses。ItisnotthirtyyearsagosinceMr。CameronofLochiel,agentlemanofLochabarinScotland,withoutanylegalwarrantwhatever,notbeingwhatwasthencalledalordofregality,norevenatenantinchief,butavassaloftheDukeofArgyle,andwithoutbeingsomuchasajusticeofpeace,used,notwithstanding,toexercisethehighestcriminaljurisdictionoverhisownpeople。Heissaidtohavedonesowithgreatequity,thoughwithoutanyoftheformalitiesofjustice;anditisnotimprobablethatthestateofthatpartofthecountryatthattimemadeitnecessaryforhimtoassumethisauthorityinordertomaintainthepublicpeace。Thatgentleman,whoserentneverexceededfivehundredpoundsayear,carried,in1745,eighthundredofhisownpeopleintotherebellionwithhim。
Theintroductionofthefeudallaw,sofarfromextending,mayberegardedasanattempttomoderatetheauthorityofthegreatallodiallords。Itestablishedaregularsubordination,accompaniedwithalongtrainofservicesandduties,fromthekingdowntothesmallestproprietor。Duringtheminorityoftheproprietor,therent,togetherwiththemanagementofhislands,fellintothehandsofhisimmediatesuperior,and,consequently,thoseofallgreatproprietorsintothehandsoftheking,whowaschargedwiththemaintenanceandeducationofthepupil,andwho,fromhisauthorityasguardian,wassupposedtohavearightofdisposingofhiminmarriage,provideditwasinamannernotunsuitabletohisrank。Butthoughthisinstitutionnecessarilytendedtostrengthentheauthorityoftheking,andtoweakenthatofthegreatproprietors,itcouldnotdoeithersufficientlyforestablishingorderandgoodgovernmentamongtheinhabitantsofthecountry,becauseitcouldnotaltersufficientlythatstateofpropertyandmannersfromwhichthedisordersarose。Theauthorityofgovernmentstillcontinuedtobe,asbefore,tooweakintheheadandtoostrongintheinferiormembers,andtheexcessivestrengthoftheinferiormemberswasthecauseoftheweaknessofthehead。Aftertheinstitutionoffeudalsubordination,thekingwasasincapableofrestrainingtheviolenceofthegreatlordsasbefore。Theystillcontinuedtomakewaraccordingtotheirowndiscretion,almostcontinuallyupononeanother,andveryfrequentlyupontheking;
andtheopencountrystillcontinuedtobeasceneofviolence,rapine,anddisorder。