12，itisdeclared，\"Thatwhereasforwantofsufficientmaintenanceandencouragementtocurates，thecureshaveinseveralplacesbeenmeanlysupplied，thebishopis，therefore，empoweredtoappointbywritingunderhisbandandsealasufficientcertainstipendorallowance，notexceedingfiftyandnotlessthantwentypoundsayear。\"Fortypoundsayearisreckonedatpresentverygoodpayforacurate，andnotwithstandingthisActofParliamenttherearemanycuraciesundertwentypoundsayear。TherearejourneymenshoemakersinLondonwhoearnfortypoundsayear，andthereisscarceanindustriousworkmanofanykindinthatmetropoliswhodoesnotearnmorethantwenty。Thislastsumindeeddoesnotexceedwhatisfrequentlyearnedbycommonlabourersinmanycountryparishes。Wheneverthelawhasattemptedtoregulatethewagesofworkmen，ithasalwaysbeenrathertolowerthemthantoraisethem。Butthelawhasuponmanyoccasionsattemptedtoraisethewagesofcurates，andforthedignityofthechurch，toobligetherectorsofparishestogivethemmorethanthewretchedmaintenancewhichtheythemselvesmightbewillingtoacceptof。
Andinbothcasesthelawseemstohavebeenequallyineffectual，andhasnevereitherbeenabletoraisethewagesofcurates，ortosinkthoseoflabourerstothedegreethatwasintended;
becauseithasneverbeenabletohindereithertheonefrombeingwillingtoacceptoflessthanthelegalallowance，onaccountoftheindigenceoftheirsituationandthemultitudeoftheircompetitors;ortheotherfromreceivingmore，onaccountofthecontrarycompetitionofthosewhoexpectedtoderiveeitherprofitorpleasurefromemployingthem。
Thegreatbeneficesandotherecclesiasticaldignitiessupportthehonourofthechurch，notwithstandingthemeancircumstanceofsomeofitsinferiormembers。Therespectpaidtotheprofession，too，makessomecompensationeventothemforthemeannessoftheirpecuniaryrecompense。InEngland，andinallRomanCatholiccountries，thelotteryofthechurchisinrealitymuchmoreadvantageousthanisnecessary。TheexampleofthechurchesofScotland，ofGeneva，andofseveralotherProtestantchurches，maysatisfyusthatinsocreditableaprofession，inwhicheducationissoeasilyprocured，thehopesofmuchmoremoderatebeneficeswilldrawasufficientnumberoflearned，decent，andrespectablemenintoholyorders。
Inprofessionsinwhichtherearenobenefices，suchaslawandphysic，ifanequalproportionofpeoplewereeducatedatthepublicexpense，thecompetitionwouldsoonbesogreatastosinkverymuchtheirpecuniaryreward。Itmightthennotbeworthanyman’swhiletoeducatehissontoeitherofthoseprofessionsathisownexpense。Theywouldbeentirelyabandonedtosuchashadbeeneducatedbythosepubliccharities，whosenumbersandnecessitieswouldobligethemingeneraltocontentthemselveswithaverymiserablerecompense，totheentiredegradationofthenowrespectableprofessionsoflawandphysic。
Thatunprosperousraceofmencommonlycalledmenoflettersareprettymuchinthesituationwhichlawyersandphysiciansprobablywouldbeinupontheforegoingsupposition。IneverypartofEuropethegreaterpartofthemhavebeeneducatedforthechurch，buthavebeenhinderedbydifferentreasonsfromenteringintoholyorders。Theyhavegenerally，therefore，beeneducatedatthepublicexpense，andtheirnumbersareeverywheresogreatascommonlytoreducethepriceoftheirlabourtoaverypaltryrecompense。
Beforetheinventionoftheartofprinting，theonlyemploymentbywhichamanofletterscouldmakeanythingbyhistalentswasthatofapublicorprivateteacher，orbycommunicatingtootherpeoplethecuriousandusefulknowledgewhichhehadacquiredhimself:andthisisstillsurelyamorehonourable，amoreuseful，andingeneralevenamoreprofitableemploymentthanthatotherofwritingforabookseller，towhichtheartofprintinghasgivenoccasion。Thetimeandstudy，thegenius，knowledge，andapplicationrequisitetoqualifyaneminentteacherofthesciences，areatleastequaltowhatisnecessaryforthegreatestpractitionersinlawandphysic。Buttheusualrewardoftheeminentteacherbearsnoproportiontothatofthelawyerorphysician;becausethetradeoftheoneiscrowdedwithindigentpeoplewhohavebeenbroughtuptoitatthepublicexpense;whereasthoseoftheothertwoareencumberedwithveryfewwhohavenotbeeneducatedattheirown。Theusualrecompense，however，ofpublicandprivateteachers，smallasitmayappear，wouldundoubtedlybelessthanitis，ifthecompetitionofthoseyetmoreindigentmenofletterswhowriteforbreadwasnottakenoutofthemarket。Beforetheinventionoftheartofprinting，ascholarandabeggarseemtohavebeentermsverynearlysynonymous。Thedifferentgovernorsoftheuniversitiesbeforethattimeappeartohaveoftengrantedlicencestotheirscholarstobeg。
Inancienttimes，beforeanycharitiesofthiskindhadbeenestablishedfortheeducationofindigentpeopletothelearnedprofessions，therewardsofeminentteachersappeartohavebeenmuchmoreconsiderable。Isocrates，inwhatiscalledhisdiscourseagainstthesophists，reproachestheteachersofhisowntimeswithinconsistency。\"Theymakethemostmagnificentpromisestotheirscholars，\"sayshe，\"andundertaketoteachthemtobewise，tobehappy，andtobejust，andinreturnforsoimportantaservicetheystipulatethepaltryrewardoffourorfiveminae。Theywhoteachwisdom，\"continueshe，oughtcertainlytobewisethemselves;butifanymanweretosellsuchabargainforsuchaprice，hewouldbeconvictedofthemostevidentfolly。\"Hecertainlydoesnotmeanheretoexaggeratethereward，andwemaybeassuredthatitwasnotlessthanherepresentsit。Fourminaewereequaltothirteenpoundssixshillingsandeightpence:fiveminaetosixteenpoundsthirteenshillingsandfourpence。Somethingnotlessthanthelargestofthosetwosums，therefore，mustatthattimehavebeenusuallypaidtothemosteminentteachersatAthens。Isocrateshimselfdemandedtenminae，orthirty—threepoundssixshillingsandeightpence，fromeachscholar。WhenhetaughtatAthens，heissaidtohavehadahundredscholars。Iunderstandthistobethenumberwhomhetaughtatonetime，orwhoattendedwhatwecouldcallonecourseoflectures，anumberwhichwillnotappearextraordinaryfromsogreatacitytosofamousateacher，whotaught，too，whatwasatthattimethemostfashionableofallsciences，rhetoric。Hemusthavemade，therefore，byeachcourseoflectures，athousandminae，orL33336s。8d。Athousandminae，accordingly，issaidbyPlutarchinanotherplace，tohavebeenhisDidactron，orusualpriceofteaching。Manyothereminentteachersinthosetimesappeartohaveacquiredgreatfortunes。
GorgiasmadeapresenttothetempleofDelphiofhisownstatueinsolidgold。Wemustnot，Ipresume，supposethatitwasaslargeasthelife。Hiswayofliving，aswellasthatofHippiasandProtagoras，twoothereminentteachersofthosetimes，isrepresentedbyPlatoassplendideventoostentation。Platohimselfissaidtohavelivedwithagooddealofmagnificence。
Aristotle，afterhavingbeentutortoAlexander，andmostmunificentlyrewarded，asitisuniversallyagreed，bothbyhimandhisfatherPhilip，thoughtitworthwhile，notwithstanding，toreturntoAthens，inordertoresumetheteachingofhisschool。Teachersofthescienceswereprobablyinthosetimeslesscommonthantheycametobeinanageortwoafterwards，whenthecompetitionhadprobablysomewhatreducedboththepriceoftheirlabourandtheadmirationfortheirpersons。Themosteminentofthem，however，appearalwaystohaveenjoyedadegreeofconsiderationmuchsuperiortoanyofthelikeprofessioninthepresenttimes。TheAthenianssentCarneadestheAcademic，andDiogenestheStoic，uponasolemnembassytoRome;andthoughtheircityhadthendeclinedfromitsformergrandeur，itwasstillanindependentandconsiderablerepublic。Carneades，too，wasaBabylonianbybirth，andasthereneverwasapeoplemorejealousofadmittingforeignerstopublicofficesthantheAthenians，theirconsiderationforhimmusthavebeenverygreat。
Thisinequalityisuponthewhole，perhaps，ratheradvantageousthanhurtfultothepublic。Itmaysomewhatdegradetheprofessionofapublicteacher;butthecheapnessofliteraryeducationissurelyanadvantagewhichgreatlyoverbalancesthistriflinginconveniency。Thepublic，too，mightderivestillgreaterbenefitfromit，iftheconstitutionofthoseschoolsandcolleges，inwhicheducationiscarriedon，wasmorereasonablethanitisatpresentthroughthegreaterpartofEurope。
Thirdly，thepolicyofEurope，byobstructingthefreecirculationoflabourandstockbothfromemploymenttoemployment，andfromplacetoplace，occasionsinsomecasesaveryincovenientinequalityinthewholeoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftheirdifferentemployments。
TheStatuteofApprenticeshipobstructsthefreecirculationoflabourfromoneemploymenttoanother，eveninthesameplace。
Theexclusiveprivilegesofcorporationsobstructitfromoneplacetoanother，eveninthesameemployment。
Itfrequentlyhappensthatwhilehighwagesaregiventotheworkmeninonemanufacture，thoseinanotherareobligedtocontentthemselveswithbaresubsistence。Theoneisinanadvancingstate，andhas，therefore，acontinualdemandfornewbands:theotherisinadecliningstate，andthesuperabundanceofhandsiscontinuallyincreasing。Thosetwomanufacturesmaysometimesbeinthesametown，andsometimesinthesameneighbourhood，withoutbeingabletolendtheleastassistancetooneanother。TheStatuteofApprenticeshipmayopposeitintheonecase，andboththatandanexclusivecorporationintheother。Inmanydifferentmanufactures，however，theoperationsaresomuchalike，thattheworkmencouldeasilychangetradeswithoneanother，ifthoseabsurdlawsdidnothinderthem。Theartsofweavingplainlinenandplainsilk，forexample，arealmostentirelythesame。Thatofweavingplainwoollenissomewhatdifferent;butthedifferenceissoinsignificantthateitheralinenorasilkweavermightbecomeatolerableworkinaveryfewdays。Ifanyofthosethreecapitalmanufactures，therefore，weredecaying，theworkmenmightfindaresourceinoneoftheothertwowhichwasinamoreprosperouscondition;
andtheirwageswouldneitherrisetoohighinthethriving，norsinktoolowinthedecayingmanufacture。Thelinenmanufactureindeedis，inEngland，byaparticularstatute，opentoeverybody;butasitisnotmuchcultivatedthroughthegreaterpartofthecountry，itcanaffordnogeneralresourcetotheworkmenofotherdecayingmanufactures，who，wherevertheStatuteofApprenticeshiptakesplace，havenootherchoicebuteithertocomeupontheparish，ortoworkascommonlabourers，forwhich，bytheirhabits，theyaremuchworsequalifiedthanforanysortofmanufacturethatbearsanyresemblancetotheirown。Theygenerally，therefore，choosetocomeupontheparish。
Whateverobstructsthefreecirculationoflabourfromoneemploymenttoanotherobstructsthatofstocklikewise;thequantityofstockwhichcanbeemployedinanybranchofbusinessdependingverymuchuponthatofthelabourwhichcanbeemployedinit。Corporationlaws，however，givelessobstructiontothefreecirculationofstockfromoneplacetoanotherthantothatoflabour。Itiseverywheremucheasierforawealthymerchanttoobtaintheprivilegeoftradinginatowncorporate，thanforapoorartificertoobtainthatofworkinginit。
Theobstructionwhichcorporationlawsgivetothefreecirculationoflabouriscommon，Ibelieve，toeverypartofEurope。ThatwhichisgiventoitbythePoorLawsis，sofarasIknow，peculiartoEngland。Itconsistsinthedifficultywhichapoormanfindsinobtainingasettlement，oreveninbeingallowedtoexercisehisindustryinanyparishbutthattowhichhebelongs。Itisthelabourofartificersandmanufacturersonlyofwhichthefreecirculationisobstructedbycorporationlaws。
Thedifficultyofobtainingsettlementsobstructseventhatofcommonlabour。Itmaybeworthwhiletogivesomeaccountoftherise，progress，andpresentstateofthisdisorder，thegreatestperhapsofanyinthepoliceofEngland。
Whenbythedestructionofmonasteriesthepoorhadbeendeprivedofthecharityofthosereligioushouses，aftersomeotherineffectualattemptsfortheirrelief，itwasenactedbythe43rdofElizabeth，c。2，thateveryparishshouldbeboundtoprovideforitsownpoor;andthatoverseersofthepoorshouldbeannuallyappointed，who，withthechurchwardens，shouldraisebyaparishratecompetentsumsforthispurpose。
Bythisstatutethenecessityofprovidingfortheirownpoorwasindispensablyimposeduponeveryparish。Whoweretobeconsideredasthepoorofeachparishbecame，therefore，aquestionofsomeimportance。Thisquestion，aftersomevariation，wasatlastdeterminedbythe13thand14thofCharlesIIwhenitwasenacted，thatfortydays’undisturbedresidenceshouldgainanypersonasettlementinanyparish;butthatwithinthattimeitshouldbelawfulfortwojusticesofthepeace，uponcomplaintmadebythechurchwardensoroverseersofthepoor，toremoveanynewinhabitanttotheparishwherehewaslastlegallysettled;
unlessheeitherrentedatenementoftenpoundsayear，orcouldgivesuchsecurityforthedischargeoftheparishwherehewasthenliving，asthosejusticesshouldjudgesufficient。
Somefrauds，itissaid，werecommittedinconsequenceofthisstatute;parishofficerssometimesbribingtheirownpoortogoclandestinelytoanotherparish，andbykeepingthemselvesconcealedforfortydaystogainasettlementthere，tothedischargeofthattowhichtheyproperlybelonged。Itwasenacted，therefore，bythe1stofJamesIIthatthefortydays’
undisturbedresidenceofanypersonnecessarytogainasettlementshouldbeaccountedonlyfromthetimeofhisdeliveringnoticeinwriting，oftheplaceofhisabodeandthenumberofhisfamily，tooneofthechurchwardensoroverseersoftheparishwherehecametodwell。
Butparishofficers，itseems，werenotalwaysmorehonestwithregardtotheirown，thantheyhadbeenwithregardtootherparishes，andsometimesconnivedatsuchintrusions，receivingthenotice，andtakingnoproperstepsinconsequenceofit。Aseverypersoninaparish，therefore，wassupposedtohaveaninteresttopreventasmuchaspossibletheirbeingburdenedbysuchintruders，itwasfurtherenactedbythe3rdofWilliamIII
thatthefortydays’residenceshouldbeaccountedonlyfromthepublicationofsuchnoticeinwritingonSundayinthechurch，immediatelyafterdivineservice。
\"Afterall，\"saysDoctorBurn，\"thiskindofsettlement，bycontinuingfortydaysafterpublicationofnoticeinwriting，isveryseldomobtained;andthedesignoftheactsisnotsomuchforgainingofsettlements，asfortheavoidingofthem，bypersonscomingintoaparishclandestinely:forthegivingofnoticeisonlyputtingaforceupontheparishtoremove。Butifaperson’ssituationissuch，thatitisdoubtfulwhetherheisactuallyremovableornot，heshallbygivingofnoticecompeltheparisheithertoallowhimasettlementuncontested，bysufferinghimtocontinuefortydays;or，byremovinghim，totrytheright。\"
Thisstatute，therefore，rendereditalmostimpracticableforapoormantogainanewsettlementintheoldway，byfortydays’inhabitancy。Butthatitmightnotappeartoprecludealtogetherthecommonpeopleofoneparishfromeverestablishingthemselveswithsecurityinanother，itappointedfourotherwaysbywhichasettlementmightbegainedwithoutanynoticedeliveredorpublished。Thefirstwas，bybeingtaxedtoparishratesandpayingthem;thesecond，bybeingelectedintoanannualparishoffice，andservinginitayear;thethird，byservinganapprenticeshipintheparish;thefourth，bybeinghiredintoservicethereforayear，andcontinuinginthesameserviceduringthewholeofit。
Nobodycangainasettlementbyeitherofthetwofirstways，butbythepublicdeedofthewholeparish，whoaretoowellawareoftheconsequencestoadoptanynew—comerwhohasnothingbuthislabourtosupporthim，eitherbytaxinghimtoparishrates，orbyelectinghimintoaparishoffice。
Nomarriedmancanwellgainanysettlementineitherofthetwolastways。Anapprenticeisscarceevermarried;anditisexpresslyenactedthatnomarriedservantshallgainanysettlementbybeinghiredforayear。Theprincipaleffectofintroducingsettlementbyservicehasbeentoputoutinagreatmeasuretheoldfashionofhiringforayear，whichbeforehadbeensocustomaryinEngland，thatevenatthisday，ifnoparticulartermisagreedupon，thelawintendsthateveryservantishiredforayear。Butmastersarenotalwayswillingtogivetheirservantsasettlementbyhiringtheminthismanner;andservantsarenotalwayswillingtobesohired，because，aseverylastsettlementdischargesalltheforegoing，theymighttherebylosetheiroriginalsettlementintheplacesoftheirnativity，thehabitationoftheirparentsandrelations。
Noindependentworkman，itisevident，whetherlabourerorartificer，islikelytogainanynewsettlementeitherbyapprenticeshiporbyservice。Whensuchaperson，therefore，carriedhisindustrytoanewparish，hewasliabletoberemoved，howhealthyandindustrioussoever，atthecapriceofanychurchwardenoroverseer，unlessheeitherrentedatenementoftenpoundsayear，athingimpossibleforonewhohasnothingbuthislabourtoliveby;orcouldgivesuchsecurityforthedischargeoftheparishastwojusticesofthepeaceshouldjudgesufficient。Whatsecuritytheyshallrequire，indeed，isleftaltogethertotheirdiscretion;buttheycannotwellrequirelessthanthirtypounds，ithavingbeenenactedthatthepurchaseevenofafreeholdestateoflessthanthirtypounds’valueshallnotgainanypersonasettlement，asnotbeingsufficientforthedischargeoftheparish。Butthisisasecuritywhichscarceanymanwholivesbylabourcangive;andmuchgreatersecurityisfrequentlydemanded。
Inordertorestoreinsomemeasurethatfreecirculationoflabourwhichthosedifferentstatuteshadalmostentirelytakenaway，theinventionofcertificateswasfallenupon。Bythe8thand9thofWilliamIIIitwasenactedthatifanypersonshouldbringacertificatefromtheparishwherehewaslastlegallysettled，subscribedbythechurchwardensandoverseersofthepoor，andallowedbytwojusticesofthepeace，thateveryotherparishshouldbeobligedtoreceivehim;thatheshouldnotberemovablemerelyuponaccountofhisbeinglikelytobecomechargeable，butonlyuponhisbecomingactuallychargeable，andthatthentheparishwhichgrantedthecertificateshouldbeobligedtopaytheexpensebothofhismaintenanceandofhisremoval。Andinordertogivethemostperfectsecuritytotheparishwheresuchcertificatedmanshouldcometoreside，itwasfurtherenactedbythesamestatutethatheshouldgainnosettlementtherebyanymeanswhatever，excepteitherbyrentingatenementoftenpoundsayear，orbyservinguponhisownaccountinanannualparishofficeforonewholeyear;andconsequentlyneitherbynotice，norbyservice，norbyapprenticeship，norbypayingparishrates。Bythe12thofQueenAnne，too，stat。1，c。18，itwasfurtherenactedthatneithertheservantsnorapprenticesofsuchcertificatedmanshouldgainanysettlementintheparishwhereheresidedundersuchcertificate。
Howfarthisinventionhasrestoredthatfreecirculationoflabourwhichtheprecedingstatuteshadalmostentirelytakenaway，wemaylearnfromthefollowingveryjudiciousobservationofDoctorBurn。\"Itisobvious，\"sayshe，\"thattherearediversgoodreasonsforrequiringcertificateswithpersonscomingtosettleinanyplace;namely，thatpersonsresidingunderthemcangainnosettlement，neitherbyapprenticeship，norbyservice，norbygivingnotice，norbypayingparishrates;thattheycansettleneitherapprenticesnorservants;thatiftheybecomechargeable，itiscertainlyknownwhithertoremovethem，andtheparishshallbepaidfortheremoval，andfortheirmaintenanceinthemeantime;andthatiftheyfallsick，andcannotberemoved，theparishwhichgavethecertificatemustmaintainthem:noneofallwhichcanbewithoutacertificate。Whichreasonswillholdproportionablyforparishesnotgrantingcertificatesinordinarycases;foritisfarmorethananequalchance，butthattheywillhavethecertificatedpersonsagain，andinaworsecondition。\"Themoralofthisobservationseemstobethatcertificatesoughtalwaystoberequiredbytheparishwhereanypoormancomestoreside，andthattheyoughtveryseldomtobegrantedbythatwhichheproposestoleave。\"Thereissomewhatofhardshipinthismatterofcertificates，\"saysthesameveryintelligentauthorinhisHistoryofthePoorLaws，\"byputtingitinthepowerofaparishofficertoimprisonamanasitwereforlife;howeverinconvenientitmaybeforhimtocontinueatthatplacewherehehashadthemisfortunetoacquirewhatiscalledasettlement，orwhateveradvantagehemayproposetohimselfbylivingelsewhere。\"
Thoughacertificatecarriesalongwithitnotestimonialofgoodbehaviour，andcertifiesnothingbutthatthepersonbelongstotheparishtowhichhereallydoesbelong，itisaltogetherdiscretionaryintheparishofficerseithertograntortorefuseit。Amandamuswasoncemovedfor，saysDoctorBurn，tocompelthechurchwardensandoverseerstosignacertificate;butthecourtofKing’sBenchrejectedthemotionasaverystrangeattempt。
TheveryunequalpriceoflabourwhichwefrequentlyfindinEnglandinplacesatnogreatdistancefromoneanotherisprobablyowingtotheobstructionwhichthelawofsettlementsgivestoapoormanwhowouldcarryhisindustryfromoneparishtoanotherwithoutacertificate。Asingleman，indeed，whoishealthyandindustrious，maysometimesresidebysufferancewithoutone;butamanwithawifeandfamilywhoshouldattempttodosowouldinmostparishesbesureofbeingremoved，andifthesinglemanshouldafterwardsmarry，hewouldgenerallyberemovedlikewise。Thescarcityofhandsinoneparish，therefore，cannotalwaysberelievedbytheirsuperabundanceinanother，asitisconstantlyinScotland，and，Ibelieve，inallothercountrieswherethereisnodifficultyofsettlement。Insuchcountries，thoughwagesmaysometimesrisealittleintheneighbourhoodofagreattown，orwhereverelsethereisanextraordinarydemandforlabour，andsinkgraduallyasthedistancefromsuchplacesincreases，tilltheyfallbacktothecommonrateofthecountry;yetwenevermeetwiththosesuddenandunaccountabledifferencesinthewagesofneighbouringplaceswhichwesometimesfindinEngland，whereitisoftenmoredifficultforapoormantopasstheartificialboundaryofaparishthananarmoftheseaoraridgeofhighmountains，naturalboundarieswhichsometimesseparateverydistinctlydifferentratesofwagesinothercountries。
Toremoveamanwhohascommittednomisdemeanourfromtheparishwherehechoosestoresideisanevidentviolationofnaturallibertyandjustice。ThecommonpeopleofEngland，however，sojealousoftheirliberty，butlikethecommonpeopleofmostothercountriesneverrightlyunderstandingwhereinitconsists，havenowformorethanacenturytogethersufferedthemselvestobeexposedtothisoppressionwithoutaremedy。
Thoughmenofreflection，too，havesometimescomplainedofthelawofsettlementsasapublicgrievance;yetithasneverbeentheobjectofanygeneralpopularclamour，suchasthatagainstgeneralwarrants，anabusivepracticeundoubtedly，butsuchaoneaswasnotlikelytooccasionanygeneraloppression。ThereisscarceapoormaninEnglandoffortyyearsofage，Iwillventuretosay，whohasnotinsomepartofhislifefelthimselfmostcruellyoppressedbythisillcontrivedlawofsettlements。
Ishallconcludethislongchapterwithobservingthat，thoughancientlyitwasusualtoratewages，firstbygenerallawsextendingoverthewholekingdom，andafterwardsbyparticularordersofthejusticesofpeaceineveryparticularcounty，boththesepracticeshavenowgoneentirelyintodisuse。
\"Bytheexperienceofabovefourhundredyears，\"saysDoctorBurn，\"itseemstimetolayasideallendeavourstobringunderstrictregulations，whatinitsownnatureseemsincapableofminutelimitation;forifallpersonsinthesamekindofworkweretoreceiveequalwages，therewouldbenoemulation，andnoroomleftforindustryoringenuity。\"
ParticularActsofParliament，however，stillattemptsometimestoregulatewagesinparticulartradesandinparticularplaces。Thusthe8thofGeorgeIIIprohibitsunderheavypenaltiesallmastertailorsinLondon，andfivemilesroundit，fromgiving，andtheirworkmenfromaccepting，morethantwoshillingsandsevenpencehalfpennyaday，exceptinthecaseofageneralmourning。Wheneverthelegislatureattemptstoregulatethedifferencesbetweenmastersandtheirworkmen，itscounsellorsarealwaysthemasters。Whentheregulation，therefore，isinfavouroftheworkmen，itisalwaysjustandequitable;butitissometimesotherwisewheninfavourofthemasters。Thusthelawwhichobligesthemastersinseveraldifferenttradestopaytheirworkmeninmoneyandnotingoodsisquitejustandequitable。Itimposesnorealhardshipuponthemasters。Itonlyobligesthemtopaythatvalueinmoney，whichtheypretendedtopay，butdidnotalwaysreallypay，ingoods。
Thislawisinfavouroftheworkmen:butthe8thofGeorgeIII
isinfavourofthemasters。Whenmasterscombinetogetherinordertoreducethewagesoftheirworkmen，theycommonlyenterintoaprivatebondoragreementnottogivemorethanacertainwageunderacertainpenalty。Weretheworkmentoenterintoacontrarycombinationofthesamekind，nottoacceptofacertainwageunderacertainpenalty，thelawwouldpunishthemveryseverely;andifitdealtimpartially，itwouldtreatthemastersinthesamemanner。Butthe8thofGeorgeIIIenforcesbylawthatveryregulationwhichmasterssometimesattempttoestablishbysuchcombinations。Thecomplaintoftheworkmen，thatitputstheablestandmostindustriousuponthesamefootingwithanordinaryworkman，seemsperfectlywellfounded。
Inancienttimes，too，itwasusualtoattempttoregulatetheprofitsofmerchantsandotherdealers，byratingthepricebothofprovisionsandothergoods。Theassizeofbreadis，sofarasIknow，theonlyremnantofthisancientusage。Wherethereisanexclusivecorporation，itmayperhapsbepropertoregulatethepriceofthefirstnecessaryoflife。Butwherethereisnone，thecompetitionwillregulateitmuchbetterthananyassize。Themethodoffixingtheassizeofbreadestablishedbythe31stofGeorgeIIcouldnotbeputinpracticeinScotland，onaccountofadefectinthelaw;itsexecutiondependingupontheofficeofaclerkofthemarket，whichdoesnotexistthere。Thisdefectwasnotremediedtillthe3rdofGeorgeIII。Thewantofanassizeoccasionednosensibleinconveniency，andtheestablishmentofone，inthefewplaceswhereithasyettakenplace，hasproducednosensibleadvantage。
InthegreaterpartofthetownsofScotland，however，thereisanincorporationofbakerswhoclaimexclusiveprivileges，thoughtheyarenotverystrictlyguarded。
Theproportionbetweenthedifferentratesbothofwagesandprofitinthedifferentemploymentsoflabourandstock，seemsnottobemuchaffected，ashasalreadybeenobserved，bytherichesorpoverty，theadvancing，stationary，ordecliningstateofthesociety。Suchrevolutionsinthepublicwelfare，thoughtheyaffectthegeneralratesbothofwagesandprofit，mustintheendaffectthemequallyinalldifferentemployments。Theproportionbetweenthem，therefore，mustremainthesame，andcannotwellbealtered，atleastforanyconsiderabletime，byanysuchrevolutions。
CHAPTERXI
OftheRentofLandRENT，consideredasthepricepaidfortheuseofland，isnaturallythehighestwhichthetenantcanaffordtopayintheactualcircumstancesoftheland。Inadjustingthetermsofthelease，thelandlordendeavourstoleavehimnogreatershareoftheproducethanwhatissufficienttokeepupthestockfromwhichhefurnishestheseed，paysthelabour，andpurchasesandmaintainsthecattleandotherinstrumentsofhusbandry，togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsoffarmingstockintheneighbourhood。
Thisisevidentlythesmallestsharewithwhichthetenantcancontenthimselfwithoutbeingaloser，andthelandlordseldommeanstoleavehimanymore。Whateverpartoftheproduce，or，whatisthesamething，whateverpartofitspriceisoverandabovethisshare，henaturallyendeavourstoreservetohimselfastherentofhisland，whichisevidentlythehighestthetenantcanaffordtopayintheactualcircumstancesoftheland。
Sometimes，indeed，theliberality，morefrequentlytheignorance，ofthelandlord，makeshimacceptofsomewhatlessthanthisportion;andsometimestoo，thoughmorerarely，theignoranceofthetenantmakeshimundertaketopaysomewhatmore，ortocontenthimselfwithsomewhatlessthantheordinaryprofitsoffarmingstockintheneighbourhood。Thisportion，however，maystillbeconsideredasthenaturalrentofland，ortherentforwhichitisnaturallymeantthatlandshouldforthemostpartbelet。
Therentofland，itmaybethought，isfrequentlynomorethanareasonableprofitorinterestforthestocklaidoutbythelandlorduponitsimprovement。This，nodoubt，maybepartlythecaseuponsomeoccasions;foritcanscarceeverbemorethanpartlythecase。Thelandlorddemandsarentevenforunimprovedland，andthesupposedinterestorprofitupontheexpenseofimprovementisgenerallyanadditiontothisoriginalrent。Thoseimprovements，besides，arenotalwaysmadebythestockofthelandlord，butsometimesbythatofthetenant。Whentheleasecomestoberenewed，however，thelandlordcommonlydemandsthesameaugmentationofrentasiftheyhadbeenallmadebyhisown。
Hesometimesdemandsrentforwhatisaltogetherincapableofhumanimprovement。Kelpisaspeciesofsea—weed，which，whenburnt，yieldsanalkalinesalt，usefulformakingglass，soap，andforseveralotherpurposes。ItgrowsinseveralpartsofGreatBritain，particularlyinScotland，uponsuchrocksonlyasliewithinthehighwatermark，whicharetwiceeverydaycoveredwiththesea，andofwhichtheproduce，therefore，wasneveraugmentedbyhumanindustry。Thelandlord，however，whoseestateisboundedbyakelpshoreofthiskind，demandsarentforitasmuchasforhiscornfields。
TheseaintheneighbourhoodoftheislandsofShetlandismorethancommonlyabundantinfish，whichmakesagreatpartofthesubsistenceoftheirinhabitants。Butinordertoprofitbytheproduceofthewater，theymusthaveahabitationupontheneighbouringland。Therentofthelandlordisinproportion，nottowhatthefarmercanmakebytheland，buttowhathecanmakebothbythelandandbythewater。Itispartlypaidinsea—fish;
andoneoftheveryfewinstancesinwhichrentmakesapartofthepriceofthatcommodityistobefoundinthatcountry。
Therentoftheland，therefore，consideredasthepricepaidfortheuseoftheland，isnaturallyamonopolyprice。Itisnotatallproportionedtowhatthelandlordmayhavelaidoutupontheimprovementoftheland，ortowhathecanaffordtotake;buttowhatthefarmercanaffordtogive。
Suchpartsonlyoftheproduceoflandcancommonlybebroughttomarketofwhichtheordinarypriceissufficienttoreplacethestockwhichmustbeemployedinbringingthemthither，togetherwithitsordinaryprofits。Iftheordinarypriceismorethanthis，thesurpluspartofitwillnaturallygototherentofland。Ifitisnotmore，thoughthecommoditymaybebroughttomarket，itcanaffordnorenttothelandlord。
Whetherthepriceisorisnotmoredependsuponthedemand。
Therearesomepartsoftheproduceoflandforwhichthedemandmustalwaysbesuchastoaffordagreaterpricethanwhatissufficienttobringthemtomarket;andthereareothersforwhichiteithermayormaynotbesuchastoaffordthisgreaterprice。Theformermustalwaysaffordarenttothelandlord。Thelattersometimesmay，andsometimesmaynot，accordingtodifferentcircumstances。
Rent，itistobeobserved，therefore，entersintothecompositionofthepriceofcommoditiesinadifferentwayfromwagesandprofit。Highorlowwagesandprofitarethecausesofhighorlowprice;highorlowrentistheeffectofit。Itisbecausehighorlowwagesandprofitmustbepaid，inordertobringaparticularcommoditytomarket，thatitspriceishighorlow。Butitisbecauseitspriceishighorlow;agreatdealmore，orverylittlemore，ornomore，thanwhatissufficienttopaythosewagesandprofit，thatitaffordsahighrent，oralowrent，ornorentatall。
Theparticularconsideration，first，ofthosepartsoftheproduceoflandwhichalwaysaffordsomerent;secondly，ofthosewhichsometimesmayandsometimesmaynotaffordrent;and，thirdly，ofthevariationswhich，inthedifferentperiodsofimprovement，naturallytakeplaceintherelativevalueofthosetwodifferentsortsofrudeproduce，whencomparedbothwithoneanotherandwithmanufacturedcommodities，willdividethischapterintothreeparts。
PART1
OftheProduceofLandwhichalwaysaffordsRentASmen，likeallotheranimals，naturallymultiplyinproportiontothemeansoftheirsubsistence，foodisalways，moreorless，indemand。Itcanalwayspurchaseorcommandagreaterorsmallerquantityoflabour，andsomebodycanalwaysbefoundwhoiswillingtodosomethinginordertoobtainit。Thequantityoflabour，indeed，whichitcanpurchaseisnotalwaysequaltowhatitcouldmaintain，ifmanagedinthemosteconomicalmanner，onaccountofthehighwageswhicharesometimesgiventolabour。Butitcanalwayspurchasesuchaquantityoflabourasitcanmaintain，accordingtotherateatwhichthesortoflabouriscommonlymaintainedintheneighbourhood。
Butland，inalmostanysituation，producesagreaterquantityoffoodthanwhatissufficienttomaintainallthelabournecessaryforbringingittomarketinthemostliberalwayinwhichthatlabourisevermaintained。Thesurplus，too，isalwaysmorethansufficienttoreplacethestockwhichemployedthatlabour，togetherwithitsprofits。Something，therefore，alwaysremainsforarenttothelandlord。
ThemostdesertmoorsinNorwayandScotlandproducesomesortofpastureforcattle，ofwhichthemilkandtheincreasearealwaysmorethansufficient，notonlytomaintainallthelabournecessaryfortendingthem，andtopaytheordinaryprofittothefarmerorowneroftheherdorflock;buttoaffordsomesmallrenttothelandlord。Therentincreasesinproportiontothegoodnessofthepasture。Thesameextentofgroundnotonlymaintainsagreaternumberofcattle，butastheyarebroughtwithinasmallercompass，lesslabourbecomesrequisitetotendthem，andtocollecttheirproduce。Thelandlordgainsbothways，bytheincreaseoftheproduceandbythediminutionofthelabourwhichmustbemaintainedoutofit。
Therentoflandnotonlyvarieswithitsfertility，whateverbeitsproduce，butwithitssituation，whateverbeitsfertility。Landintheneighbourhoodofatowngivesagreaterrentthanlandequallyfertileinadistantpartofthecountry。