12,itisdeclared,\"Thatwhereasforwantofsufficientmaintenanceandencouragementtocurates,thecureshaveinseveralplacesbeenmeanlysupplied,thebishopis,therefore,empoweredtoappointbywritingunderhisbandandsealasufficientcertainstipendorallowance,notexceedingfiftyandnotlessthantwentypoundsayear。\"Fortypoundsayearisreckonedatpresentverygoodpayforacurate,andnotwithstandingthisActofParliamenttherearemanycuraciesundertwentypoundsayear。TherearejourneymenshoemakersinLondonwhoearnfortypoundsayear,andthereisscarceanindustriousworkmanofanykindinthatmetropoliswhodoesnotearnmorethantwenty。Thislastsumindeeddoesnotexceedwhatisfrequentlyearnedbycommonlabourersinmanycountryparishes。Wheneverthelawhasattemptedtoregulatethewagesofworkmen,ithasalwaysbeenrathertolowerthemthantoraisethem。Butthelawhasuponmanyoccasionsattemptedtoraisethewagesofcurates,andforthedignityofthechurch,toobligetherectorsofparishestogivethemmorethanthewretchedmaintenancewhichtheythemselvesmightbewillingtoacceptof。
Andinbothcasesthelawseemstohavebeenequallyineffectual,andhasnevereitherbeenabletoraisethewagesofcurates,ortosinkthoseoflabourerstothedegreethatwasintended;
becauseithasneverbeenabletohindereithertheonefrombeingwillingtoacceptoflessthanthelegalallowance,onaccountoftheindigenceoftheirsituationandthemultitudeoftheircompetitors;ortheotherfromreceivingmore,onaccountofthecontrarycompetitionofthosewhoexpectedtoderiveeitherprofitorpleasurefromemployingthem。
Thegreatbeneficesandotherecclesiasticaldignitiessupportthehonourofthechurch,notwithstandingthemeancircumstanceofsomeofitsinferiormembers。Therespectpaidtotheprofession,too,makessomecompensationeventothemforthemeannessoftheirpecuniaryrecompense。InEngland,andinallRomanCatholiccountries,thelotteryofthechurchisinrealitymuchmoreadvantageousthanisnecessary。TheexampleofthechurchesofScotland,ofGeneva,andofseveralotherProtestantchurches,maysatisfyusthatinsocreditableaprofession,inwhicheducationissoeasilyprocured,thehopesofmuchmoremoderatebeneficeswilldrawasufficientnumberoflearned,decent,andrespectablemenintoholyorders。
Inprofessionsinwhichtherearenobenefices,suchaslawandphysic,ifanequalproportionofpeoplewereeducatedatthepublicexpense,thecompetitionwouldsoonbesogreatastosinkverymuchtheirpecuniaryreward。Itmightthennotbeworthanyman’swhiletoeducatehissontoeitherofthoseprofessionsathisownexpense。Theywouldbeentirelyabandonedtosuchashadbeeneducatedbythosepubliccharities,whosenumbersandnecessitieswouldobligethemingeneraltocontentthemselveswithaverymiserablerecompense,totheentiredegradationofthenowrespectableprofessionsoflawandphysic。
Thatunprosperousraceofmencommonlycalledmenoflettersareprettymuchinthesituationwhichlawyersandphysiciansprobablywouldbeinupontheforegoingsupposition。IneverypartofEuropethegreaterpartofthemhavebeeneducatedforthechurch,buthavebeenhinderedbydifferentreasonsfromenteringintoholyorders。Theyhavegenerally,therefore,beeneducatedatthepublicexpense,andtheirnumbersareeverywheresogreatascommonlytoreducethepriceoftheirlabourtoaverypaltryrecompense。
Beforetheinventionoftheartofprinting,theonlyemploymentbywhichamanofletterscouldmakeanythingbyhistalentswasthatofapublicorprivateteacher,orbycommunicatingtootherpeoplethecuriousandusefulknowledgewhichhehadacquiredhimself:andthisisstillsurelyamorehonourable,amoreuseful,andingeneralevenamoreprofitableemploymentthanthatotherofwritingforabookseller,towhichtheartofprintinghasgivenoccasion。Thetimeandstudy,thegenius,knowledge,andapplicationrequisitetoqualifyaneminentteacherofthesciences,areatleastequaltowhatisnecessaryforthegreatestpractitionersinlawandphysic。Buttheusualrewardoftheeminentteacherbearsnoproportiontothatofthelawyerorphysician;becausethetradeoftheoneiscrowdedwithindigentpeoplewhohavebeenbroughtuptoitatthepublicexpense;whereasthoseoftheothertwoareencumberedwithveryfewwhohavenotbeeneducatedattheirown。Theusualrecompense,however,ofpublicandprivateteachers,smallasitmayappear,wouldundoubtedlybelessthanitis,ifthecompetitionofthoseyetmoreindigentmenofletterswhowriteforbreadwasnottakenoutofthemarket。Beforetheinventionoftheartofprinting,ascholarandabeggarseemtohavebeentermsverynearlysynonymous。Thedifferentgovernorsoftheuniversitiesbeforethattimeappeartohaveoftengrantedlicencestotheirscholarstobeg。
Inancienttimes,beforeanycharitiesofthiskindhadbeenestablishedfortheeducationofindigentpeopletothelearnedprofessions,therewardsofeminentteachersappeartohavebeenmuchmoreconsiderable。Isocrates,inwhatiscalledhisdiscourseagainstthesophists,reproachestheteachersofhisowntimeswithinconsistency。\"Theymakethemostmagnificentpromisestotheirscholars,\"sayshe,\"andundertaketoteachthemtobewise,tobehappy,andtobejust,andinreturnforsoimportantaservicetheystipulatethepaltryrewardoffourorfiveminae。Theywhoteachwisdom,\"continueshe,oughtcertainlytobewisethemselves;butifanymanweretosellsuchabargainforsuchaprice,hewouldbeconvictedofthemostevidentfolly。\"Hecertainlydoesnotmeanheretoexaggeratethereward,andwemaybeassuredthatitwasnotlessthanherepresentsit。Fourminaewereequaltothirteenpoundssixshillingsandeightpence:fiveminaetosixteenpoundsthirteenshillingsandfourpence。Somethingnotlessthanthelargestofthosetwosums,therefore,mustatthattimehavebeenusuallypaidtothemosteminentteachersatAthens。Isocrateshimselfdemandedtenminae,orthirty—threepoundssixshillingsandeightpence,fromeachscholar。WhenhetaughtatAthens,heissaidtohavehadahundredscholars。Iunderstandthistobethenumberwhomhetaughtatonetime,orwhoattendedwhatwecouldcallonecourseoflectures,anumberwhichwillnotappearextraordinaryfromsogreatacitytosofamousateacher,whotaught,too,whatwasatthattimethemostfashionableofallsciences,rhetoric。Hemusthavemade,therefore,byeachcourseoflectures,athousandminae,orL33336s。8d。Athousandminae,accordingly,issaidbyPlutarchinanotherplace,tohavebeenhisDidactron,orusualpriceofteaching。Manyothereminentteachersinthosetimesappeartohaveacquiredgreatfortunes。
GorgiasmadeapresenttothetempleofDelphiofhisownstatueinsolidgold。Wemustnot,Ipresume,supposethatitwasaslargeasthelife。Hiswayofliving,aswellasthatofHippiasandProtagoras,twoothereminentteachersofthosetimes,isrepresentedbyPlatoassplendideventoostentation。Platohimselfissaidtohavelivedwithagooddealofmagnificence。
Aristotle,afterhavingbeentutortoAlexander,andmostmunificentlyrewarded,asitisuniversallyagreed,bothbyhimandhisfatherPhilip,thoughtitworthwhile,notwithstanding,toreturntoAthens,inordertoresumetheteachingofhisschool。Teachersofthescienceswereprobablyinthosetimeslesscommonthantheycametobeinanageortwoafterwards,whenthecompetitionhadprobablysomewhatreducedboththepriceoftheirlabourandtheadmirationfortheirpersons。Themosteminentofthem,however,appearalwaystohaveenjoyedadegreeofconsiderationmuchsuperiortoanyofthelikeprofessioninthepresenttimes。TheAthenianssentCarneadestheAcademic,andDiogenestheStoic,uponasolemnembassytoRome;andthoughtheircityhadthendeclinedfromitsformergrandeur,itwasstillanindependentandconsiderablerepublic。Carneades,too,wasaBabylonianbybirth,andasthereneverwasapeoplemorejealousofadmittingforeignerstopublicofficesthantheAthenians,theirconsiderationforhimmusthavebeenverygreat。
Thisinequalityisuponthewhole,perhaps,ratheradvantageousthanhurtfultothepublic。Itmaysomewhatdegradetheprofessionofapublicteacher;butthecheapnessofliteraryeducationissurelyanadvantagewhichgreatlyoverbalancesthistriflinginconveniency。Thepublic,too,mightderivestillgreaterbenefitfromit,iftheconstitutionofthoseschoolsandcolleges,inwhicheducationiscarriedon,wasmorereasonablethanitisatpresentthroughthegreaterpartofEurope。
Thirdly,thepolicyofEurope,byobstructingthefreecirculationoflabourandstockbothfromemploymenttoemployment,andfromplacetoplace,occasionsinsomecasesaveryincovenientinequalityinthewholeoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftheirdifferentemployments。
TheStatuteofApprenticeshipobstructsthefreecirculationoflabourfromoneemploymenttoanother,eveninthesameplace。
Theexclusiveprivilegesofcorporationsobstructitfromoneplacetoanother,eveninthesameemployment。
Itfrequentlyhappensthatwhilehighwagesaregiventotheworkmeninonemanufacture,thoseinanotherareobligedtocontentthemselveswithbaresubsistence。Theoneisinanadvancingstate,andhas,therefore,acontinualdemandfornewbands:theotherisinadecliningstate,andthesuperabundanceofhandsiscontinuallyincreasing。Thosetwomanufacturesmaysometimesbeinthesametown,andsometimesinthesameneighbourhood,withoutbeingabletolendtheleastassistancetooneanother。TheStatuteofApprenticeshipmayopposeitintheonecase,andboththatandanexclusivecorporationintheother。Inmanydifferentmanufactures,however,theoperationsaresomuchalike,thattheworkmencouldeasilychangetradeswithoneanother,ifthoseabsurdlawsdidnothinderthem。Theartsofweavingplainlinenandplainsilk,forexample,arealmostentirelythesame。Thatofweavingplainwoollenissomewhatdifferent;butthedifferenceissoinsignificantthateitheralinenorasilkweavermightbecomeatolerableworkinaveryfewdays。Ifanyofthosethreecapitalmanufactures,therefore,weredecaying,theworkmenmightfindaresourceinoneoftheothertwowhichwasinamoreprosperouscondition;
andtheirwageswouldneitherrisetoohighinthethriving,norsinktoolowinthedecayingmanufacture。Thelinenmanufactureindeedis,inEngland,byaparticularstatute,opentoeverybody;butasitisnotmuchcultivatedthroughthegreaterpartofthecountry,itcanaffordnogeneralresourcetotheworkmenofotherdecayingmanufactures,who,wherevertheStatuteofApprenticeshiptakesplace,havenootherchoicebuteithertocomeupontheparish,ortoworkascommonlabourers,forwhich,bytheirhabits,theyaremuchworsequalifiedthanforanysortofmanufacturethatbearsanyresemblancetotheirown。Theygenerally,therefore,choosetocomeupontheparish。
Whateverobstructsthefreecirculationoflabourfromoneemploymenttoanotherobstructsthatofstocklikewise;thequantityofstockwhichcanbeemployedinanybranchofbusinessdependingverymuchuponthatofthelabourwhichcanbeemployedinit。Corporationlaws,however,givelessobstructiontothefreecirculationofstockfromoneplacetoanotherthantothatoflabour。Itiseverywheremucheasierforawealthymerchanttoobtaintheprivilegeoftradinginatowncorporate,thanforapoorartificertoobtainthatofworkinginit。
Theobstructionwhichcorporationlawsgivetothefreecirculationoflabouriscommon,Ibelieve,toeverypartofEurope。ThatwhichisgiventoitbythePoorLawsis,sofarasIknow,peculiartoEngland。Itconsistsinthedifficultywhichapoormanfindsinobtainingasettlement,oreveninbeingallowedtoexercisehisindustryinanyparishbutthattowhichhebelongs。Itisthelabourofartificersandmanufacturersonlyofwhichthefreecirculationisobstructedbycorporationlaws。
Thedifficultyofobtainingsettlementsobstructseventhatofcommonlabour。Itmaybeworthwhiletogivesomeaccountoftherise,progress,andpresentstateofthisdisorder,thegreatestperhapsofanyinthepoliceofEngland。
Whenbythedestructionofmonasteriesthepoorhadbeendeprivedofthecharityofthosereligioushouses,aftersomeotherineffectualattemptsfortheirrelief,itwasenactedbythe43rdofElizabeth,c。2,thateveryparishshouldbeboundtoprovideforitsownpoor;andthatoverseersofthepoorshouldbeannuallyappointed,who,withthechurchwardens,shouldraisebyaparishratecompetentsumsforthispurpose。
Bythisstatutethenecessityofprovidingfortheirownpoorwasindispensablyimposeduponeveryparish。Whoweretobeconsideredasthepoorofeachparishbecame,therefore,aquestionofsomeimportance。Thisquestion,aftersomevariation,wasatlastdeterminedbythe13thand14thofCharlesIIwhenitwasenacted,thatfortydays’undisturbedresidenceshouldgainanypersonasettlementinanyparish;butthatwithinthattimeitshouldbelawfulfortwojusticesofthepeace,uponcomplaintmadebythechurchwardensoroverseersofthepoor,toremoveanynewinhabitanttotheparishwherehewaslastlegallysettled;
unlessheeitherrentedatenementoftenpoundsayear,orcouldgivesuchsecurityforthedischargeoftheparishwherehewasthenliving,asthosejusticesshouldjudgesufficient。
Somefrauds,itissaid,werecommittedinconsequenceofthisstatute;parishofficerssometimesbribingtheirownpoortogoclandestinelytoanotherparish,andbykeepingthemselvesconcealedforfortydaystogainasettlementthere,tothedischargeofthattowhichtheyproperlybelonged。Itwasenacted,therefore,bythe1stofJamesIIthatthefortydays’
undisturbedresidenceofanypersonnecessarytogainasettlementshouldbeaccountedonlyfromthetimeofhisdeliveringnoticeinwriting,oftheplaceofhisabodeandthenumberofhisfamily,tooneofthechurchwardensoroverseersoftheparishwherehecametodwell。
Butparishofficers,itseems,werenotalwaysmorehonestwithregardtotheirown,thantheyhadbeenwithregardtootherparishes,andsometimesconnivedatsuchintrusions,receivingthenotice,andtakingnoproperstepsinconsequenceofit。Aseverypersoninaparish,therefore,wassupposedtohaveaninteresttopreventasmuchaspossibletheirbeingburdenedbysuchintruders,itwasfurtherenactedbythe3rdofWilliamIII
thatthefortydays’residenceshouldbeaccountedonlyfromthepublicationofsuchnoticeinwritingonSundayinthechurch,immediatelyafterdivineservice。
\"Afterall,\"saysDoctorBurn,\"thiskindofsettlement,bycontinuingfortydaysafterpublicationofnoticeinwriting,isveryseldomobtained;andthedesignoftheactsisnotsomuchforgainingofsettlements,asfortheavoidingofthem,bypersonscomingintoaparishclandestinely:forthegivingofnoticeisonlyputtingaforceupontheparishtoremove。Butifaperson’ssituationissuch,thatitisdoubtfulwhetherheisactuallyremovableornot,heshallbygivingofnoticecompeltheparisheithertoallowhimasettlementuncontested,bysufferinghimtocontinuefortydays;or,byremovinghim,totrytheright。\"
Thisstatute,therefore,rendereditalmostimpracticableforapoormantogainanewsettlementintheoldway,byfortydays’inhabitancy。Butthatitmightnotappeartoprecludealtogetherthecommonpeopleofoneparishfromeverestablishingthemselveswithsecurityinanother,itappointedfourotherwaysbywhichasettlementmightbegainedwithoutanynoticedeliveredorpublished。Thefirstwas,bybeingtaxedtoparishratesandpayingthem;thesecond,bybeingelectedintoanannualparishoffice,andservinginitayear;thethird,byservinganapprenticeshipintheparish;thefourth,bybeinghiredintoservicethereforayear,andcontinuinginthesameserviceduringthewholeofit。
Nobodycangainasettlementbyeitherofthetwofirstways,butbythepublicdeedofthewholeparish,whoaretoowellawareoftheconsequencestoadoptanynew—comerwhohasnothingbuthislabourtosupporthim,eitherbytaxinghimtoparishrates,orbyelectinghimintoaparishoffice。
Nomarriedmancanwellgainanysettlementineitherofthetwolastways。Anapprenticeisscarceevermarried;anditisexpresslyenactedthatnomarriedservantshallgainanysettlementbybeinghiredforayear。Theprincipaleffectofintroducingsettlementbyservicehasbeentoputoutinagreatmeasuretheoldfashionofhiringforayear,whichbeforehadbeensocustomaryinEngland,thatevenatthisday,ifnoparticulartermisagreedupon,thelawintendsthateveryservantishiredforayear。Butmastersarenotalwayswillingtogivetheirservantsasettlementbyhiringtheminthismanner;andservantsarenotalwayswillingtobesohired,because,aseverylastsettlementdischargesalltheforegoing,theymighttherebylosetheiroriginalsettlementintheplacesoftheirnativity,thehabitationoftheirparentsandrelations。
Noindependentworkman,itisevident,whetherlabourerorartificer,islikelytogainanynewsettlementeitherbyapprenticeshiporbyservice。Whensuchaperson,therefore,carriedhisindustrytoanewparish,hewasliabletoberemoved,howhealthyandindustrioussoever,atthecapriceofanychurchwardenoroverseer,unlessheeitherrentedatenementoftenpoundsayear,athingimpossibleforonewhohasnothingbuthislabourtoliveby;orcouldgivesuchsecurityforthedischargeoftheparishastwojusticesofthepeaceshouldjudgesufficient。Whatsecuritytheyshallrequire,indeed,isleftaltogethertotheirdiscretion;buttheycannotwellrequirelessthanthirtypounds,ithavingbeenenactedthatthepurchaseevenofafreeholdestateoflessthanthirtypounds’valueshallnotgainanypersonasettlement,asnotbeingsufficientforthedischargeoftheparish。Butthisisasecuritywhichscarceanymanwholivesbylabourcangive;andmuchgreatersecurityisfrequentlydemanded。
Inordertorestoreinsomemeasurethatfreecirculationoflabourwhichthosedifferentstatuteshadalmostentirelytakenaway,theinventionofcertificateswasfallenupon。Bythe8thand9thofWilliamIIIitwasenactedthatifanypersonshouldbringacertificatefromtheparishwherehewaslastlegallysettled,subscribedbythechurchwardensandoverseersofthepoor,andallowedbytwojusticesofthepeace,thateveryotherparishshouldbeobligedtoreceivehim;thatheshouldnotberemovablemerelyuponaccountofhisbeinglikelytobecomechargeable,butonlyuponhisbecomingactuallychargeable,andthatthentheparishwhichgrantedthecertificateshouldbeobligedtopaytheexpensebothofhismaintenanceandofhisremoval。Andinordertogivethemostperfectsecuritytotheparishwheresuchcertificatedmanshouldcometoreside,itwasfurtherenactedbythesamestatutethatheshouldgainnosettlementtherebyanymeanswhatever,excepteitherbyrentingatenementoftenpoundsayear,orbyservinguponhisownaccountinanannualparishofficeforonewholeyear;andconsequentlyneitherbynotice,norbyservice,norbyapprenticeship,norbypayingparishrates。Bythe12thofQueenAnne,too,stat。1,c。18,itwasfurtherenactedthatneithertheservantsnorapprenticesofsuchcertificatedmanshouldgainanysettlementintheparishwhereheresidedundersuchcertificate。
Howfarthisinventionhasrestoredthatfreecirculationoflabourwhichtheprecedingstatuteshadalmostentirelytakenaway,wemaylearnfromthefollowingveryjudiciousobservationofDoctorBurn。\"Itisobvious,\"sayshe,\"thattherearediversgoodreasonsforrequiringcertificateswithpersonscomingtosettleinanyplace;namely,thatpersonsresidingunderthemcangainnosettlement,neitherbyapprenticeship,norbyservice,norbygivingnotice,norbypayingparishrates;thattheycansettleneitherapprenticesnorservants;thatiftheybecomechargeable,itiscertainlyknownwhithertoremovethem,andtheparishshallbepaidfortheremoval,andfortheirmaintenanceinthemeantime;andthatiftheyfallsick,andcannotberemoved,theparishwhichgavethecertificatemustmaintainthem:noneofallwhichcanbewithoutacertificate。Whichreasonswillholdproportionablyforparishesnotgrantingcertificatesinordinarycases;foritisfarmorethananequalchance,butthattheywillhavethecertificatedpersonsagain,andinaworsecondition。\"Themoralofthisobservationseemstobethatcertificatesoughtalwaystoberequiredbytheparishwhereanypoormancomestoreside,andthattheyoughtveryseldomtobegrantedbythatwhichheproposestoleave。\"Thereissomewhatofhardshipinthismatterofcertificates,\"saysthesameveryintelligentauthorinhisHistoryofthePoorLaws,\"byputtingitinthepowerofaparishofficertoimprisonamanasitwereforlife;howeverinconvenientitmaybeforhimtocontinueatthatplacewherehehashadthemisfortunetoacquirewhatiscalledasettlement,orwhateveradvantagehemayproposetohimselfbylivingelsewhere。\"
Thoughacertificatecarriesalongwithitnotestimonialofgoodbehaviour,andcertifiesnothingbutthatthepersonbelongstotheparishtowhichhereallydoesbelong,itisaltogetherdiscretionaryintheparishofficerseithertograntortorefuseit。Amandamuswasoncemovedfor,saysDoctorBurn,tocompelthechurchwardensandoverseerstosignacertificate;butthecourtofKing’sBenchrejectedthemotionasaverystrangeattempt。
TheveryunequalpriceoflabourwhichwefrequentlyfindinEnglandinplacesatnogreatdistancefromoneanotherisprobablyowingtotheobstructionwhichthelawofsettlementsgivestoapoormanwhowouldcarryhisindustryfromoneparishtoanotherwithoutacertificate。Asingleman,indeed,whoishealthyandindustrious,maysometimesresidebysufferancewithoutone;butamanwithawifeandfamilywhoshouldattempttodosowouldinmostparishesbesureofbeingremoved,andifthesinglemanshouldafterwardsmarry,hewouldgenerallyberemovedlikewise。Thescarcityofhandsinoneparish,therefore,cannotalwaysberelievedbytheirsuperabundanceinanother,asitisconstantlyinScotland,and,Ibelieve,inallothercountrieswherethereisnodifficultyofsettlement。Insuchcountries,thoughwagesmaysometimesrisealittleintheneighbourhoodofagreattown,orwhereverelsethereisanextraordinarydemandforlabour,andsinkgraduallyasthedistancefromsuchplacesincreases,tilltheyfallbacktothecommonrateofthecountry;yetwenevermeetwiththosesuddenandunaccountabledifferencesinthewagesofneighbouringplaceswhichwesometimesfindinEngland,whereitisoftenmoredifficultforapoormantopasstheartificialboundaryofaparishthananarmoftheseaoraridgeofhighmountains,naturalboundarieswhichsometimesseparateverydistinctlydifferentratesofwagesinothercountries。
Toremoveamanwhohascommittednomisdemeanourfromtheparishwherehechoosestoresideisanevidentviolationofnaturallibertyandjustice。ThecommonpeopleofEngland,however,sojealousoftheirliberty,butlikethecommonpeopleofmostothercountriesneverrightlyunderstandingwhereinitconsists,havenowformorethanacenturytogethersufferedthemselvestobeexposedtothisoppressionwithoutaremedy。
Thoughmenofreflection,too,havesometimescomplainedofthelawofsettlementsasapublicgrievance;yetithasneverbeentheobjectofanygeneralpopularclamour,suchasthatagainstgeneralwarrants,anabusivepracticeundoubtedly,butsuchaoneaswasnotlikelytooccasionanygeneraloppression。ThereisscarceapoormaninEnglandoffortyyearsofage,Iwillventuretosay,whohasnotinsomepartofhislifefelthimselfmostcruellyoppressedbythisillcontrivedlawofsettlements。
Ishallconcludethislongchapterwithobservingthat,thoughancientlyitwasusualtoratewages,firstbygenerallawsextendingoverthewholekingdom,andafterwardsbyparticularordersofthejusticesofpeaceineveryparticularcounty,boththesepracticeshavenowgoneentirelyintodisuse。
\"Bytheexperienceofabovefourhundredyears,\"saysDoctorBurn,\"itseemstimetolayasideallendeavourstobringunderstrictregulations,whatinitsownnatureseemsincapableofminutelimitation;forifallpersonsinthesamekindofworkweretoreceiveequalwages,therewouldbenoemulation,andnoroomleftforindustryoringenuity。\"
ParticularActsofParliament,however,stillattemptsometimestoregulatewagesinparticulartradesandinparticularplaces。Thusthe8thofGeorgeIIIprohibitsunderheavypenaltiesallmastertailorsinLondon,andfivemilesroundit,fromgiving,andtheirworkmenfromaccepting,morethantwoshillingsandsevenpencehalfpennyaday,exceptinthecaseofageneralmourning。Wheneverthelegislatureattemptstoregulatethedifferencesbetweenmastersandtheirworkmen,itscounsellorsarealwaysthemasters。Whentheregulation,therefore,isinfavouroftheworkmen,itisalwaysjustandequitable;butitissometimesotherwisewheninfavourofthemasters。Thusthelawwhichobligesthemastersinseveraldifferenttradestopaytheirworkmeninmoneyandnotingoodsisquitejustandequitable。Itimposesnorealhardshipuponthemasters。Itonlyobligesthemtopaythatvalueinmoney,whichtheypretendedtopay,butdidnotalwaysreallypay,ingoods。
Thislawisinfavouroftheworkmen:butthe8thofGeorgeIII
isinfavourofthemasters。Whenmasterscombinetogetherinordertoreducethewagesoftheirworkmen,theycommonlyenterintoaprivatebondoragreementnottogivemorethanacertainwageunderacertainpenalty。Weretheworkmentoenterintoacontrarycombinationofthesamekind,nottoacceptofacertainwageunderacertainpenalty,thelawwouldpunishthemveryseverely;andifitdealtimpartially,itwouldtreatthemastersinthesamemanner。Butthe8thofGeorgeIIIenforcesbylawthatveryregulationwhichmasterssometimesattempttoestablishbysuchcombinations。Thecomplaintoftheworkmen,thatitputstheablestandmostindustriousuponthesamefootingwithanordinaryworkman,seemsperfectlywellfounded。
Inancienttimes,too,itwasusualtoattempttoregulatetheprofitsofmerchantsandotherdealers,byratingthepricebothofprovisionsandothergoods。Theassizeofbreadis,sofarasIknow,theonlyremnantofthisancientusage。Wherethereisanexclusivecorporation,itmayperhapsbepropertoregulatethepriceofthefirstnecessaryoflife。Butwherethereisnone,thecompetitionwillregulateitmuchbetterthananyassize。Themethodoffixingtheassizeofbreadestablishedbythe31stofGeorgeIIcouldnotbeputinpracticeinScotland,onaccountofadefectinthelaw;itsexecutiondependingupontheofficeofaclerkofthemarket,whichdoesnotexistthere。Thisdefectwasnotremediedtillthe3rdofGeorgeIII。Thewantofanassizeoccasionednosensibleinconveniency,andtheestablishmentofone,inthefewplaceswhereithasyettakenplace,hasproducednosensibleadvantage。
InthegreaterpartofthetownsofScotland,however,thereisanincorporationofbakerswhoclaimexclusiveprivileges,thoughtheyarenotverystrictlyguarded。
Theproportionbetweenthedifferentratesbothofwagesandprofitinthedifferentemploymentsoflabourandstock,seemsnottobemuchaffected,ashasalreadybeenobserved,bytherichesorpoverty,theadvancing,stationary,ordecliningstateofthesociety。Suchrevolutionsinthepublicwelfare,thoughtheyaffectthegeneralratesbothofwagesandprofit,mustintheendaffectthemequallyinalldifferentemployments。Theproportionbetweenthem,therefore,mustremainthesame,andcannotwellbealtered,atleastforanyconsiderabletime,byanysuchrevolutions。
CHAPTERXI
OftheRentofLandRENT,consideredasthepricepaidfortheuseofland,isnaturallythehighestwhichthetenantcanaffordtopayintheactualcircumstancesoftheland。Inadjustingthetermsofthelease,thelandlordendeavourstoleavehimnogreatershareoftheproducethanwhatissufficienttokeepupthestockfromwhichhefurnishestheseed,paysthelabour,andpurchasesandmaintainsthecattleandotherinstrumentsofhusbandry,togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsoffarmingstockintheneighbourhood。
Thisisevidentlythesmallestsharewithwhichthetenantcancontenthimselfwithoutbeingaloser,andthelandlordseldommeanstoleavehimanymore。Whateverpartoftheproduce,or,whatisthesamething,whateverpartofitspriceisoverandabovethisshare,henaturallyendeavourstoreservetohimselfastherentofhisland,whichisevidentlythehighestthetenantcanaffordtopayintheactualcircumstancesoftheland。
Sometimes,indeed,theliberality,morefrequentlytheignorance,ofthelandlord,makeshimacceptofsomewhatlessthanthisportion;andsometimestoo,thoughmorerarely,theignoranceofthetenantmakeshimundertaketopaysomewhatmore,ortocontenthimselfwithsomewhatlessthantheordinaryprofitsoffarmingstockintheneighbourhood。Thisportion,however,maystillbeconsideredasthenaturalrentofland,ortherentforwhichitisnaturallymeantthatlandshouldforthemostpartbelet。
Therentofland,itmaybethought,isfrequentlynomorethanareasonableprofitorinterestforthestocklaidoutbythelandlorduponitsimprovement。This,nodoubt,maybepartlythecaseuponsomeoccasions;foritcanscarceeverbemorethanpartlythecase。Thelandlorddemandsarentevenforunimprovedland,andthesupposedinterestorprofitupontheexpenseofimprovementisgenerallyanadditiontothisoriginalrent。Thoseimprovements,besides,arenotalwaysmadebythestockofthelandlord,butsometimesbythatofthetenant。Whentheleasecomestoberenewed,however,thelandlordcommonlydemandsthesameaugmentationofrentasiftheyhadbeenallmadebyhisown。
Hesometimesdemandsrentforwhatisaltogetherincapableofhumanimprovement。Kelpisaspeciesofsea—weed,which,whenburnt,yieldsanalkalinesalt,usefulformakingglass,soap,andforseveralotherpurposes。ItgrowsinseveralpartsofGreatBritain,particularlyinScotland,uponsuchrocksonlyasliewithinthehighwatermark,whicharetwiceeverydaycoveredwiththesea,andofwhichtheproduce,therefore,wasneveraugmentedbyhumanindustry。Thelandlord,however,whoseestateisboundedbyakelpshoreofthiskind,demandsarentforitasmuchasforhiscornfields。
TheseaintheneighbourhoodoftheislandsofShetlandismorethancommonlyabundantinfish,whichmakesagreatpartofthesubsistenceoftheirinhabitants。Butinordertoprofitbytheproduceofthewater,theymusthaveahabitationupontheneighbouringland。Therentofthelandlordisinproportion,nottowhatthefarmercanmakebytheland,buttowhathecanmakebothbythelandandbythewater。Itispartlypaidinsea—fish;
andoneoftheveryfewinstancesinwhichrentmakesapartofthepriceofthatcommodityistobefoundinthatcountry。
Therentoftheland,therefore,consideredasthepricepaidfortheuseoftheland,isnaturallyamonopolyprice。Itisnotatallproportionedtowhatthelandlordmayhavelaidoutupontheimprovementoftheland,ortowhathecanaffordtotake;buttowhatthefarmercanaffordtogive。
Suchpartsonlyoftheproduceoflandcancommonlybebroughttomarketofwhichtheordinarypriceissufficienttoreplacethestockwhichmustbeemployedinbringingthemthither,togetherwithitsordinaryprofits。Iftheordinarypriceismorethanthis,thesurpluspartofitwillnaturallygototherentofland。Ifitisnotmore,thoughthecommoditymaybebroughttomarket,itcanaffordnorenttothelandlord。
Whetherthepriceisorisnotmoredependsuponthedemand。
Therearesomepartsoftheproduceoflandforwhichthedemandmustalwaysbesuchastoaffordagreaterpricethanwhatissufficienttobringthemtomarket;andthereareothersforwhichiteithermayormaynotbesuchastoaffordthisgreaterprice。Theformermustalwaysaffordarenttothelandlord。Thelattersometimesmay,andsometimesmaynot,accordingtodifferentcircumstances。
Rent,itistobeobserved,therefore,entersintothecompositionofthepriceofcommoditiesinadifferentwayfromwagesandprofit。Highorlowwagesandprofitarethecausesofhighorlowprice;highorlowrentistheeffectofit。Itisbecausehighorlowwagesandprofitmustbepaid,inordertobringaparticularcommoditytomarket,thatitspriceishighorlow。Butitisbecauseitspriceishighorlow;agreatdealmore,orverylittlemore,ornomore,thanwhatissufficienttopaythosewagesandprofit,thatitaffordsahighrent,oralowrent,ornorentatall。
Theparticularconsideration,first,ofthosepartsoftheproduceoflandwhichalwaysaffordsomerent;secondly,ofthosewhichsometimesmayandsometimesmaynotaffordrent;and,thirdly,ofthevariationswhich,inthedifferentperiodsofimprovement,naturallytakeplaceintherelativevalueofthosetwodifferentsortsofrudeproduce,whencomparedbothwithoneanotherandwithmanufacturedcommodities,willdividethischapterintothreeparts。
PART1
OftheProduceofLandwhichalwaysaffordsRentASmen,likeallotheranimals,naturallymultiplyinproportiontothemeansoftheirsubsistence,foodisalways,moreorless,indemand。Itcanalwayspurchaseorcommandagreaterorsmallerquantityoflabour,andsomebodycanalwaysbefoundwhoiswillingtodosomethinginordertoobtainit。Thequantityoflabour,indeed,whichitcanpurchaseisnotalwaysequaltowhatitcouldmaintain,ifmanagedinthemosteconomicalmanner,onaccountofthehighwageswhicharesometimesgiventolabour。Butitcanalwayspurchasesuchaquantityoflabourasitcanmaintain,accordingtotherateatwhichthesortoflabouriscommonlymaintainedintheneighbourhood。
Butland,inalmostanysituation,producesagreaterquantityoffoodthanwhatissufficienttomaintainallthelabournecessaryforbringingittomarketinthemostliberalwayinwhichthatlabourisevermaintained。Thesurplus,too,isalwaysmorethansufficienttoreplacethestockwhichemployedthatlabour,togetherwithitsprofits。Something,therefore,alwaysremainsforarenttothelandlord。
ThemostdesertmoorsinNorwayandScotlandproducesomesortofpastureforcattle,ofwhichthemilkandtheincreasearealwaysmorethansufficient,notonlytomaintainallthelabournecessaryfortendingthem,andtopaytheordinaryprofittothefarmerorowneroftheherdorflock;buttoaffordsomesmallrenttothelandlord。Therentincreasesinproportiontothegoodnessofthepasture。Thesameextentofgroundnotonlymaintainsagreaternumberofcattle,butastheyarebroughtwithinasmallercompass,lesslabourbecomesrequisitetotendthem,andtocollecttheirproduce。Thelandlordgainsbothways,bytheincreaseoftheproduceandbythediminutionofthelabourwhichmustbemaintainedoutofit。
Therentoflandnotonlyvarieswithitsfertility,whateverbeitsproduce,butwithitssituation,whateverbeitsfertility。Landintheneighbourhoodofatowngivesagreaterrentthanlandequallyfertileinadistantpartofthecountry。