Thoughitmaycostnomorelabourtocultivatetheonethantheother,itmustalwayscostmoretobringtheproduceofthedistantlandtomarket。Agreaterquantityoflabour,therefore,mustbemaintainedoutofit;andthesurplus,fromwhicharedrawnboththeprofitofthefarmerandtherentofthelandlord,mustbediminished。Butinremotepartsofthecountrytherateofprofits,ashasalreadybeenshown,isgenerallyhigherthanintheneighbourhoodofalargetown。Asmallerproportionofthisdiminishedsurplus,therefore,mustbelongtothelandlord。
Goodroads,canals,andnavigablerivers,bydiminishingtheexpenseofcarriage,puttheremotepartsofthecountrymorenearlyuponalevelwiththoseintheneighbourhoodofthetown。
Theyareuponthataccountthegreatestofallimprovements。Theyencouragethecultivationoftheremote,whichmustalwaysbethemostextensivecircleofthecountry。Theyareadvantageoustothetown,bybreakingdownthemonopolyofthecountryinitsneighbourhood。Theyareadvantageouseventothatpartofthecountry。Thoughtheyintroducesomerivalcommoditiesintotheoldmarket,theyopenmanynewmarketstoitsproduce。Monopoly,besides,isagreatenemytogoodmanagement,whichcanneverbeuniversallyestablishedbutinconsequenceofthatfreeanduniversalcompetitionwhichforceseverybodytohaverecoursetoitforthesakeofself—defence。ItisnotmorethanfiftyyearsagothatsomeofthecountiesintheneighbourhoodofLondonpetitionedtheParliamentagainsttheextensionoftheturnpikeroadsintotheremotercounties。Thoseremotercounties,theypretended,fromthecheapnessoflabour,wouldbeabletoselltheirgrassandcorncheaperintheLondonmarketthanthemselves,andwouldtherebyreducetheirrents,andruintheircultivation。Theirrents,however,haverisen,andtheircultivationhasbeenimprovedsincethattime。
Acornfieldofmoderatefertilityproducesamuchgreaterquantityoffoodformanthanthebestpastureofequalextent。
Thoughitscultivationrequiresmuchmorelabour,yetthesurpluswhichremainsafterreplacingtheseedandmaintainingallthatlabour,islikewisemuchgreater。Ifapoundofbutcher’smeat,therefore,wasneversupposedtobeworthmorethanapoundofbread,thisgreatersurpluswouldeverywherebeofgreatervalue,andconstituteagreaterfundbothfortheprofitofthefarmerandtherentofthelandlord。Itseemstohavedonesouniversallyintherudebeginningsofagriculture。
Buttherelativevaluesofthosetwodifferentspeciesoffood,breadandbutcher’smeat,areverydifferentinthedifferentperiodsofagriculture。Initsrudebeginnings,theunimprovedwilds,whichthenoccupythefargreaterpartofthecountry,areallabandonedtocattle。Thereismorebutcher’smeatthanbread,andbread,therefore,isthefoodforwhichthereisthegreatestcompetition,andwhichconsequentlybringsthegreatestprice。AtBuenosAyres,wearetoldbyUlloa,fourreals,one—and—twentypencehalfpennysterling,was,fortyorfiftyyearsago,theordinarypriceofanox,chosenfromaherdoftwoorthreehundred。Hesaysnothingofthepriceofbread,probablybecausehefoundnothingremarkableaboutit。Anoxthere,hesays,costlittlemorethanthelabourofcatchinghim。
Butcorncannowhereberaisedwithoutagreatdealoflabour,andinacountrywhichliesupontheriverPlate,atthattimethedirectroadfromEuropetothesilverminesofPotosi,themoneypriceoflabourcouldnotbeverycheap。Itisotherwisewhencultivationisextendedoverthegreaterpartofthecountry。Thereisthenmorebreadthanbutcher’smeat。Thecompetitionchangesitsdirection,andthepriceofbutcher’smeatbecomesgreaterthanthepriceofbread。
Bytheextensionbesidesofcultivation,theunimprovedwildsbecomeinsufficienttosupplythedemandforbutcher’smeat。Agreatpartofthecultivatedlandsmustbeemployedinrearingandfatteningcattle,ofwhichtheprice,therefore,mustbesufficienttopay,notonlythelabournecessaryfortendingthem,buttherentwhichthelandlordandtheprofitwhichthefarmercouldhavedrawnfromsuchlandemployedintillage。Thecattlebreduponthemostuncultivatedmoors,whenbroughttothesamemarket,are,inproportiontotheirweightorgoodness,soldatthesamepriceasthosewhicharereareduponthemostimprovedland。Theproprietorsofthosemoorsprofitbyit,andraisetherentoftheirlandinproportiontothepriceoftheircattle。ItisnotmorethanacenturyagothatinmanypartsofthehighlandsofScotland,butcher’smeatwasascheaporcheaperthanevenbreadmadeofoatmeal。TheunionopenedthemarketofEnglandtothehighlandcattle。Theirordinarypriceisatpresentaboutthreetimesgreaterthanatthebeginningofthecentury,andtherentsofmanyhighlandestateshavebeentripledandquadrupledinthesametime。InalmosteverypartofGreatBritainapoundofthebestbutcher’smeatis,inthepresenttimes,generallyworthmorethantwopoundsofthebestwhitebread;andinplentifulyearsitissometimesworththreeorfourpounds。
Itisthusthatintheprogressofimprovementtherentandprofitofunimprovedpasturecometoberegulatedinsomemeasurebytherentandprofitofwhatisimproved,andtheseagainbytherentandprofitofcorn。Cornisanannualcrop。Butcher’smeat,acropwhichrequiresfourorfiveyearstogrow。Asanacreofland,therefore,willproduceamuchsmallerquantityoftheonespeciesoffoodthanoftheother,theinferiorityofthequantitymustbecompensatedbythesuperiorityoftheprice。Ifitwasmorethancompensated,morecornlandwouldbeturnedintopasture;andifitwasnotcompensated,partofwhatwasinpasturewouldbebroughtbackintocorn。
Thisequality,however,betweentherentandprofitofgrassandthoseofcorn;ofthelandofwhichtheimmediateproduceisfoodforcattle,andofthatofwhichtheimmediateproduceisfoodformen;mustbeunderstoodtotakeplaceonlythroughthegreaterpartoftheimprovedlandsofagreatcountry。Insomeparticularlocalsituationsitisquiteotherwise,andtherentandprofitofgrassaremuchsuperiortowhatcanbemadebycorn。
Thusintheneighbourhoodofagreattownthedemandformilkandforforagetohorsesfrequentlycontribute,togetherwiththehighpriceofbutcher’smeat,toraisethevalueofgrassabovewhatmaybecalleditsnaturalproportiontothatofcorn。Thislocaladvantage,itisevident,cannotbecommunicatedtothelandsatadistance。
Particularcircumstanceshavesometimesrenderedsomecountriessopopulousthatthewholeterritory,likethelandsintheneighbourhoodofagreattown,hasnotbeensufficienttoproduceboththegrassandthecornnecessaryforthesubsistenceoftheirinhabitants。Theirlands,therefore,havebeenprincipallyemployedintheproductionofgrass,themorebulkycommodity,andwhichcannotbesoeasilybroughtfromagreatdistance;andcorn,thefoodofthegreatbodyofthepeople,hasbeenchieflyimportedfromforeigncountries。Hollandisatpresentinthissituation,andaconsiderablepartofancientItalyseemstohavebeensoduringtheprosperityoftheRomans。
Tofeedwell,oldCatosaid,aswearetoldbyCicero,wasthefirstandmostprofitablethinginthemanagementofaprivateestate;tofeedtolerablywell,thesecond;andtofeedill,thethird。Toplough,herankedonlyinthefourthplaceofprofitandadvantage。Tillage,indeed,inthatpartofancientItalywhichlayintheneighbourhoodofRome,musthavebeenverymuchdiscouragedbythedistributionsofcornwhichwerefrequentlymadetothepeople,eithergratuitously,orataverylowprice。
Thiscornwasbroughtfromtheconqueredprovinces,ofwhichseveral,insteadoftaxes,wereobligedtofurnishatenthpartoftheirproduceatastatedprice,aboutsixpenceapeck,totherepublic。ThelowpriceatwhichthiscornwasdistributedtothepeoplemustnecessarilyhavesunkthepriceofwhatcouldbebroughttotheRomanmarketfromLatium,ortheancientterritoryofRome,andmusthavediscourageditscultivationinthatcountry。
Inanopencountrytoo,ofwhichtheprincipalproduceiscorn,awell—enclosedpieceofgrasswillfrequentlyrenthigherthananycornfieldinitsneighbourhood。Itisconvenientforthemaintenanceofthecattleemployedinthecultivationofthecorn,anditshighrentis,inthiscase,notsoproperlypaidfromthevalueofitsownproduceasfromthatofthecornlandswhicharecultivatedbymeansofit。Itislikelytofall,ifevertheneighbouringlandsarecompletelyenclosed。ThepresenthighrentofenclosedlandinScotlandseemsowingtothescarcityofenclosure,andwillprobablylastnolongerthanthatscarcity。Theadvantageofenclosureisgreaterforpasturethanforcorn。Itsavesthelabourofguardingthecattle,whichfeedbetter,too,whentheyarenotliabletobedisturbedbytheirkeeperorhisdog。
Butwherethereisnolocaladvantageofthiskind,therentandprofitofcorn,orwhateverelseisthecommonvegetablefoodorthepeople,mustnaturallyregulate,uponthelandwhichisfitforproducingit,therentandprofitofpasture。
Theuseoftheartificialgrasses,ofturnips,carrots,cabbages,andtheotherexpedientswhichhavebeenfallenupontomakeanequalquantityoflandfeedagreaternumberofcattlethanwheninnaturalgrass,shouldsomewhatreduce,itmightbeexpected,thesuperioritywhich,inanimprovedcountry,thepriceofbutcher’smeatnaturallyhasoverthatofbread。Itseemsaccordinglytohavedoneso;andthereissomereasonforbelievingthat,atleastintheLondonmarket,thepriceofbutcher’smeatinproportiontothepriceofbreadisagooddeallowerinthepresenttimesthanitwasinthebeginningofthelastcentury。
IntheappendixtotheLifeofPrinceHenry,DoctorBirchhasgivenusanaccountofthepricesofbutcher’smeatascommonlypaidbythatprince。Itistheresaidthatthefourquartersofanoxweighingsixhundredpoundsusuallycosthimninepoundstenshillings,orthereabouts;thatis,thirty—oneshillingsandeightpenceperhundredpoundsweight。PrinceHenrydiedonthe6thofNovember1612,inthenineteenthyearofhisage。
InMarch1764,therewasaParliamentaryinquiryintothecausesofthehighpriceofprovisionsatthattime。Itwasthen,amongotherprooftothesamepurpose,giveninevidencebyaVirginiamerchant,thatinMarch1763,hehadvictualledhisshipsfortwenty—fourortwenty—fiveshillingsthehundredweightofbeef,whichheconsideredastheordinaryprice;whereas,inthatdearyear,hehadpaidtwenty—sevenshillingsforthesameweightandsort。Thishighpricein1764is,however,fourshillingsandeightpencecheaperthantheordinarypricepaidbyPrinceHenry;anditisthebestbeefonly,itmustbeobserved,whichisfittobesaltedforthosedistantvoyages。
ThepricepaidbyPrinceHenryamountsto33/4d。perpoundweightofthewholecarcase,coarseandchoicepiecestakentogether;andatthatratethechoicepiecescouldnothavebeensoldbyretailforlessthan41/2d。or5d。thepound。
IntheParliamentaryinquiryin1764,thewitnessesstatedthepriceofthechoicepiecesofthebestbeeftobetotheconsumer4d。and41/4d。thepound;andthecoarsepiecesingeneraltobefromsevenfarthingsto21/2d。andthistheysaidwasingeneralonehalfpennydearerthanthesamesortofpieceshadusuallybeensoldinthemonthofMarch。ButeventhishighpriceisstillagooddealcheaperthanwhatwecanwellsupposetheordinaryretailpricetohavebeenthetimeofPrinceHenry。
Duringthetwelvefirstyearsofthelastcentury,theaveragepriceofthebestwheatattheWindsormarketwasL118s。
31/6d。thequarterofnineWinchesterbushels。
Butinthetwelveyearspreceding1764,includingthatyear,theaveragepriceofthesamemeasureofthebestwheatatthesamemarketwasL21s。91/2d。
Inthetwelvefirstyearsofthelastcentury,therefore,wheatappearstohavebeenagooddealcheaper,andbutcher’smeatagooddealdearer,thaninthetwelveyearspreceding1764,includingthatyear。
Inallgreatcountriesthegreaterpartofthecultivatedlandsareemployedinproducingeitherfoodformenorfoodforcattle。Therentandprofitoftheseregulatetherentandprofitofallothercultivatedland。Ifanyparticularproduceaffordedless,thelandwouldsoonbeturnedintocornorpasture;andifanyaffordedmore,somepartofthelandsincornorpasturewouldsoonbeturnedtothatproduce。
Thoseproductions,indeed,whichrequireeitheragreateroriginalexpenseofimprovement,oragreaterannualexpenseofcultivation,inordertofitthelandforthem,appearcommonlytoafford,theoneagreaterrent,theotheragreaterprofitthancornorpasture。Thissuperiority,however,willseldombefoundtoamounttomorethanareasonableinterestorcompensationforthissuperiorexpense。
Inahopgarden,afruitgarden,akitchengarden,boththerentofthelandlord,andtheprofitofthefarmer,aregenerallygreaterthaninacornorgrassfield。Buttobringthegroundintothisconditionrequiresmoreexpense。Henceagreaterrentbecomesduetothelandlord。Itrequires,too,amoreattentiveandskilfulmanagement。Henceagreaterprofitbecomesduetothefarmer。Thecroptoo,atleastinthehopandfruitgarden,ismoreprecarious。Itsprice,therefore,besidescompensatingalloccasionallosses,mustaffordsomethingliketheprofitofinsurance。Thecircumstancesofgardeners,generallymean,andalwaysmoderate,maysatisfyusthattheirgreatingenuityisnotcommonlyover—recompensed。Theirdelightfulartispractisedbysomanyrichpeopleforamusement,thatlittleadvantageistobemadebythosewhopractiseitforprofit;becausethepersonswhoshouldnaturallybetheirbestcustomerssupplythemselveswithalltheirmostpreciousproductions。
Theadvantagewhichthelandlordderivesfromsuchimprovementsseemsatnotimetohavebeengreaterthanwhatwassufficienttocompensatetheoriginalexpenseofmakingthem。Intheancienthusbandry,afterthevineyard,awell—wateredkitchengardenseemstohavebeenthepartofthefarmwhichwassupposedtoyieldthemostvaluableproduce。ButDemocritus,whowroteuponhusbandryabouttwothousandyearsago,andwhowasregardedbytheancientsasoneofthefathersoftheart,thoughttheydidnotactwiselywhoenclosedakitchengarden。Theprofit,hesaid,wouldnotcompensatetheexpenseofastonewall;andbricks(hemeant,Isuppose,bricksbakedinthesun)moulderedwiththerain,andthewinterstorm,andrequiredcontinualrepairs。Columella,whoreportsthisjudgmentofDemocritus,doesnotcontrovertit,butproposesaveryfrugalmethodofenclosingwithahedgeofbramblesandbriars,which,hesays,hehadfoundbyexperiencetobebothalastingandanimpenetrablefence;butwhich,itseems,wasnotcommonlyknowninthetimeofDemocritus。PalladiusadoptstheopinionofColumella,whichhadbeforebeenrecommendedbyVarro。Inthejudgmentofthoseancientimprovers,theproduceofakitchengardenhad,itseems,beenlittlemorethansufficienttopaytheextraordinarycultureandtheexpenseofwatering;forincountriessonearthesun,itwasthoughtproper,inthosetimesasinthepresent,tohavethecommandofastreamofwaterwhichcouldbeconductedtoeverybedinthegarden。ThroughthegreaterpartofEuropeakitchengardenisnotatpresentsupposedtodeserveabetterenclosurethanthatrecommendedbyColumella。InGreatBritain,andsomeothernortherncountries,thefinerfruitscannotbebroughttoperfectionbutbytheassistanceofawall。Theirprice,therefore,insuchcountriesmustbesufficienttopaytheexpenseofbuildingandmaintainingwhattheycannotbehadwithout。Thefruit—wallfrequentlysurroundsthekitchengarden,whichthusenjoysthebenefitofanenclosurewhichitsownproducecouldseldompayfor。
Thatthevineyard,whenproperlyplantedandbroughttoperfection,wasthemostvaluablepartofthefarm,seemstohavebeenanundoubtedmaximintheancientagriculture,asitisinthemodernthroughallthewinecountries。ButwhetheritwasadvantageoustoplantanewvineyardwasamatterofdisputeamongtheancientItalianhusbandmen,aswelearnfromColumella。
Hedecides,likeatrueloverofallcuriouscultivation,infavourofthevineyard,andendeavourstoshow,byacomparisonoftheprofitandexpense,thatitwasamostadvantageousimprovement。Suchcomparisons,however,betweentheprofitandexpenseofnewprojectsarecommonlyveryfallacious,andinnothingmoresothaninagriculture。Hadthegainactuallymadebysuchplantationsbeencommonlyasgreatasheimagineditmighthavebeen,therecouldhavebeennodisputeaboutit。Thesamepointisfrequentlyatthisdayamatterofcontroversyinthewinecountries。Theirwritersonagriculture,indeed,theloversandpromotersofhighcultivation,seemgenerallydisposedtodecidewithColumellainfavourofthevineyard。InFrancetheanxietyoftheproprietorsoftheoldvineyardstopreventtheplantingofanynewones,seemstofavourtheiropinion,andtoindicateaconsciousnessinthosewhomusthavetheexperiencethatthisspeciesofcultivationisatpresentinthatcountrymoreprofitablethananyother。Itseemsatthesametime,however,toindicateanotheropinion,thatthissuperiorprofitcanlastnolongerthanthelawswhichatpresentrestrainthefreecultivationofthevine。In1731,theyobtainedanorderofcouncilprohibitingboththeplantingofnewvineyardsandtherenewalofthoseoldones,ofwhichthecultivationhadbeeninterruptedfortwoyears,withoutaparticularpermissionfromtheking,tobegrantedonlyinconsequenceofaninformationfromtheintendantoftheprovince,certifyingthathehadexaminedtheland,andthatitwasincapableofanyotherculture。Thepretenceofthisorderwasthescarcityofcornandpasture,andthesuperabundanceofwine。Buthadthissuperabundancebeenreal,itwould,withoutanyorderofcouncil,haveeffectuallypreventedtheplantationofnewvineyards,byreducingtheprofitsofthisspeciesofcultivationbelowtheirnaturalproportiontothoseofcornandpasture。Withregardtothesupposedscarcityofcorn,occasionedbythemultiplicationofvineyards,cornisnowhereinFrancemorecarefullycultivatedthaninthewineprovinces,wherethelandisfitforproducingit;asinBurgundy,Guienne,andtheUpperLanguedoc。Thenumeroushandsemployedintheonespeciesofcultivationnecessarilyencouragetheother,byaffordingareadymarketforitsproduce。Todiminishthenumberofthosewhoarecapableofpayingforitissurelyamostunpromisingexpedientforencouragingthecultivationofcorn。Itislikethepolicywhichwouldpromoteagriculturebydiscouragingmanufactures。
Therentandprofitofthoseproductions,therefore,whichrequireeitheragreateroriginalexpenseofimprovementinordertofitthelandforthem,oragreaterannualexpenseofcultivation,thoughoftenmuchsuperiortothoseofcornandpasture,yetwhentheydonomorethancompensatesuchextraordinaryexpense,areinrealityregulatedbytherentandprofitofthosecommoncrops。
Itsometimeshappens,indeed,thatthequantityofland,whichcanbefittedforsomeparticularproduce,istoosmalltosupplytheeffectualdemand。Thewholeproducecanbedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivesomewhatmorethanwhatissufficienttopaythewholerent,wages,andprofitnecessaryforraisingandbringingittomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates,oraccordingtotheratesatwhichtheyarepaidinthegreaterpartofothercultivatedland。Thesurpluspartofthepricewhichremainsafterdefrayingthewholeexpenseofimprovementandcultivationmaycommonly,inthiscase,andinthiscaseonly,bearnoregularproportiontothelikesurplusincornorpasture,butmayexceeditinalmostanydegree;andthegreaterpartofthisexcessnaturallygoestotherentofthelandlord。
Theusualandnaturalproportion,forexample,betweentherentandprofitofwineandthoseofcornandpasturemustbeunderstoodtotakeplaceonlywithregardtothosevineyardswhichproducenothingbutgoodcommonwine,suchascanberaisedalmostanywhere,uponanylight,gravelly,orsandysoil,andwhichhasnothingtorecommenditbutitsstrengthandwholesomeness。Itiswithsuchvineyardsonlythatthecommonlandofthecountrycanbebroughtintocompetition;forwiththoseofapeculiarqualityitisevidentthatitcannot。
Thevineismoreaffectedbythedifferenceofsoilsthananyotherfruittree。Fromsomeitderivesaflavourwhichnocultureormanagementcanequal,itissupposed,uponanyother。
Thisflavour,realorimaginary,issometimespeculiartotheproduceofafewvineyards;sometimesitextendsthroughthegreaterpartofasmalldistrict,andsometimesthroughaconsiderablepartofalargeprovince。Thewholequantityofsuchwinesthatisbroughttomarketfallsshortoftheeffectualdemand,orthedemandofthosewhowouldbewillingtopaythewholerent,profit,andwages,necessaryforpreparingandbringingthemthither,accordingtotheordinaryrate,oraccordingtotherateatwhichtheyarepaidincommonvineyards。
Thewholequantity,therefore,canbedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtopaymore,whichnecessarilyraisesthepriceabovethatofcommonwine。Thedifferenceisgreaterorlessaccordingasthefashionablenessandscarcityofthewinerenderthecompetitionofthebuyersmoreorlesseager。Whateveritbe,thegreaterpartofitgoestotherentofthelandlord。Forthoughsuchvineyardsareingeneralmorecarefullycultivatedthanmostothers,thehighpriceofthewineseemstobenotsomuchtheeffectasthecauseofthiscarefulcultivation。Insovaluableaproducethelossoccasionedbynegligenceissogreatastoforceeventhemostcarelesstoattention。Asmallpartofthishighprice,therefore,issufficienttopaythewagesoftheextraordinarylabourbestowedupontheircultivation,andtheprofitsoftheextraordinarystockwhichputsthatlabourintomotion。
ThesugarcoloniespossessedbytheEuropeannationsintheWestIndiesmaybecomparedtothosepreciousvineyards。TheirwholeproducefallsshortoftheeffectualdemandofEurope,andcanbedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivemorethanwhatissufficienttopaythewholerent,profit,andwagesnecessaryforpreparingandbringingittomarket,accordingtotherateatwhichtheyarecommonlypaidbyanyotherproduce。InCochinChinathefinestwhitesugarcommonlysellsforthreepiastersthequintal,aboutthirteenshillingsandsixpenceofourmoney,aswearetoldbyMr。Poivre,averycarefulobserveroftheagricultureofthatcountry。WhatistherecalledthequintalweighsfromahundredandfiftytotwohundredParispounds,orahundredandseventy—fiveParispoundsatamedium,whichreducesthepriceofthehundred—weightEnglishtoabouteightshillingssterling,notafourthpartofwhatiscommonlypaidforthebrownormuskavadasugarsimportedfromourcolonies,andnotasixthpartofwhatispaidforthefinestwhitesugar。ThegreaterpartofthecultivatedlandsinCochinChinaareemployedinproducingcornandrice,thefoodofthegreatbodyofthepeople。Therespectivepricesofcorn,rice,andsugar,arethereprobablyinthenaturalproportion,orinthatwhichnaturallytakesplaceinthedifferentcropsofthegreaterpartofcultivatedland,andwhichrecompensesthelandlordandfarmer,asnearlyascanbecomputedaccordingtowhatisusuallytheoriginalexpenseofimprovementandtheannualexpenseofcultivation。ButinoursugarcoloniesthepriceofsugarbearsnosuchproportiontothatoftheproduceofariceorcornfieldeitherinEuropeorinAmerica。Itiscommonlysaidthatasugarplanterexpectsthattherumandmolassesshoulddefraythewholeexpenseofhiscultivation,andthathissugarshouldbeallclearprofit。Ifthisbetrue,forI
pretendnottoaffirmit,itisasifacornfarmerexpectedtodefraytheexpenseofhiscultivationwiththechaffandthestraw,andthatthegrainshouldbeallclearprofit。WeseefrequentlysocietiesofmerchantsinLondonandothertradingtown’spurchasewastelandsinoursugarcolonies,whichtheyexpecttoimproveandcultivatewithprofitbymeansoffactorsandagents,notwithstandingthegreatdistanceandtheuncertainreturnsfromthedefectiveadministrationofjusticeinthosecountries。NobodywillattempttoimproveandcultivateinthesamemannerthemostfertilelandsofScotland,Ireland,orthecornprovincesofNorthAmerica,thoughfromthemoreexactadministrationofjusticeinthesecountriesmoreregularreturnsmightbeexpected。
InVirginiaandMarylandthecultivationoftobaccoispreferred,asmoreprofitable,tothatofcorn。TobaccomightbecultivatedwithadvantagethroughthegreaterpartofEurope;butinalmosteverypartofEuropeithasbecomeaprincipalsubjectoftaxation,andtocollectataxfromeverydifferentfarminthecountrywherethisplantmighthappentobecultivatedwouldbemoredifficult,ithasbeensupposed,thantolevyoneuponitsimportationatthecustom—house。ThecultivationoftobaccohasuponthisaccountbeenmostabsurdlyprohibitedthroughthegreaterpartofEurope,whichnecessarilygivesasortofmonopolytothecountrieswhereitisallowed;andasVirginiaandMarylandproducethegreatestquantityofit,theysharelargely,thoughwithsomecompetitors,intheadvantageofthismonopoly。Thecultivationoftobacco,however,seemsnottobesoadvantageousasthatofsugar。IhaveneverevenheardofanytobaccoplantationthatwasimprovedandcultivatedbythecapitalofmerchantswhoresidedinGreatBritain,andourtobaccocoloniessendushomenosuchwealthyplantersasweseefrequentlyarrivefromoursugarislands。Thoughfromthepreferencegiveninthosecoloniestothecultivationoftobaccoabovethatofcorn,itwouldappearthattheeffectualdemandofEuropefortobaccoisnotcompletelysupplied,itprobablyismorenearlysothanthatforsugar;andthoughthepresentpriceoftobaccoisprobablymorethansufficienttopaythewholerent,wages,andprofitnecessaryforpreparingandbringittomarket,accordingtotherateatwhichtheyarecommonlypaidincornland,itmustnotbesomuchmoreasthepresentpriceofsugar。Ourtobaccoplanters,accordingly,haveshownthesamefearofthesuperabundanceoftobaccowhichtheproprietorsoftheoldvineyardsinFrancehaveofthesuperabundanceofwine。
Byactofassemblytheyhaverestraineditscultivationtosixthousandplants,supposedtoyieldathousandweightoftobacco,foreverynegrobetweensixteenandsixtyyearsofage。Suchanegro,overandabovethisquantityoftobacco,canmanage,theyreckon,fouracresofIndiancorn。Topreventthemarketfrombeingoverstocked,too,theyhavesometimes,inplentifulyears,wearetoldbyDr。Douglas(Isuspecthehasbeenillinformed),burntacertainquantityoftobaccoforeverynegro,inthesamemannerastheDutcharesaidtodoofspices。Ifsuchviolentmethodsarenecessarytokeepupthepresentpriceoftobacco,thesuperioradvantageofitscultureoverthatofcorn,ifitstillhasany,willnotprobablybeoflongcontinuance。
Itisinthismannerthattherentofthecultivatedland,ofwhichtheproduceishumanfood,regulatestherentofthegreaterpartofothercultivatedland。Noparticularproducecanlongaffordless;becausethelandwouldimmediatelybeturnedtoanotheruse。Andifanyparticularproducecommonlyaffordsmore,itisbecausethequantityoflandwhichcanbefittedforitistoosmalltosupplytheeffectualdemand。
InEurope,cornistheprincipalproduceoflandwhichservesimmediatelyforhumanfood。Exceptinparticularsituations,therefore,therentofcornlandregulatesinEuropethatofallothercultivatedland。BritainneedenvyneitherthevineyardsofFrancenortheoliveplantationsofItaly。Exceptinparticularsituations,thevalueoftheseisregulatedbythatofcorn,inwhichthefertilityofBritainisnotmuchinferiortothatofeitherofthosetwocountries。
Ifinanycountrythecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeopleshouldbedrawnfromaplantofwhichthemostcommonland,withthesameornearlythesameculture,producedamuchgreaterquantitythanthemostfertiledoesofcorn,therentofthelandlord,orthesurplusquantityoffoodwhichwouldremaintohim,afterpayingthelabourandreplacingthestockofthefarmer,togetherwithitsordinaryprofits,wouldnecessarilybemuchgreater。Whateverwastherateatwhichlabourwascommonlymaintainedinthatcountry,thisgreatersurpluscouldalwaysmaintainagreaterquantityofit,andconsequentlyenablethelandlordtopurchaseorcommandagreaterquantityofit。Therealvalueofhisrent,hisrealpowerandauthority,hiscommandofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifewithwhichthelabourofotherpeoplecouldsupplyhim,wouldnecessarilybemuchgreater。
Aricefieldproducesamuchgreaterquantityoffoodthanthemostfertilecornfield。Twocropsintheyearfromthirtytosixtybushelseach,aresaidtobetheordinaryproduceofanacre。Thoughitscultivation,therefore,requiresmorelabour,amuchgreatersurplusremainsaftermaintainingallthatlabour。
Inthosericecountries,therefore,wherericeisthecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeople,andwherethecultivatorsarechieflymaintainedwithit,agreatershareofthisgreatersurplusshouldbelongtothelandlordthanincorncountries。InCarolina,wheretheplanters,asinotherBritishcolonies,aregenerallybothfarmersandlandlords,andwhererentconsequentlyisconfoundedwithprofit,thecultivationofriceisfoundtobemoreprofitablethanthatofcorn,thoughtheirfieldsproduceonlyonecropintheyear,andthough,fromtheprevalenceofthecustomsofEurope,riceisnottherethecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeople。
Agoodricefieldisabogatallseasons,andatoneseasonabogcoveredwithwater。Itisunfiteitherforcorn,orpasture,orvineyard,or,indeed,foranyothervegetableproducethatisveryusefultomen;andthelandswhicharefitforthosepurposesarenotfitforrice。Eveninthericecountries,therefore,therentofricelandscannotregulatetherentoftheothercultivatedland,whichcanneverbeturnedtothatproduce。
Thefoodproducedbyafieldofpotatoesisnotinferiorinquantitytothatproducedbyafieldofrice,andmuchsuperiortowhatisproducedbyafieldofwheat。Twelvethousandweightofpotatoesfromanacreoflandisnotagreaterproducethantwothousandweightofwheat。Thefoodorsolidnourishment,indeed,whichcanbedrawnfromeachofthosetwoplants,isnotaltogetherinproportiontotheirweight,onaccountofthewaterynatureofpotatoes。Allowing,however,halftheweightofthisroottogotowater,averylargeallowance,suchanacreofpotatoeswillstillproducesixthousandweightofsolidnourishment,threetimesthequantityproducedbytheacreofwheat。Anacreofpotatoesiscultivatedwithlessexpensethananacreofwheat;thefallow,whichgenerallyprecedesthesowingofwheat,morethancompensatingthehoeingandotherextraordinaryculturewhichisalwaysgiventopotatoes。ShouldthisrooteverbecomeinanypartofEurope,likericeinsomericecountries,thecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeople,soastooccupythesameproportionofthelandsintillagewhichwheatandothersortsofgrainforhumanfooddoatpresent,thesamequantityofcultivatedlandwouldmaintainamuchgreaternumberofpeople,andthelabourersbeinggenerallyfedwithpotatoes,agreatersurpluswouldremainafterreplacingallthestockandmaintainingallthelabouremployedincultivation。Agreatershareofthissurplus,too,wouldbelongtothelandlord。Populationwouldincrease,andrentswouldrisemuchbeyondwhattheyareatpresent。
Thelandwhichisfitforpotatoesisfitforalmosteveryotherusefulvegetable。Iftheyoccupiedthesameproportionofcultivatedlandwhichcorndoesatpresent,theywouldregulate,inthesamemanner,therentofthegreaterpartofothercultivatedland。
InsomepartsofLancashireitispretended,Ihavebeentold,thatbreadofoatmealisaheartierfoodforlabouringpeoplethanwheatenbread,andIhavefrequentlyheardthesamedoctrineheldinScotland。Iam,however,somewhatdoubtfulofthetruthofit。ThecommonpeopleinScotland,whoarefedwithoatmeal,areingeneralneithersostrong,norsohandsomeasthesamerankofpeopleinEnglandwhoarefedwithwheatenbread。
Theyneitherworksowell,norlooksowell;andasthereisnotthesamedifferencebetweenthepeopleoffashioninthetwocountries,experiencewouldseemtoshowthatthefoodofthecommonpeopleinScotlandisnotsosuitabletothehumanconstitutionasthatoftheirneighboursofthesamerankinEngland。Butitseemstobeotherwisewithpotatoes。Thechairmen,porters,andcoalheaversinLondon,andthoseunfortunatewomenwholivebyprostitution,thestrongestmenandthemostbeautifulwomenperhapsintheBritishdominions,aresaidtobethegreaterpartofthemfromthelowestrankofpeopleinIreland,whoaregenerallyfedwiththisroot。Nofoodcanaffordamoredecisiveproofofitsnourishingquality,orofitsbeingpeculiarlysuitabletothehealthofthehumanconstitution。
Itisdifficulttopreservepotatoesthroughtheyear,andimpossibletostorethemlikecorn,fortwoorthreeyearstogether。Thefearofnotbeingabletosellthembeforetheyrotdiscouragestheircultivation,andis,perhaps,thechiefobstacletotheireverbecominginanygreatcountry,likebread,theprincipalvegetablefoodofallthedifferentranksofthepeople。
PART2
OftheProduceofLandwhichsometimesdoes,andsometimesdoesnot,affordRentHUMANfoodseemstobetheonlyproduceoflandwhichalwaysandnecessarilyaffordssomerenttothelandlord。Othersortsofproducesometimesmayandsometimesmaynot,accordingtodifferentcircumstances。
Afterfood,clothingandlodgingarethetwogreatwantsofmankind。
Landinitsoriginalrudestatecanaffordthematerialsofclothingandlodgingtoamuchgreaternumberofpeoplethanitcanfeed。Initsimprovedstateitcansometimesfeedagreaternumberofpeoplethanitcansupplywiththosematerials;atleastinthewayinwhichtheyrequirethem,andarewillingtopayforthem。Intheonestate,therefore,thereisalwaysasuperabundanceofthosematerials,whicharefrequently,uponthataccount,oflittleornovalue。Intheotherthereisoftenascarcity,whichnecessarilyaugmentstheirvalue。Intheonestateagreatpartofthemisthrownawayasuseless,andthepriceofwhatisusedisconsideredasequalonlytothelabourandexpenseoffittingitforuse,andcan,therefore,affordnorenttothelandlord。Intheothertheyareallmadeuseof,andthereisfrequentlyademandformorethancanbehad。Somebodyisalwayswillingtogivemoreforeverypartofthemthanwhatissufficienttopaytheexpenseofbringingthemtomarket。
Theirprice,therefore,canalwaysaffordsomerenttothelandlord。
Theskinsofthelargeranimalsweretheoriginalmaterialsofclothing。Amongnationsofhuntersandshepherds,therefore,whosefoodconsistschieflyinthefleshofthoseanimals,everyman,byprovidinghimselfwithfood,provideshimselfwiththematerialsofmoreclothingthanhecanwear。Iftherewasnoforeigncommerce,thegreaterpartofthemwouldbethrownawayasthingsofnovalue。ThiswasprobablythecaseamongthehuntingnationsofNorthAmericabeforetheircountrywasdiscoveredbytheEuropeans,withwhomtheynowexchangetheirsurpluspeltryforblankets,fire—arms,andbrandy,whichgivesitsomevalue。Inthepresentcommercialstateoftheknownworld,themostbarbarousnations,Ibelieve,amongwhomlandpropertyisestablished,havesomeforeigncommerceofthiskind,andfindamongtheirwealthierneighbourssuchademandforallthematerialsofclothingwhichtheirlandproduces,andwhichcanneitherbewroughtupnorconsumedathome,asraisestheirpriceabovewhatitcoststosendthemtothosewealthierneighbours。Itaffords,therefore,somerenttothelandlord。