pages452，455。OneofthesmallestponiesIeversaw，ofthecolourofamouse，hadaconspicuousspinalstripe。AsmallIndianchestnutponyhadthesamestripe，ashadaremarkablyheavychestnutcart—horse。Race—horsesoftenhavethespinalstripe。）Occasionallyhorsesaretransverselybarredonthelegs，chieflyontheunderside;andmorerarelytheyhaveadistinctstripeontheshoulder，likethatontheshoulderoftheass，orabroaddarkpatchrepresentingastripe。BeforeenteringonanydetailsI
mustpremisethatthetermdun—colouredisvague，andincludesthreegroupsofcolours，viz。，thatbetweencream—colourandreddish—brown，whichgraduatesintolight—bayorlight—chestnut——this，Ibelieveisoftencalledfallow—dun;secondly，leadenorslate—colourormouse—dun，whichgraduatesintoanash—colour;and，lastly，dark—dun，betweenbrownandblack。InEnglandIhaveexaminedaratherlarge，lightly—built，fallow—dunDevonshirepony（Figure1），withaconspicuousstripealongtheback，withlighttransversestripesontheundersidesofitsfrontlegs，andwithfourparallelstripesoneachshoulder。Ofthesefourstripestheposterioronewasveryminuteandfaint;theanteriorone，ontheotherhand，waslongandbroad，butinterruptedinthemiddle，andtruncatedatitslowerextremity，withtheanteriorangleproducedintoalongtaperingpoint。I
mentionthislatterfactbecausetheshoulder—stripeoftheassoccasionallypresentsexactlythesameappearance。Ihavehadanoutlineanddescriptionsenttomeofasmall，purely—bred，lightfallow—dunWelchpony，withaspinalstripe，asingletransversestripeoneachleg，andthreeshoulder—stripes;theposteriorstripecorrespondingwiththatontheshoulderoftheasswasthelongest，whilstthetwoanteriorparallelstripes，arisingfromthemane，decreasedinlength，inareversedmannerascomparedwiththeshoulder—stripesontheabove—describedDevonshirepony。Ihaveseenabrightfallow—duncob，withitsfrontlegstransverselybarredontheundersidesinthemostconspicuousmanner;alsoadark—
leadenmouse—colouredponywithsimilarlegstripes，butmuchlessconspicuous;alsoabrightfallow—duncolt，fullythree—partsthoroughbred，withveryplaintransversestripesonthelegs;alsoachestnut—duncart—
horsewithaconspicuousspinalstripe，withdistincttracesofshoulder—
stripes，butnoneonthelegs;Icouldaddothercases。Mysonmadeasketchformeofalarge，heavy，Belgiancart—horse，ofafallow—dun，withaconspicuousspinalstripe，tracesofleg—stripes，andwithtwoparallel（threeinchesapart）stripesaboutsevenoreightinchesinlengthonbothshoulders。Ihaveseenanotherratherlightcart—horse，ofadirtydarkcream—colour，withstripedlegs，andononeshoulderalargeill—defineddarkcloudypatch，andontheoppositeshouldertwoparallelfaintstripes。
Allthecasesyetmentionedaredunsofvarioustints;butMr。W。W。Edwardshasseenanearlythoroughbredchestnuthorsewhichhadthespinalstripe，anddistinctbarsonthelegs;andIhaveseentwobaycarriage—horseswithblackspinalstripes;oneofthesehorseshadoneachshoulderalightshoulder—stripe，andtheotherhadabroadbackill—definedstripe，runningobliquelyhalf—waydowneachshoulder;neitherhadleg—stripes。
ThemostinterestingcasewhichIhavemetwithoccurredinacoltofmyownbreeding。Abaymare（descendedfromadark—brownFlemishmarebyalightgreyTurcomanhorse）wasputtoHercules，athoroughbreddarkbay，whosesire（Kingston）anddamwerebothbays。Thecoltultimatelyturnedoutbrown;butwhenonlyafortnightolditwasadirtybay，shadedwithmouse—grey，andinpartswithayellowishtint:ithadonlyatraceofthespinalstripe，withafewobscuretransversebarsonthelegs;butalmostthewholebodywasmarkedwithverynarrowdarkstripes，inmostpartssoobscureastobevisibleonlyincertainlights，likethestripeswhichmaybeseenonblackkittens。Thesestripesweredistinctonthehind—quarters，wheretheydivergedfromthespine，andpointedalittleforwards;manyofthemastheydivergedbecamealittlebranched，exactlyinthesamemannerasinsomezebrinespecies。Thestripeswereplainestontheforeheadbetweentheears，wheretheyformedasetofpointedarches，oneundertheother，decreasinginsizedownwardstowardsthemuzzle;exactlysimilarmarksmaybeseenontheforeheadofthequaggaandBurchell’szebra。Whenthisfoalwastwoorthreemonthsoldallthestripesentirelydisappeared。
Ihaveseensimilarmarksontheforeheadofafullygrown，fallow—dun，cob—likehorse，havingaconspicuousspinalstripe，andwithitsfrontlegswellbarred。
InNorwaythecolourofthenativehorseorponyisdun，varyingfromalmostcream—colourtodark—mousedun;andananimalisnotconsideredpurelybredunlessithasthespinalandleg—stripes。（2/34。Ihavereceivedinformation，throughthekindnessoftheConsul—General，Mr。J。R。
Crowe，fromProf。Boeck，Rasck，andEsmarck，onthecoloursoftheNorwegianponies。Seealso’TheField’1861page431。）Mysonestimatedthataboutathirdoftheponieswhichhesawtherehadstripedlegs;hecountedsevenstripesonthefore—legsandtwoonthehind—legsofonepony;onlyafewofthemexhibitedtracesofshoulderstripes;butIhaveheardofacobimportedfromNorwaywhichhadtheshoulderaswellastheotherstripeswelldeveloped。ColonelH。Smith（2/35。Col。HamiltonSmith’Nat。Lib。’volume12page275。）alludestodun—horseswiththespinalstripeintheSierrasofSpain;andthehorsesoriginallyderivedfromSpain，insomepartsofSouthAmerica，arenowduns。SirW。Elliotinformsmethatheinspectedaherdof300SouthAmericanhorsesimportedintoMadras，andmanyofthesehadtransversestripesonthelegsandshortshoulder—stripes;themoststronglymarkedindividual，ofwhichacoloureddrawingwassentme，wasamouse—dun，withtheshoulder—stripesslightlyforked。
IntheNorth—WesternpartsofIndiastripedhorsesofmorethanonebreedareapparentlycommonerthaninanyotherpartoftheworld;andIhavereceivedinformationrespectingthemfromseveralofficers，especiallyfromColonelPoole，ColonelCurtis，MajorCampbell，BrigadierSt。John，andothers。TheKattywarhorsesareoftenfifteenorsixteenhandsinheight，andarewellbutlightlybuilt。Theyareofallcolours，buttheseveralkindsofdunsprevail;andthesearesogenerallystriped，thatahorsewithoutstripesisnotconsideredpure。ColonelPoolebelievesthatallthedunshavethespinalstripe，theleg—stripesaregenerallypresent，andhethinksthatabouthalfthehorseshavetheshoulder—stripe;thisstripeissometimesdoubleortrebleonbothshoulders。ColonelPoolehasoftenseenstripesonthecheeksandsidesofthenose。HehasseenstripesonthegreyandbayKattywarswhenfirstfoaled，buttheysoonfadedaway。Ihavereceivedotheraccountsofcream—coloured，bay，brown，andgreyKattywarhorsesbeingstriped。EastwardofIndia，theShan（northofBurmah）ponies，asIaminformedbyMr。Blyth，havespinal，leg，andshoulderstripes。SirW。ElliotinformsmethathesawtwobayPeguponieswithleg—stripes。
BurmeseandJavaneseponiesarefrequentlydun—coloured，andhavethethreekindsofstripes，\"inthesamedegreeasinEngland。\"（2/36。Mr。G。Clarkin’AnnalandMag。ofNat。History’2ndseriesvolume21848page363。Mr。
WallaceinformsmethathesawinJavaadunandclay—colouredhorsewithspinalandlegstripes。）Mr。Swinhoeinformsmethatheexaminedtwolight—
dunponiesoftwoChinesebreeds，viz。，thoseofShanghaiandAmoy;bothhadthespinalstripe，andthelatteranindistinctshoulder—stripe。
Wethusseethatinallpartsoftheworldbreedsofthehorseasdifferentaspossible，whenofadun—colour（includingunderthistermawiderangeoftintfromcreamtodustyblack），andrarelywhenalmostwhitetingedwithyellow，grey，bay，andchestnut，havetheseveralabove—specifiedstripes。Horseswhichareofayellowcolourwithwhitemaneandtail，andwhicharesometimescalledduns，Ihaveneverseenwithstripes。（2/37。Seealsoonthispoint’TheField’July27，1861page91。）
FromreasonswhichwillbeapparentinthechapteronReversion，Ihaveendeavoured，butwithpoorsuccess，todiscoverwhetherduns，whicharesomuchoftenerstripedthanothercolouredhorses，areeverproducedfromthecrossingoftwohorses，neitherofwhichareduns。MostpersonstowhomI
haveappliedbelievethatoneparentmustbedun;anditisgenerallyassertedthat，whenthisisthecase，thedun—colourandthestripesarestronglyinherited。（2/38。’TheField’1861pages431，493，545。）Onecase，however，hasfallenundermyownobservationofafoalfromablackmarebyabayhorse，whichwhenfullygrownwasadarkfallow—dunandhadanarrowbutplainspinalstripe。Hofacker（2/39。’UeberdieEigenschaften’etc。
1828s。13，14。）givestwoinstancesofmouse—duns（Mausrapp）beingproducedfromtwoparentsofdifferentcoloursandneitherduns。
Thestripesofallkindsaregenerallyplainerinthefoalthanintheadulthorse，beingcommonlylostatthefirstsheddingofthehair。（2/40。
VonNathusius’VortrageuberViehzucht’1872135。）ColonelPoolebelievesthat\"thestripesintheKattywarbreedareplainestwhenthecoltisfirstfoaled;theythenbecomelessandlessdistincttillafterthefirstcoatisshed，whentheycomeoutasstronglyasbefore;butcertainlyoftenfadeawayastheageofthehorseincreases。\"TwootheraccountsconfirmthisfadingofthestripesinoldhorsesinIndia。Onewriter，ontheotherhand，statesthatcoltsareoftenbornwithoutstripes，butthattheyappearasthecoltgrowsolder。ThreeauthoritiesaffirmthatinNorwaythestripesarelessplaininthefoalthanintheadult。Inthecasedescribedbymeoftheyoungfoalwhichwasnarrowlystripedovernearlyallitsbody，therewasnodoubtabouttheearlyandcompletedisappearanceofthestripes。Mr。W。W。Edwardsexaminedformetwenty—twofoalsofrace—horses，andtwelvehadthespinalstripemoreorlessplain;thisfact，andsomeotheraccountswhichIhavereceived，leadmetobelievethatthespinalstripeoftendisappearsintheEnglishrace—horsewhenold。Withnaturalspecies，theyoungoftenexhibitcharacterswhichdisappearatmaturity。]
Thestripesarevariableincolour，butarealwaysdarkerthantherestofthebody。Theydonotbyanymeansalwayscoexistonthedifferentpartsofthebody:thelegsmaybestripedwithoutanyshoulder—stripe，ortheconversecase，whichisrarer，mayoccur;butIhaveneverheardofeithershoulderorleg—stripeswithoutthespinalstripe。Thelatterisbyfarthecommonestofallthestripes，asmighthavebeenexpected，asitcharacterisestheothersevenoreightspeciesofthegenus。Itisremarkablethatsotriflingacharacterastheshoulder—stripebeingdoubleortripleshouldoccurinsuchdifferentbreedsasWelchandDevonshireponies，theShanpony，heavycart—horses，lightSouthAmericanhorses，andthelankyKattywarbreed。ColonelHamiltonSmithbelievesthatoneofhisfivesupposedprimitivestockswasdun—colouredandstriped;andthatthestripesinalltheotherbreedsresultfromancientcrosseswiththisoneprimitivedun;butitisextremelyimprobablethatdifferentbreedslivinginsuchdistantquartersoftheworldshouldallhavebeencrossedwithanyoneaboriginallydistinctstock。Norhaveweanyreasontobelievethattheeffectsofacrossataveryremoteperiodwouldbepropagatedforsomanygenerationsasisimpliedonthisview。
Withrespecttotheprimitivecolourofthehorsehavingbeendun，ColonelHamiltonSmith（2/41。’Nat。Library’volume121841pages109，156to163，280，281。Cream—colour，passingintoIsabella（i。e。thecolourofthedirtylinenofQueenIsabella），seemstohavebeencommoninancienttimes。SeealsoPallas’saccountofthewildhorsesoftheEast，whospeaksofdunandbrownastheprevalentcolours。IntheIcelandicsagas，whichwerecommittedtowritinginthetwelfthcentury，dun—colouredhorseswithablackspinalstripearementioned;seeDasent’stranslationvolume1page169。）hascollectedalargebodyofevidenceshowingthatthistintwascommonintheEastasfarbackasthetimeofAlexander，andthatthewildhorsesofWesternAsiaandEasternEuropenoware，orrecentlywere，ofvariousshadesofdun。Itseemsthatnotverylongagoawildbreedofdun—
colouredhorseswithaspinalstripewaspreservedintheroyalparksinPrussia。IhearfromHungarythattheinhabitantsofthatcountrylookatthedunswithaspinalstripeastheaboriginalstock，andsoitisinNorway。Dun—colouredponiesarenotrareinthemountainouspartsofDevonshire，Wales，andScotland，wheretheaboriginalbreedwouldhavethebestchanceofbeingpreserved。InSouthAmericainthetimeofAzara，whenthehorsehadbeenferalforabout250years，90outof100horseswere\"bai—chatains，\"andtheremainingtenwere\"zains，\"thatisbrown;notmorethanonein2000beingblack。InNorthAmericatheferalhorsesshowastrongtendencytobecomeroansofvariousshades;butincertainparts，asIhearfromDr。Canfield，theyaremostlydunsandstriped。（2/42。Azara’QuadrupedesduParaguay’tome2page307。InNorthAmericaCatlin（volume2page57）describesthewildhorses，believedtohavedescendedfromtheSpanishhorsesofMexico，asofallcolours，black，grey，roan，androanpiedwithsorrel。F。Michaux’TravelsinNorthAmerica’Englishtranslationpage235，describestwowildhorsesfromMexicoasroan。IntheFalklandIslands，wherethehorsehasbeenferalonlybetween60and70years，Iwastoldthatroansandiron—greysweretheprevalentcolours。Theseseveralfactsshowthathorsesdonotsoonreverttoanyuniformcolour。）
InthefollowingchaptersonthePigeonweshallseethatabluebirdisoccasionallyproducedbypurebreedsofvariouscoloursandthatwhenthisoccurscertainblackmarksinvariablyappearonthewingsandtail;soagain，whenvariouslycolouredbreedsarecrossed，bluebirdswiththesameblackmarksarefrequentlyproduced。Weshallfurtherseethatthesefactsareexplainedby，andaffordstrongevidenceinfavourof，theviewthatallthebreedsaredescendedfromtherock—pigeon，orColumbalivia，whichisthuscolouredandmarked。Buttheappearanceofthestripesonthevariousbreedsofthehorse，whenofaduncolour，doesnotaffordnearlysuchgoodevidenceoftheirdescentfromasingleprimitivestockasinthecaseofthepigeon:becausenohorsecertainlywildisknownasastandardofcomparison;becausethestripeswhentheyappeararevariableincharacter;becausethereisfarfromsufficientevidencethatthecrossingofdistinctbreedsproducesstripes，andlastly，becauseallthespeciesofthegenusEquushavethespinalstripe，andseveralspecieshaveshoulderandlegstripes。Neverthelessthesimilarityinthemostdistinctbreedsintheirgeneralrangeofcolour，intheirdappling，andintheoccasionalappearance，especiallyinduns，ofleg—stripesandofdoubleortripleshoulder—stripes，takentogether，indicatetheprobabilityofthedescentofalltheexistingracesfromasingle，dun—coloured，moreorlessstriped，primitivestock，towhichourhorsesoccasionallyrevert。
THEASS。
FourspeciesofAsses，besidesthreezebras，havebeendescribedbynaturalists。ThereisnowlittledoubtthatourdomesticatedanimalisdescendedfromtheEquustaeniopusofAbyssinia。（2/43。Dr。Sclaterin’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’1862page164。Dr。Hartmannsays（’AnnalenderLandw。’
b。44page222）thatthisanimalinitswildstateisnotalwaysstripedacrossthelegs。）Theassissometimesadvancedasaninstanceofananimaldomesticated，asweknowbytheOldTestament，fromanancientperiod，whichhasvariedonlyinaveryslightdegree。Butthisisbynomeansstrictlytrue;forinSyriaalonetherearefourbreeds（2/44。W。C。Martin’HistoryoftheHorse’1845page207。）;first，alightandgracefulanimal，withanagreeablegait，usedbyladies;secondly，anArabbreedreservedexclusivelyforthesaddle;thirdly，astouteranimalusedforploughingandvariouspurposes;andlastly，thelargeDamascusbreed，withapeculiarlylongbodyandears。IntheSouthofFrancealsothereareseveralbreeds，andoneofextraordinarysize，someindividualsbeingastallasfull—sizedhorses。AlthoughtheassinEnglandisbynomeansuniforminappearance，distinctbreedshavenotbeenformed。Thismayprobablybeaccountedforbytheanimalbeingkeptchieflybypoorpersons，whodonotrearlargenumbers，norcarefullymatchandselecttheyoung。
For，asweshallseeinafuturechapter，theasscanwitheasebegreatlyimprovedinsizeandstrengthbycarefulselection，combinednodoubtwithgoodfood;andwemayinferthatallitsothercharacterswouldbeequallyamenabletoselection。ThesmallsizeoftheassinEnglandandNorthernEuropeisapparentlyduefarmoretowantofcareinbreedingthantocold;
forinWesternIndia，wheretheassisusedasabeastofburdenbysomeofthelowercastes，itisnotmuchlargerthanaNewfoundlanddog，\"beinggenerallynotmorethanfromtwentytothirtyincheshigh。\"（2/45。Col。
SykesCat。ofMammalia’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’July12，1831。Williamson’OrientalFieldSports’volume2quotedbyMartinpage206。）
Theassvariesgreatlyincolour;anditslegs，especiallythefore—legs，bothinEnglandandothercountries——forinstance，inChina——areoccasionallybarredmoreplainlythanthoseofdun—colouredhorses。
Thirteenorfourteentransversestripeshavebeencountedonboththeforeandhindlegs。Withthehorsetheoccasionalappearanceofleg—stripeswasaccountedforbyreversiontoasupposedparent—form，andinthecaseoftheasswemayconfidentlybelieveinthisexplanation，asE。taeniopusisknowntobebarred，thoughonlyinaslightdegree，andnotquiteinvariably。Thestripesarebelievedtooccurmostfrequentlyandtobeplainestonthelegsofthedomesticassduringearlyyouth（2/46。Blythin’Charlesworth’sMag。ofNat。Hist。’vol41840page83。Ihavealsobeenassuredbyabreederthatthisisthecase。），aslikewiseoccurswiththehorse。Theshoulder—stripe，whichissoeminentlycharacteristicofthespecies，isneverthelessvariableinbreadth，length，andmanneroftermination。Ihavemeasuredonefourtimesasbroadasanother，andsomemorethantwiceaslongasothers。Inonelight—greyasstheshoulder—
stripewasonlysixinchesinlength，andasthinasapieceofstring;andinanotheranimalofthesamecolourtherewasonlyaduskyshaderepresentingastripe。Ihaveheardofthreewhiteasses，notalbinoes，withnotraceofshoulderorspinalstripes（2/47。OnecaseisgivenbyMartin’TheHorse’page205。）;andIhaveseennineotherasseswithnoshoulder—stripe，andsomeofthemhadnospinalstripe。Threeoftheninewerelight—greys，oneadark—grey，anothergreypassingintoreddish—roan，andtheotherswerebrown，twobeingtintedonpartsoftheirbodieswithareddishorbayshade。Ifthereforegreyandreddish—brownasseshadbeensteadilyselectedandbredfrom，theshoulderstripewouldprobablyhavebeenlostalmostasgenerallyandcompletelyasinthecaseofthehorse。
Theshoulderstripeontheassissometimesdouble，andMr。Blythhasseeneventhreeorfourparallelstripes。（2/48。’JournalAs。Soc。ofBengal’
volume281860page231。MartinontheHorsepage205。）Ihaveobservedintencasesshoulder—stripesabruptlytruncatedatthelowerend，withtheanteriorangleproducedintoataperingpoint，preciselyasintheabovedunDevonshirepony。Ihaveseenthreecasesoftheterminalportionabruptlyandangularlybent;andhaveseenandheardoffourcasesofadistinctthoughslightforkingofthestripe。InSyria，Dr。Hookerandhispartyobservedformenolessthanfivesimilarinstancesoftheshoulder—
stripeplainlybifurcatingovertheforeleg。Inthecommonmuleitlikewisesometimesbifurcates。WhenIfirstnoticedtheforkingandangularbendingoftheshoulder—stripe，Ihadseenenoughofthestripesinthevariousequinespeciestofeelconvincedthatevenacharactersounimportantasthishadadistinctmeaning，andwasthusledtoattendtothesubject。InowfindthatintheE。burchelliiandquagga，thestripewhichcorrespondswiththeshoulder—stripeoftheass，aswellassomeofthestripesontheneck，bifurcate，andthatsomeofthoseneartheshoulderhavetheirextremitiesbentangularlybackwards。Thebifurcationandangularbendingofthestripesontheshouldersapparentlyareconnectedwiththenearlyuprightstripesonthesidesofthebodyandneckchangingtheirdirectionandbecomingtransverseonthelegs。Finally，weseethatthepresenceofshoulder，leg，andspinalstripesinthehorse，——
theiroccasionalabsenceintheass，——theoccurrenceofdoubleandtripleshoulder—stripesinbothanimals，andthesimilarmannerinwhichthesestripesterminatedownwards，——areallcasesofanalogousvariationinthehorseandass。Thesecasesareprobablynotduetosimilarconditionsactingonsimilarconstitutions，buttoapartialreversionincolourtothecommonprogenitorofthegenus。Weshallhereafterreturntothissubject，anddiscussitmorefully。
CHAPTER1。III。
PIGS——CATTLE——SHEEP——GOATS。
PIGSBELONGTOTWODISTINCTTYPES，SUSSCROFAANDINDICUS。
TORFSCHWEIN。
JAPANPIGS。
FERTILITYOFCROSSEDPIGS。
CHANGESINTHESKULLOFTHEHIGHLYCULTIVATEDRACES。
CONVERGENCEOFCHARACTER。
GESTATION。
SOLID—HOOFEDSWINE。
CURIOUSAPPENDAGESTOTHEJAWS。
DECREASEINSIZEOFTHETUSKS。
YOUNGPIGSLONGITUDINALLYSTRIPED。
FERALPIGS。
CROSSEDBREEDS。
CATTLE。
ZEBUADISTINCTSPECIES。
EUROPEANCATTLEPROBABLYDESCENDEDFROMTHREEWILDFORMS。
ALLTHERACESNOWFERTILETOGETHER。
BRITISHPARKCATTLE。
ONTHECOLOUROFTHEABORIGINALSPECIES。
CONSTITUTIONALDIFFERENCES。
SOUTHAFRICANRACES。
SOUTHAMERICANRACES。
NIATACATTLE。
ORIGINOFTHEVARIOUSRACESOFCATTLE。
SHEEP。
REMARKABLERACESOF。
VARIATIONSATTACHEDTOTHEMALESEX。
ADAPTATIONSTOVARIOUSCONDITIONS。
GESTATIONOF。
CHANGESINTHEWOOL。
SEMI—MONSTROUSBREEDS。
GOATS。
REMARKABLEVARIATIONSOF。
Thebreedsofthepighaverecentlybeenmorecloselystudied，thoughmuchstillremainstobedone，thanthoseofalmostanyotherdomesticatedanimal。ThishasbeeneffectedbyHermannvonNathusiusintwoadmirableworks，especiallyinthelateroneontheSkullsoftheseveralraces，andbyRutimeyerinhiscelebratedFaunaoftheancientSwisslake—dwellings。
（3/1。HermannvonNathusius’DieRacendesSchweines’Berlin1860;and’VorstudienfurGeschichte’etc。’Schweineschadel’Berlin1864。Rutimeyer’DieFaunaderPfahlbauten’Basel1861。）Nathusiushasshownthatalltheknownbreedsmaybedividedintotwogreatgroups:oneresemblinginallimportantrespectsandnodoubtdescendedfromthecommonwildboar;sothatthismaybecalledtheSusscrofagroup。Theothergroupdiffersinseveralimportantandconstantosteologicalcharacters;itswildparent—
formisunknown;thenamegiventoitbyNathusius，accordingtothelawofpriority，isSusindicus，ofPallas。Thisnamemustnowbefollowed，thoughanunfortunateone，asthewildaboriginaldoesnotinhabitIndia，andthebest—knowndomesticatedbreedshavebeenimportedfromSiamandChina。
FirstfortheSusscrofabreeds，orthoseresemblingthecommonwildboar。
Thesestillexist，accordingtoNathusius（’Schweineschadel’s。75），invariouspartsofcentralandnorthernEurope;formerlyeverykingdom（3/2。
Nathusius’DieRacendesSchweines’Berlin1860。Anexcellentappendixisgivenwithreferencestopublishedandtrustworthydrawingsofthebreedsofeachcountry），andalmosteveryprovinceinBritain，possesseditsownnativebreed;butthesearenoweverywhererapidlydisappearing，beingreplacedbyimprovedbreedscrossedwiththeS。indicusform。TheskullinthebreedsoftheS。scrofatyperesembles，inallimportantrespects，thatoftheEuropeanwildboar;butithasbecome（’Schweineschadel’s。63—68）
higherandbroaderrelativelytoitslength;andthehinderpartismoreupright。Thedifferences，however，areallvariableindegree。ThebreedswhichthusresembleS。scrofaintheiressentialskullcharactersdifferconspicuouslyfromeachotherinotherrespects，asinthelengthoftheearsandlegs，curvatureoftheribs，colour，hairiness，sizeandproportionsofthebody。
ThewildSusscrofahasawiderange，namely，Europe，NorthAfrica，asidentifiedbyosteologicalcharactersbyRutimeyer，andHindostan，assimilarlyidentifiedbyNathusius。Butthewildboarsinhabitingtheseseveralcountriesdiffersomuchfromeachotherinexternalcharacters，thattheyhavebeenrankedbysomenaturalistsasspecificallydistinct。
EvenwithinHindostantheseanimals，accordingtoMr。Blyth，formverydistinctracesinthedifferentdistricts;intheN。Westernprovinces，asIaminformedbytheRev。R。Everest，theboarneverexceeds36inchesinheight，whilstinBengalonehasbeenmeasured44inchesinheight。InEurope，NorthernAfrica，andHindostan，domesticpigshavebeenknowntocrosswiththewildnativespecies（3/3。ForEuropeseeBechstein’Naturgesch。Deutschlands’1801b。1s。505。Severalaccountshavebeenpublishedonthefertilityoftheoffspringfromwildandtameswine。SeeBurdach’Physiology’andGodron’Del’Espece’tome1page370。ForAfrica’Bull。delaSoc。d’Acclimat。’tome4page389。ForIndiaseeNathusius’Schweineschadel’s。148。）;andinHindostananaccurateobserver（3/4。SirW。ElliotCatalogueofMammalia’MadrasJournalofLit。andScience’volume10page219。），SirWalterElliot，afterdescribingthedifferencesbetweenwildIndianandwildGermanboars，remarksthat\"thesamedifferencesareperceptibleinthedomesticatedindividualsofthetwocountries。\"WemaythereforeconcludethatthebreedsoftheSusscrofatypearedescendedfrom，orhavebeenmodifiedbycrossingwith，formswhichmayberankedasgeographicalraces，butwhich，accordingtosomenaturalists，oughttoberankedasdistinctspecies。
PigsoftheSusindicustypearebestknowntoEnglishmenundertheformoftheChinesebreed。TheskullofS。indicus，asdescribedbyNathusius，differsfromthatofS。scrofainseveralminorrespects，asinitsgreaterbreadthandinsomedetailsintheteeth;butchieflyintheshortnessofthelachrymalbones，inthegreaterwidthoftheforepartofthepalate—
bones，andinthedivergenceofthepremolarteeth。Itdeservesespecialnoticethattheselattercharactersarenotgained，evenintheleastdegree，bythedomesticatedformsofS。scrofa。AfterreadingtheremarksanddescriptionsgivenbyNathusius，itseemstometobemerelyplayingwithwordstodoubtwhetherS。indicusoughttoberankedasaspecies;fortheabove—specifieddifferencesaremorestronglymarkedthananythatcanbepointedoutbetween，forinstance，thefoxandthewolf，ortheassandthehorse。Asalreadystated，S。indicusisnotknowninawildstate;butitsdomesticatedforms，accordingtoNathusius，comeneartoS。vittatusofJavaandsomealliedspecies。ApigfoundwildintheAruislands（’Schweineschadel’s。169）isapparentlyidenticalwithS。indicus;butitisdoubtfulwhetherthisisatrulynativeanimal。ThedomesticatedbreedsofChina，Cochin—China，andSiambelongtothistype。TheRomanorNeapolitanbreed，theAndalusian，theHungarian，andthe\"Krause\"swineofNathusius，inhabitingsouth—easternEuropeandTurkey，andhavingfinecurlyhair，andthesmallSwiss\"Bundtnerschwein\"ofRutimeyer，allagreeintheirmoreimportantskull—characterswithS。indicus，and，asissupposed，haveallbeenlargelycrossedwiththisform。PigsofthistypehaveexistedduringalongperiodontheshoresoftheMediterranean，forafigure（’Schweineschadel’s。142）closelyresemblingtheexistingNeapolitanpigwasfoundintheburiedcityofHerculaneum。
RutimeyerhasmadetheremarkablediscoverythattherelivedcontemporaneouslyinSwitzerland，duringtheNeolithicperiod，twodomesticatedforms，theS。scrofa，andtheS。scrofapalustrisorTorfschwein。RutimeyerperceivedthatthelatterapproachedtheEasternbreeds，and，accordingtoNathusius，itcertainlybelongstotheS。indicusgroup;butRutimeyerhassubsequentlyshownthatitdiffersinsomewell—
markedcharacters。ThisauthorwasformerlyconvincedthathisTorfschweinexistedasawildanimalduringthefirstpartoftheStoneperiod，andwasdomesticatedduringalaterpartofthesameperiod。（3/5。’Pfahlbauten’s。
163etpassim。）Nathusius，whilsthefullyadmitsthecuriousfactfirstobservedbyRutimeyer，thatthebonesofdomesticatedandwildanimalscanbedistinguishedbytheirdifferentaspect，yet，fromspecialdifficultiesinthecaseofthebonesofthepig（’Schweineschadel’s。147），isnotconvincedofthetruthoftheaboveconclusion;andRutimeyerhimselfseemsnowtofeelsomedoubt。OthernaturalistshavealsoarguedstronglyonthesamesideasNathusius。（3/6。SeeJ。W。Schutz’interestingessay’ZurKenntnissdesTorfschweins’1868。ThisauthorbelievesthattheTorfschweinisdescendedfromadistinctspecies，theS。sennariensisofCentralAfrica。）
Severalbreeds，differingintheproportionsofthebody，inthelengthoftheears，inthenatureofthehair，incolour，etc。，comeundertheS。
indicustype。Noristhissurprising，consideringhowancientthedomesticationofthisformhasbeenbothinEuropeandinChina。InthislattercountrythedateisbelievedbyaneminentChinesescholar（3/7。
Stan。JulienquotedbydeBlainville’Osteographie’page163。）togobackatleast4900yearsfromthepresenttime。ThissamescholaralludestotheexistenceofmanylocalvarietiesofthepiginChina;andatthepresenttimetheChinesetakeextraordinarypainsinfeedingandtendingtheirpigs，notevenallowingthemtowalkfromplacetoplace。（3/8。Richardson’Pigs，theirOrigin’etc。page26。）Hencethesepigs，asNathusiushasremarked（3/9。’DieRacendesSchweines’s。47，64。），displayinaneminentdegreethecharactersofahighly—cultivatedrace，andhence，nodoubt，theirhighvalueintheimprovementofourEuropeanbreeds。Nathusiusmakesaremarkablestatement（’Schweineschadel’s。138），thattheinfusionofthe1/32nd，orevenofthe1/64th，partofthebloodofS。indicusintoabreedofS。scrofa，issufficientplainlytomodifytheskullofthelatterspecies。ThissingularfactmayperhapsbeaccountedforbyseveralofthechiefdistinctivecharactersofS。indicus，suchastheshortnessofthelachrymalbones，etc。，beingcommontoseveralspeciesofthegenus;forincrossescharacterswhicharecommontomanyspeciesapparentlytendtobeprepotentoverthoseappertainingtoonlyafewspecies。
（FIGURE2。HEADOFJAPANORMASKEDPIG。（CopiedfromMr。Bartlett’spaperin’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’1861page263。））
TheJapanpig（S。plicicepsofGray），whichwasformerlyexhibitedintheZoologicalGardens，hasanextraordinaryappearancefromitsshorthead，broadforeheadandnose，greatfleshyears，anddeeplyfurrowedskin。
Figure2iscopiedfromthatgivenbyMr。Bartlett。（3/10。’Proc。Zoolog。
Soc。’1861page263。）Notonlyisthefacefurrowed，butthickfoldsofskin，whichareharderthantheotherparts，almostliketheplatesontheIndianrhinoceros，hangabouttheshouldersandrump。Itiscolouredblack，withwhitefeet，andbreedstrue。Thatithaslongbeendomesticatedtherecanbelittledoubt;andthismighthavebeeninferredevenfromthefactthatitsyoungarenotlongitudinallystriped;forthisisacharactercommontoallthespeciesincludedwithinthegenusSusandthealliedgenerawhilstintheirnaturalstate。（3/11。Sclaterin’Proc。Zoolog。
Soc。’February26，1861。）Dr。Gray（3/12。’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’1862page13。TheskullhassincebeendescribedmuchmorefullybyProfessorLucaeinaveryinterestingessay，’DerSchadeldesMaskenschweines’1870。HeconfirmstheconclusionofvonNathusiusontherelationshipofthiskindofpig。）hasdescribedtheskullofthisanimal，whichheranksnotonlyasadistinctspecies，butplacesitinadistinctsectionofthegenus。
Nathusius，however，afterhiscarefulstudyofthewholegroup，statespositively（’Schweineschadel’s。153—158）。thattheskullinallessentialcharacterscloselyresemblesthatoftheshort—earedChinesebreedoftheS。indicustype。HenceNathusiusconsiderstheJapanpigasonlyadomesticatedvarietyofS。indicus:ifthisreallybethecase，itisawonderfulinstanceoftheamountofmodificationwhichcanbeeffectedunderdomestication。
FormerlythereexistedinthecentralislandsofthePacificOceanasingularbreedofpigs。ThesearedescribedbytheRev。D。TyermanandG。
Bennett（3/13。’JournalofVoyagesandTravelsfrom1821to1829’volume1
page300。）asofsmallsize，hump—backed，withadisproportionatelylonghead，withshortearsturnedbackwards，withabushytailnotmorethantwoinchesinlength，placedasifitgrewfromtheback。WithinhalfacenturyaftertheintroductionofEuropeanandChinesepigsintotheseislands，thenativebreed，accordingtotheaboveauthors，becamealmostcompletelylostbybeingrepeatedlycrossedwiththem。Secludedislands，asmighthavebeenexpected，seemfavourablefortheproductionorretentionofpeculiarbreeds;thus，intheOrkneyIslands，thehogshavebeendescribedasverysmall，witherectandsharpears，and\"withanappearancealtogetherdifferentfromthehogsbroughtfromthesouth。\"（3/14。Rev。G。Low’FaunaOrcadensis’page10。SeealsoDr。Hibbert’saccountofthepigoftheShetlandIslands。）
SeeinghowdifferenttheChinesepigs，belongingtotheSusindicustype，areintheirosteologicalcharactersandinexternalappearancefromthepigsoftheS。scrofatype，sothattheymustbeconsideredspecificallydistinct，itisafactwelldeservingattention，thatChineseandcommonpigshavebeenrepeatedlycrossedinvariousmanners，withunimpairedfertility。OnegreatbreederwhohadusedpureChinesepigsassuredmethatthefertilityofthehalf—breedsinterseandoftheirrecrossedprogenywasactuallyincreased;andthisisthegeneralbeliefofagriculturists。
Again，theJapanpigorS。plicicepsofGrayissodistinctinappearancefromallcommonpigs，thatitstretchesone’sbelieftotheutmosttoadmitthatitissimplyadomesticvariety;yetthisbreedhasbeenfoundperfectlyfertilewiththeBerkshirebreed;andMr。Eytoninformsmethathepairedahalf—bredbrotherandsisterandfoundthemquitefertiletogether。
（FIGURE3。HEADOFWILDBOAR，ANDOF\"GOLDENDAYS，\"apigoftheYorkshireLargeBreed;thelatterfromaphotograph。（CopiedfromSidney’seditionof’ThePig’byYouatt。））
Themodificationoftheskullinthemosthighlycultivatedracesiswonderful。Toappreciatetheamountofchange，Nathusius’work，withitsexcellentfigures，shouldbestudied。Thewholeoftheexteriorinallitspartshasbeenaltered:thehindersurface，insteadofslopingbackwards，isdirectedforwards，entailingmanychangesinotherparts;thefrontoftheheadisdeeplyconcave;theorbitshaveadifferentshape;theauditorymeatushasadifferentdirectionandshape;theincisorsoftheupperandlowerjawsdonottoucheachother，andtheystandinbothjawsbeyondtheplaneofthemolars;thecaninesoftheupperjawstandinfrontofthoseofthelowerjaw，andthisisaremarkableanomaly:thearticularsurfacesoftheoccipitalcondylesaresogreatlychangedinshape，that，asNathusiusremarks（s。133），nonaturalist，seeingthisimportantpartoftheskullbyitself，wouldsupposethatitbelongedtothegenusSus。Theseandvariousothermodifications，asNathusiusobserves，canhardlybeconsideredasmonstrosities，fortheyarenotinjurious，andarestrictlyinherited。Thewholeheadismuchshortened;thus，whilstincommonbreedsitslengthtothatofthebodyisas1to6，inthe\"cultur—racen\"theproportionisas1to9，andevenrecentlyas1to11。（3/15。’DieRacendesSchweines’s。70。）Figure3（3/16。ThesewoodcutsarecopiedfromengravingsgiveninMr。S。Sidney’sexcellenteditionof’ThePig’byYouatt1860。Seepages1，16，19。）oftheheadofawildboarandofasowfromaphotographoftheYorkshireLargeBreed，mayaidinshowinghowgreatlytheheadinahighlycultivatedracehasbeenmodifiedandshortened。
Nathusiushaswelldiscussedthecausesoftheremarkablechangesintheskullandshapeofthebodywhichthehighlycultivatedraceshaveundergone。ThesemodificationsoccurchieflyinthepureandcrossedracesoftheS。indicustype;buttheircommencementmaybeclearlydetectedintheslightlyimprovedbreedsoftheS。scrofatype。（3/17。
’Schweineschadel’s。74，135。）Nathusiusstatespositively（s。99，103），astheresultofcommonexperienceandofhisexperiments，thatrichandabundantfood，givenduringyouth，tendsbysomedirectactiontomaketheheadbroaderandshorter;andthatpoorfoodworksacontraryresult。Helaysmuchstressonthefactthatallwildandsemi—domesticatedpigs，inploughingupthegroundwiththeirmuzzles，have，whilstyoung，toexertthepowerfulmusclesfixedtothehinderpartofthehead。Inhighlycultivatedracesthishabitisnolongerfollowed，andconsequentlythebackoftheskullbecomesmodifiedinshape，entailingotherchangesinotherparts。Therecanhardlybeadoubtthatsogreatachangeinhabitswouldaffecttheskull;butitseemsratherdoubtfulhowfarthiswillaccountforthegreatlyreducedlengthoftheskullandforitsconcavefront。Itiswellknown（Nathusiushimselfadvancingmanycases，s。104）thatthereisastrongtendencyinmanydomesticanimals——inbull—andpug—dogs，intheniatacattle，insheep，inPolishfowls，short—
facedtumblerpigeons，andinonevarietyofthecarp——forthebonesofthefacetobecomegreatlyshortened。Inthecaseofthedog，asH。Mullerhasshown，thisseemscausedbyanabnormalstateoftheprimordialcartilage。
Wemay，however，readilyadmitthatabundantandrichfoodsuppliedduringmanygenerationswouldgiveaninheritedtendencytoincreasedsizeofbody，andthat，fromdisuse，thelimbswouldbecomefinerandshorter。
（3/18。Nathusius’DieRacendesSchweines’s。71。）Weshallinafuturechapterseealsothattheskullandlimbsareapparentlyinsomemannercorrelated，sothatanychangeintheonetendstoaffecttheother。
Nathusiushasremarked，andtheobservationisaninterestingone，thatthepeculiarformoftheskullandbodyinthemosthighlycultivatedracesisnotcharacteristicofanyonerace，butiscommontoallwhenimproveduptothesamestandard。Thusthelarge—bodied，long—eared，Englishbreedswithaconvexback，andthesmall—bodied，short—eared，Chinesebreedswithaconcaveback，whenbredtothesamestateofperfection，nearlyresembleeachotherintheformoftheheadandbody。Thisresult，itappears，ispartlyduetosimilarcausesofchangeactingontheseveralraces，andpartlytomanbreedingthepigforonesolepurpose，namely，forthegreatestamountoffleshandfat;sothatselectionhasalwaystendedtowardsoneandthesameend。Withmostdomesticanimalstheresultofselectionhasbeendivergenceofcharacter，hereithasbeenconvergence。
（3/19。’DieRacendesSchweines’s。47。’Schweineschadel’s。104。ComparealsothefiguresoftheoldIrishandtheimprovedIrishbreedsinRichardsonon’ThePig’1847。）
Thenatureofthefoodsuppliedduringmanygenerationshasapparentlyaffectedthelengthoftheintestines;for，accordingtoCuvier（3/20。
QuotedbyIsid。Geoffroy’Hist。Nat。Gen。’tome3page441。），theirlengthtothatofthebodyinthewildboarisas9to1，——inthecommondomesticboaras13。5to1，——andintheSiambreedas16to1。Inthislatterbreedthegreaterlengthmaybedueeithertodescentfromadistinctspeciesortomoreancientdomestication。Thenumberofmammaevary，asdoestheperiodofgestation。Thelatestauthoritysays（3/21。S。Sidney’ThePig’
page61。）that\"theperiodaveragesfrom17to20weeks，\"butIthinktheremustbesomeerrorinthisstatement:inM。Tessier’sobservationson25
sowsitvariedfrom109to123days。TheRev。W。D。Foxhasgivenmetencarefullyrecordedcaseswithwell—bredpigs，inwhichtheperiodvariedfrom101to116days。AccordingtoNathusiustheperiodisshortestintheraceswhichcomeearlytomaturity;butthecourseoftheirdevelopmentdoesnotappeartobeactuallyshortened，fortheyounganimalisborn，judgingfromthestateoftheskull，lessfullydeveloped，orinamoreembryoniccondition（3/22。’Schweineschadel’s。2，20。）thaninthecaseofcommonswine。Inthehighlycultivatedandearlymaturedracestheteeth，also，aredevelopedearlier。
Thedifferenceinthenumberofthevertebraeandribsindifferentkindsofpigs，asobservedbyMr。Eyton（3/23。’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’1837page23。
Ihavenotgiventhecaudalvertebrae，asMr。Eytonsayssomemightpossiblyhavebeenlost。Ihaveaddedtogetherthedorsalandlumbarvertebrae，owingtoProf。Owen’sremarks（’JournalLinn。Soc。’volume2
page28）onthedifferencebetweendorsalandlumbarvertebraedependingonlyonthedevelopmentoftheribs。Neverthelessthedifferenceinthenumberoftheribsinpigsdeservesnotice。M。Sansongivesthenumberoflumbarvertebraeinvariouspigs;’ComptesRendus’93page843。），andasgiveninthefollowingtable，hasoftenbeenquoted。TheAfricansowprobablybelongstotheS。scrofatype;andMr。Eytoninformsmethat，sincethepublicationofthispaper，cross—bredanimalsfromtheAfricanandEnglishraceswerefoundbyLordHilltobeperfectlyfertile。
TABLE2:NUMBEROFVERTEBRAEINVARIOUSPIGS:
ENGLISHLONG—LEGGEDMALE。
Dorsal15。Lumbar6。DorsalplusLumbar21。Sacral5。Total26。
AFRICANFEMALE。
Dorsal13。Lumbar6。DorsalplusLumbar19。Sacral5。Total24。
CHINESEMALE。
Dorsal15。Lumbar4。DorsalplusLumbar19。Sacral4。Total23。
WILDBOARFROMCUVIER。
Dorsal14。Lumbar5。DorsalplusLumbar19。Sacral4。Total23。
FRENCHDOMESTICBOAR，FROMCUVIER。
Dorsal14。Lumbar5。DorsalplusLumbar19。Sacral4。Total23。
Somesemi—monstrousbreedsdeservenotice。FromthetimeofAristotletothepresenttimesolid—hoofedswinehaveoccasionallybeenobservedinvariouspartsoftheworld。Althoughthispeculiarityisstronglyinherited，itishardlyprobablethatalltheanimalswithsolidhoofshavedescendedfromthesameparents;itismoreprobablethatthesamepeculiarityhasreappearedatvarioustimesandplaces。Dr。Struthershaslatelydescribedandfigured（3/24。’EdinburghNewPhilosoph。Journal’
April1863。SeealsoDeBlainville’Osteographie’page128forvariousauthoritiesonthissubject。）thestructureofthefeet;inbothfrontandhindfeetthedistalphalangesofthetwogreatertoesarerepresentedbyasingle，great，hoof—bearingphalanx;andinthefrontfeet，themiddlephalangesarerepresentedbyabonewhichissingletowardsthelowerend，butbearstwoseparatearticulationstowardstheupperend。Fromotheraccountsitappearsthatanintermediatetoeislikewisesometimessuperadded。
（FIGURE4。OLDIRISHPIG，withjawappendages。（CopiedfromH。D。RichardsononPigs。））
Anothercuriousanomalyisofferedbytheappendages，describedbyM。
Eudes—DeslongchampsasoftencharacterizingtheNormandypigs。Theseappendagesarealwaysattachedtothesamespot，tothecornersofthejaw;
theyarecylindrical，aboutthreeinchesinlength，coveredwithbristles，andwithapencilofbristlesrisingoutofasinusononeside:theyhaveacartilaginouscentre，withtwosmalllongitudinalmusclestheyoccureithersymmetricallyonbothsidesofthefaceorononesidealone。
Richardsonfiguresthemonthegauntold\"IrishGreyhoundpig;\"andNathusiusstatesthattheyoccasionallyappearinallthelongearedraces，butarenotstrictlyinherited，fortheyoccurorfailinanimalsofthesamelitter。（3/25。Eudes—Deslongchamps’MemoiresdelaSoc。Linn。deNormandie’volume71842page41。Richardson’Pigs，theirOrigin，etc。’