XXXIII。Inasimpleway，thatisinonewayatatime，aman\'shappinessisliabletobedisturbedeither1。Byactionsreferringtohisownpersonitself；or2。Byactionsreferringtosuchexternalobjectsonwhichhishappinessismoreorlessdependent。
Astohisownperson，itiscomposedoftwodifferentparts，orreputedparts，hisbodyandhismind。Actswhichexertaperniciousinfluenceonhisperson，whetheritbeonthecorporealoronthementalpartofit，willoperatethereoneitherimmediately，andwithoutaffectinghiswill，ormediately，throughtheinterventionofthatfaculty:viz。bymeansoftheinfluencewhichtheycausehiswilltoexerciseoverhisbody。Ifwiththeinterventionofhiswill，itmustbebymentalcoercion:thatis，bycausinghimtowilltomaintain，andthenceactuallytomaintain，acertainconductwhichitisdisagreeable，orinanyotherwaypernicious，tohimtomaintain。Thisconductmayeitherbepositiveornegative:whenpositive，thecoercionisstyledcompulsionorconstraint:whennegative，restraint。Nowthewayinwhichthecoercionisdisagreeabletohim，maybebyproducingeitherpainofbody，oronlypainofmind。Ifpainofbodyisproducedbyit，theoffencewillcomeaswellunderthisasunderotherdenominations，whichweshallcometopresently。Moreover，theconductwhichaman，bymeansofthecoercion，isforcedtomaintain，willbedeterminedeitherspecificallyandoriginally，bythedeterminationoftheparticularactsthemselveswhichheisforcedtoperformortoabstainfrom，orgenerallyandincidentally，bymeansofhisbeingforcedtobeornottobeinsuchorsuchaplace。Butifheispreventedfrombeinginoneplace，heisconfinedtherebytoanother。Forthewholesurfaceoftheearth，likethesurfaceofanygreaterorlesserbody，maybeconceivedtobedividedintotwo，aswellasintoanyothernumberofpartsorspots。Ifthespotthen，whichheisconfinedto，besmallerthanthespotwhichheisexcludedfrom，hisconditionmaybecalledconfinement:iflarger，banishment。[*]
Whetheranact，theeffectofwhichistoexertaperniciousinfluenceonthepersonofhimwhosuffersbyitoperateswithorwithouttheinterventionofanactofhiswill，themischiefitproduceswilleitherbemortalornotmortal。Ifnotmortal，itwilleitherbereparable，thatistemporary，orirreparable，thatisperpetual。Ifreparable，themischievousactmaybetermedasimplecorporalinjury；ifirreparable，anirreparablecorporalinjury。Lastly，apainthatamanexperiencesinhismindwilleitherbeapainofactualsufferance，orapainofapprehension。Ifapainofapprehension，eithertheoffenderhimselfisrepresentedasintendingtobearapartintheproductionofit，orheisnot。Intheformercasetheoffencemaybestyledmenacement:inthelattercase，asalsowherethepainisapainofactualsufferance，asimplementalinjury。Andthuswehaveninegeneraorkindsofpersonalinjuries；which，whenrangedintheordermostcommodiousforexamination，willstandasfollows；viz。1。Simplecorporalinjuries。2。
Irreparablecorporalinjuries。3。Simpleinjuriousrestrainment。4。
Simpleinjuriouscompulsion。5。Wrongfulconfinement。6。
Wrongfulbanishment。7。Wrongfulhomicide。8。Wrongfulmenacement。
9。Simplementalinjuries。{Correspondingsemi-publicandself-regardingoffences。}
XXXIV。Wecomenowtooffencesagainstreputationmerely。Theserequirebutfewdistinctions。Inpointofreputationthereisbutonewayofsuffering，whichisbylosingaportionofthegood-willofothers。Now，inrespectofthegood-willwhichothersbearyou，youmaybealoserineitheroftwoways:1。Bythemannerinwhichyouarethoughttobehaveyourself；and2。Bythemannerinwhichothersbehave，orarethoughttobehave，towardsyou。Tocausepeopletothinkthatyouyourselfhavesobehaved，astohavebeenguiltyofanyofthoseactswhichcauseamantopossesslessthanhedidbeforeofthegood-willofthecommunity，iswhatmaybestyleddefamation。Butsuchistheconstitutionofhumannature，andsuchtheforceofprejudice，thatamanmerelybymanifestinghisownwantofgood-willtowardsyou，thougheversounjustinitself，andeversounlawfullyexpressed，mayinamannerforceotherstowithdrawfromyouapartoftheirs。Whenhedoesthisbywords，orbysuchactionsashavenoothereffectthaninasfarastheystandintheplaceofwords，theoffencemaybestyledvilification。
Whenitisdonebysuchactionsas，besidestheirhavingthiseffect，areinjuriestotheperson，theoffencemaybestyledapersonalinsult:ifithasgotthelengthofreachingthebody，acorporalinsult:ifitstoppedshortbeforeitreachedthatlength，itmaybestyledinsultingmenacement。Andthuswehavetwogeneraorkindsofoffencesagainstreputationmerely；towit，1。Defamation:and，2。Vilification，orRevilement。{Correspondingsemi-publicandself-regardingoffences。}Astocorporalinsults，andinsultingmenacement，theybelongtothecompoundtitleofoffencesagainstpersonandreputationbothtogether。
XXXV。Ifthepropertyofonemansuffersbythedelinquencyofanother，suchpropertyeitherwasintrustwiththeoffender，oritwasnot:ifitwasintrust，theoffenceisabreachoftrust，andofwhatevernatureitmaybeinotherrespects，maybestyleddissipationinbreachoftrust，ordissipationofpropertyintrust。
Thisisaparticularcase:theoppositeoneisthemorecommon:insuchcasetheseveralwaysinwhichpropertymay，bypossibility，becometheobjectofanoffence，maybethusconceived。Offencesagainstproperty，ofwhateverkinditbe，maybedistinguished，ashathbeenalreadyintimated，intosuchasconcernthelegalpossessionofit，orrighttoit，andsuchasconcernonlytheenjoymentofit，or，whatisthesamething，theexerciseofthatright。Undertheformeroftheseheadscome，ashathbeenalreadyintimated，theseveraloffencesofwrongfulnon-investment，wrongfulinterception，wrongfuldivestment，usurpation，andwrongfulattribution。Wheninthecommissionofanyoftheseoffencesafalsehoodhasservedasaninstrument，andthat，asitiscommonlycalled，awilful，orasitmightmoreproperlybetermed，anadvisedone，theepithetfraudulentmaybeprefixedtothenameoftheoffence，orsubstitutedintheroomofthewordwrongful。Thecircumstanceoffraudulencythenmayservetocharacteriseaparticularspecies，comprisableundereachofthosegenericheads:inlikemannerthecircumstanceofforce，ofwhichmorealittlefartheron，mayservetocharacterizeanother。Withrespecttowrongfulinterceptioninparticular，theinvestitiveeventbywhichthetitletothethinginquestionshouldhaveaccruedtoyou，andforwantofwhichsuchtitleis，throughthedelinquencyoftheoffender，asitwere，intercepted，iseitheranactofhisown，expressingitashiswill，thatyoushouldbeconsideredbythelawasthepersonwhoislegallyinpossessionofit，oritisanyothereventatlarge:intheformercase，ifthething，ofwhichyoushouldhavebeenputintopossession，isasumofmoneytoacertainamount，theoffenceisthatwhichhasreceivedthenameofinsolvency；whichbranchofdelinquency，inconsiderationoftheimportanceandextentofit，maybetreatedonthefootingofadistinctgenusofitself。
Next，withregardtosuchoftheoffencesagainstpropertyasconcernonlytheenjoymentoftheobjectinquestion。Thisobjectmustbeeitheraservice，orsetofservices，whichshouldhavebeenrenderedbysomeperson，orelseanarticlebelongingtotheclassofthings。Intheformerease，theoffencemaybestyledwrongfulwithholdingofservices。Inthelattercaseitmayadmitoffarthermodifications，whichmaybethusconceived:Whenanyobjectwhichyouhavehadthephysicaloccupationorenjoymentof，ceases，inanydegree，inconsequenceoftheactofanotherman，andwithoutanychangemadeinsomuchofthatpowerasdependsupontheintrinsicphysicalconditionofyourperson，tobesubjecttothatpower；thiscessationiseitherowingtochangeintheintrinsicconditionofthethingitself，orinitsexteriorsituationwithrespecttoyou，thatis，toitsbeingsituatedoutofyourreach。Intheformercase，thenatureofthechangeiseithersuchastoputitoutofyourpowertomakeanyuseofitatall，inwhichcasethethingissaidtobedestroyed，andtheoffencewherebyitissotreatedmaybetermedwrongfuldestruction:orsuchonlyastorendertheusesitiscapableofbeingputtooflessvaluethanbefore，inwhichcaseitissaidtobedamaged，ortohavesustaineddamage，andtheoffencemaybetermedwrongfulendamagement。Moreover，inasfarasthevaluewhichathingisoftoyouisconsideredasbeingliabletobeinsomedegreeimpaired，byanyactonthepartofanyotherpersonexerciseduponthatthing，althoughonagivenoccasionnoperceptibledamageshouldensue，theexerciseofanysuchactiscommonlytreatedonthefootingofanoffence，whichmaybetermedwrongfulusingoroccupation。
Ifthecauseofthething\'sfailinginitscapacityofbeingofusetoyou，liesintheexteriorsituationofitwithrelationtoyou，theoffencemaybestyledwrongfuldetainment。Wrongfuldetainment，ordetention，duringanygivenperiodoftime，mayeitherbeaccompaniedwiththeintentionofdetainingthethingforeverthatisforanindefinitetime，ornot:ifitbe，andifitbeaccompaniedatthesametimewiththeintentionofnotbeingamenabletolawforwhatisdone，itseemstoanswertotheideacommonlyannexedtothewordembezzlement，anoffencewhichiscommonlyaccompaniedwithbreachoftrust。Inthecaseofwrongfuloccupation，thephysicalfacultyofoccupyingmayhavebeenobtainedwithorwithouttheassistanceorconsentoftheproprietor，orotherpersonappearingtohavearighttoaffordsuchassistanceorconsent。Ifwithoutsuchassistanceorconsent，andtheoccupationbeaccompaniedwiththeintentionofdetainingthethingforever，togetherwiththeintentionofnotbeingamenabletolawforwhatisdone，theoffenceseemstoanswertotheideacommonlyannexedtothewordtheftorstealing。Ifinthesamecircumstancesaforceisputuponthebodyofanypersonwhouses，orappearstobedisposedtouse，anyendeavourstopreventtheact，thisseemstobeoneofthecasesinwhichtheoffenceisgenerallyunderstoodtocomeunderthenameofrobbery。
Ifthephysicalfacultyinquestionwasobtainedwiththeassistanceorconsentofaproprietororotherpersonabovespokenof，andstilltheoccupationofthethingisanoffence，itmayhavebeeneitherbecausetheassistanceorconsentwasnotfairlyorbecauseitwasnotfreelyobtained。Ifnotfairlyobtained，itwasobtainedbyfalsehood，which，ifadvised，isinsuchacasetermedfraud:andtheoffence，ifaccompaniedwiththeintentionofnotbeingamenabletolaw，maybetermedfraudulentobtainmentordefraudment。[*]Ifnotfreelyobtained，itwasobtainedbyforce:towit，eitherbyaforceputuponthebody，whichhasbeenalreadymentioned，orbyaforceputuponthemind。
Ifbyaforceputuponthemind，orinotherwords，bytheapplicationofcoercivemotives，itmustbebyproducingtheapprehensionofsomeevil:whichevil，iftheactisanoffence，mustbesomeeviltowhichontheoccasioninquestiontheonepersonhasnorighttoexposetheother。Thisisonecaseinwhich，iftheoffencebeaccompaniedwiththeintentionofdetainingthethingforever，whetheritbeorbenotaccompaniedwiththeintentionofnotbeingamenabletolaw，itseemstoagreewiththeideaofwhatiscommonlymeantbyextortion。Nowthepartamantakesinexposinganothertotheevilinquestion，mustbeeitherapositiveoranegativepart。Intheformercase，again，theevilmusteitherbepresentordistant。Inthecasethenwheretheassistanceorconsentisobtainedbyaforceputuponthebody，orwhere，ifbyaforceputuponthemind，theparttakenintheexposingamantotheapprehensionoftheevilispositive，theevilpresent，andtheobjectofithisperson，andifatanyratetheextortion，thusapplied，beaccompaniedwiththeintentionofnotbeingamenabletolaw，itseemstoagreewiththeremainingcaseofwhatgoesunderthenameofrobbery。
Astodissipationinbreachoftrust，this，whenproductiveofapecuniaryprofittothetrustee，seemstobeonespeciesofwhatiscommonlymeantbypeculation。Another，andtheonlyremainingone，seemstoconsistinactsofoccupationexercisedbythetrusteeuponthethingswhicharetheobjectsofthefiduciaryproperty，forhisownbenefit，andtothedamageofthebeneficiary。Astorobbery，thisoffence，bythemannerinwhichtheassistanceorconsentisobtained，becomesanoffenceagainstpropertyandpersonatthesametime。Dissipationinbreachoftrust，andpeculation，mayperhapsbemorecommodiouslytreatedofundertheheadofoffencesagainsttrust。{Usury。}
Aftertheseexceptions，wehavethirteengeneraorprincipalkindsofoffencesagainstproperty，which，whenrangedintheordermostcommodiousforexamination，maystandasfollows，viz。I。Wrongfulnon-investmentofproperty。2。Wrongfulinterceptionofproperty。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofproperty。
4。Usurpationofproperty。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofproperty。6。Wrongfulwithholdingofservices。7。Wrongfuldestructionorendamagement。8。Wrongfuloccupation。9。Wrongfuldetainment。10。Embezzlement。
11。Theft。12。Defraudment。13。
Extortion。{Correspondingsemi-publicandself-regardingoffences。}
Weproceednowtoconsideroffenceswhicharecomplexintheireffects。
Regularly，indeed，weshouldcometooffencesagainstcondition；butitwillbemoreconvenienttospeakfirstofoffencesbywhichaman\'sinterestisaffectedintwooftheprecedingpointsatonce。
XXXVI。First，then，withregardtooffenceswhichaffectspersonandreputationtogether。Whenanyman，byamodeoftreatmentwhichaffectstheperson，injuresthereputationofanother，hisendandpurposemusthavebeeneitherhisownimmediatepleasure，orthatsortofreflectedpleasure，whichincertaincircumstancesmaybereapedfromthesufferingofanother。Nowtheonlyimmediatepleasureworthregarding，whichanyonecanreapfromthepersonofanother，andwhichatthesametimeiscapableofaffectingthereputationofthelatter，isthepleasureofthesexualappetites。Thispleasure，then，ifreapedatall，musthavebeenreapedeitheragainsttheconsentoftheparty，orwithconsent。Ifwithconsent，theconsentmusthavebeenobtainedeitherfreelyandfairlyboth，orfreelybutnotfairly，orelsenotevenfreely；inwhichcasethefairnessisoutofthequestion。Iftheconsentbealtogetherwanting，theoffenceiscalledrape:ifnotfairlyobtained，seductionsimply:ifnotfreely，itmaybecalledforcibleseduction。Inanycase，eithertheoffencehasgonethelengthofconsummation，orhasstoppedshortofthatperiod；ifithasgonethatlength，ittakesoneorotherofthenamesjustmentioned:ifnot，itmaybeincludedalikeinallcasesunderthedenominationofasimplelasciviousinjury。
Lastly，totakethecasewhereamaninjuringyouinyourreputation，byproceedingsthatregardyourperson，doesitforthesakeofthatsortofpleasurewhichwillsometimesresultfromthecontemplationofanother\'spain。Underthesecircumstanceseithertheoffencehasactuallygonethelengthofacorporalinjury，orithasrestedinmenacement:inthefirstcaseitmaybestyledacorporalinsult；intheother，itmaycomeunderthenameofinsultingmenacement。Andthuswehavesixgenera，orkindofoffences，againstpersonandreputationtogether；which，whenrangedintheordermostcommodiousforconsideration，willstandthus:1。Corporalinsults。2。Insultingmenacement。3。Seduction。4。Rape。5。Forcibleseduction。6。Simplelasciviousinjuries。{Correspondingsemi-publicandself-regardingoffences。}
XXXVII。Secondly，withrespecttothosewhichaffectpersonandpropertytogether。Thataforceputuponthepersonofamanmaybeamongthemeansbywhichthetitletopropertymaybeunlawfullytakenawayoracquired，hasbeenalreadystated。Aforceofthissortthenisacircumstancewhichmayaccompanytheoffencesofwrongfulinterception，wrongfuldivestment，usurpation，andwrongfulinvestment。Butinthesecasestheinterventionofthiscircumstancedoesnothappentohavegivenanynewdenominationtotheoffence。Inalloranyofthesecases，however，byprefixingtheepithetforcible，wemayhavesomanynamesofoffences，whichmayeitherbeconsideredasconstitutingsomanyspeciesofthegenerabelongingtothedivisionofoffencesagainstproperty，orassomanygenerabelongingtothedivisionnowbeforeus。Amongtheoffencesthatconcerntheenjoymentofthething，thecaseisthesamewithwrongfuldestructionandwrongfulendamagement；asalsowithwrongfuloccupationandwrongfuldetainment。Astotheoffenceofwrongfuloccupation，itisonlyinthecasewherethethingoccupiedbelongstotheclassofimmovables，that，whenaccompaniedbythekindofforceinquestion，hasobtainedaparticularnamewhichisincommonuse:inthiscaseitiscalledforcibleentry:forcibledetainment，asappliedalsotoimmovables，butonlytoimmovables，hasobtained，amonglawyersatleast，thenameofforcibledetainer。Andthuswemaydistinguishtengenera，orkindsofoffences，againstpersonandpropertytogether，which，omittingforconciseness\'saketheepithetwrongful，willstandthus:1。Forcibleinterceptionofproperty。
2。Forcibledivestmentofproperty。3。Forcibleusurpation。4。Forcibleinvestment。5。Forcibledestructionorendamagement。
6。Forcibleoccupationofmovables。7。Forcibleentry。8。Forcibledetainmentofmovables。9。Forcibledetainmentofimmovables。10。Robbery。{Correspondingsemi-publicandself-regardingoffences。}
Part2
XXXVIII。Wecomenowtooffencesagainstcondition。Aman\'sconditionorstationinlifeisconstitutedbythelegalrelationhebearstothepersonswhoareabouthim；thatis，aswehavealreadyhadoccasiontoshow，byduties，which，bybeingimposedononeside，givebirthtorightsorpowersontheother。Theserelations，itisevident，maybealmostinfinitelydiversified。Somemeans，however，maybefoundofcircumscribingthefieldwithinwhichthevarietiesofthemaredisplayed。Inthefirstplace，theymusteitherbesuchasarecapableofdisplayingthemselveswithinthecircleofaprivatefamily，orsuchasrequirealargerspace。Theconditionsconstitutedbytheformersortofrelationsmaybestyleddomestic:thoseconstitutedbythelatter，civil。
XXXIX。Astodomesticconditions，thelegalrelationsbywhichtheyareconstitutedmaybedistinguishedinto1。Suchasaresuperaddedtorelationspurelynatural:and2。Suchas，withoutanysuchnaturalbasis，subsistpurelybyinstitution。Byrelationspurelynatural，Imeanthosewhichmaybesaidtosubsistbetweencertainpersonsinvirtueoftheconcernwhichtheythemselves，orcertainotherpersons，havehadintheprocesswhichisnecessarytothecontinuanceofthespecies。Theserelationsmaybedistinguished，inthefirstplace，intocontiguousanduncontiguous。Theuncontiguoussubsistthroughtheinterventionofsuchasarecontiguous。Thecontiguousmaybedistinguished，inthefirstplace，intoconnubial，andpost-connubial。Thosewhichmaybetermedconnubialaretwo:1。Thatwhichthemalebearstowardsthefemale:2。Thatwhichthefemalebearstothemale。[*]Thepost-connubialareeitherproductiveorderivative。Theproductiveisthatwhichthemaleandfemaleabove-mentionedbeareachofthemtowardsthechildrenwhoaretheimmediatefruitoftheirunion；thisistermedtherelationofparentality。Nowastheparentsmustbe，sothechildrenmaybe，ofdifferentsexes。Accordinglytherelationofparentalitymaybedistinguishedintofourspecies:1。
Thatwhichafatherbearstohisson:thisistermedpaternity。2。
Thatwhichafatherbearstohisdaughter:thisalsoistermedpaternity。
3。Thatwhichamotherbearstoherson:thisiscalledmaternity。4。Thatwhichamotherbearstoherdaughter:thisalsoistermedmaternity。Uncontiguousnaturalrelationsmaybedistinguishedintoimmediateandremote。Suchasareimmediate，arewhatonepersonbearstoanotherinconsequenceoftheirbearingeachofthemonesimplerelationtosomethirdperson。
Thusthepaternalgrandfatherisrelatedtothepaternalgrandsonbymeansofthetwodifferentkinds，whichtogethertheybeartothefather:thebrotheronthefather\'sside，tothebrother，bymeansofthetworelationsofthesamekind，whichtogethertheybeartothefather。Inthesamemannerwemightproceedtofindplacesinthesystemfortheinfinitelydiversifiedrelationswhichresultfromthecombinationsthatmaybeformedbymixingtogethertheseveralsortsofrelationshipsbyascent，relationshipsbydescent，collateralrelationships，andrelationshipsbyaffinity:whichlatter，whentheunionbetweenthetwopartiesthroughwhomtheaffinitytakesplaceissanctionedbymatrimonialsolemnities，aretermedrelationshipsbymarriage。Butthis，asitwouldbeamostintricateandtedioustask，sohappilyisit，forthepresentpurpose，anunnecessaryone。Theonlynaturalrelationstowhichitwillbenecessarytopayanyparticularattention，arethosewhich，whensanctionedbylaw，givebirthtotheconditionsofhusbandandwife，thetworelationscomprisedundertheheadofparentality，andthecorrespondingrelationscomprisedundertheheadoffilialityorfiliation。
Whatthenaretherelationsofalegalkindwhichcanbesuperinducedupontheabove-mentionednaturalrelations？Theymustbesuchasitisthenatureoflawtogivebirthtoandestablish。
Buttherelationswhichsubsistpurelybyinstitutionexhaust，asweshallsee，thewholestockofrelationshipswhichitisinthenatureofthelawtogivebirthtoandestablish。Therelationsthenwhichcanbesuperinduceduponthosewhicharepurelynatural，cannotbeinthemselvesanyotherthanwhatareofthenumberofthosewhichsubsistpurelybyinstitution:sothatallthedifferencetherecanbebetweenalegalrelationoftheonesort，andalegalrelationoftheothersort，is，thatintheformercasethecircumstancewhichgavebirthtothenaturalrelationservesasamarktoindicatewherethelegalrelationistofix:inthelattercase，theplacewherethelegalrelationistoattachisdeterminednotbythatcircumstancebutbysomeother。Fromtheseconsiderationsitwillappearmanifestlyenough，thatfortreatingoftheseveralsortsofconditions，aswellnaturalaspurelyconventional，inthemostcommodiousorder，itwillbenecessarytogivetheprecedencetothelatter。Proceedingthroughoutuponthesameprinciple，weshallallalonggivethepriority，nottothosewhicharefirstbynature，buttothosewhicharemostsimpleinpointofdescription。Thereisnootherwayofavoidingperpetualanticipationsandrepetitions。
XL。Wecomenowtoconsiderthedomesticorfamilyrelations，whicharepurelyoflegalinstitution。Itistotheseineffect，thatbothkindsofdomesticconditions，consideredastheworkoflaw，areindebtedfortheirorigin。Whenthelaw，nomatterforwhatpurpose，takesuponitselftooperate，inamatterinwhichithasnotoperatedbefore，itcanonlybebyimposingobligation。Nowwhenalegalobligationisimposedonanyman，therearebuttwowaysinwhichitcaninthefirstinstancebeenforced。Theoneisbygivingthepowerofenforcingittothepartyinwhosefavouritisimposed:theotherisbyreservingthatpowertocertainthirdpersons，who，invirtueoftheirpossessingit，arestyledministersofjustice。Inthefirstcase，thepartyfavouredissaidtopossessnotonlyarightasagainstthepartyobliged，butalsoapoweroverhim:inthesecondcase，arightonly，uncorroboratedbypower。Inthefirstcase，thepartyfavouredmaybestyledasuperior，andastheyarebothmembersofthesamefamily，adomesticsuperior，withreferencetothepartyobliged:who，inthesamecase，maybestyledadomesticinferior，withreferencetothepartyfavoured。Nowinpointofpossibility。
itisevident，thatdomesticconditions，orakindoffictitiouspossessionanalogoustodomesticconditions，mighthavebeenlookeduponasconstituted，aswellbyrightsalone，withoutpowersoneitherside，asbypowers。Butinpointofutilityitdoesnotseemexpedient:andinpointoffact，probablyowingtotheinvariableperceptionwhichmenmusthavehadoftheinexpediency，nosuchconditionsseemevertohavebeenconstitutedbysuchfeeblebands。Ofthelegalrelationshipsthen，whicharecapableofbeingmadetosubsistwithinthecircleofafamily，thereremainthoseonlyinwhichtheobligationisenforcedbypower。Nowthen，whereveranysuchpowerisconferred，theendorpurposeforwhichitwasconferredunlessthelegislatorcanbesupposedtoactwithoutamotivemusthavebeentheproducingofabenefittosomebody:inotherwords，itmusthavebeenconferredforthesakeofsomebody。Thepersonthen，forwhosesakeitisconferred，musteitherbeoneofthetwopartiesjustmentioned，orathirdparty:ifoneofthesetwo，itmustbeeitherthesuperiorortheinferior。Ifthesuperior，suchsuperioriscommonlycalledamaster；andtheinferioristermedhisservant:andthepowermaybetermedabeneficialone。Ifitbeforthesakeoftheinferiorthatthepowerisestablished，thesuperioristermedaguardian；andtheinferiorhisward:andthepower，beingtherebycoupledwithatrust，maybetermedafiduciaryone。Ifforthesakeofathirdparty，thesuperiormaybetermedasuperintendent；andtheinferiorhissubordinate。Thisthirdpartywilleitherbeanassignableindividualorsetofindividuals，orasetofunassignableindividuals。
Inthislattercasethetrustiseitherapublicorasemi-publicone:
andtheconditionwhichitconstitutesisnotofthedomestic，butofthecivilkind。Intheformercase，thisthirdpartyorprincipal，ashemaybetermed，eitherhasabeneficialpoweroverthesuperintendent，orhehasnot:ifhehas，thesuperintendentishisservant，andconsequentlysoalsoisthesubordinate:ifnot，thesuperintendentisthemasterofthesubordinate；andalltheadvantagewhichtheprincipalhasoverhissuperintendent，itthatofpossessingasetofrights，uncorroboratedbypower；andtherefore，aswehaveseen，notfittoconstituteaconditionofthedomestickind。Butbetheconditionwhatitmaywhichisconstitutedbytheserights，ofwhatnaturecantheobligationsbe，towhichthesuperintendentiscapableofbeingsubjectedbymeansofthem？Theyareneithermorenorlessthanthosewhichamaniscapableofbeingsubjectedtobypowers。Itfollows，therefore，thatthefunctionsofaprincipalandhissuperintendentcoincidewiththoseofamasterandhisservant；andconsequentlythattheoffencesrelativetothetwoformerconditionswillcoincidewiththeoffencesrelativetothetwolatter。
XLI。Offencestowhichtheconditionofamaster，likeanyotherkindofcondition，isexposed，may，ashathbeenalreadyintimatedbedistinguishedintosuchasconcerntheexistenceaoftheconditionitself，andsuchasconcerntheperformanceofthefunctionsofit，whilesubsisting。Firstthen，withregardtosuchasaffectitsexistence。Itisobviousenoughthattheservicesofonemanmaybeabenefittoanother:theconditionofamastermaythereforebeabeneficialone。Itstandsexposed，therefore，totheoffencesofwrongfulnon-investment，wrongfulinterception，usurpation，wrongfulinvestment，andwrongfuldivestment。Buthowshoulditstandexposedtotheoffencesofwrongfulabdication，wrongfuldetrectation，andwrongfulimposition？Certainlyitcannotofitself；forservices，whenamanhasthepowerofexactingthemornot，ashethinksfit，canneverbeaburthen。Butiftothepowers，bywhichtheconditionofamasterisconstituted，thelawthinksfittoannexanyobligationonthepartofthemaster；forinstance，thatofaffordingmaintenance，orgivingwages，totheservant，orpayingmoneytoanybodyelse；itisevidentthatinvirtueofsuchobligationtheconditionmaybecomeaburthen。Inthiscase，however，theconditionpossessedbythemasterwillnotproperlyspeaking，bethepureandsimpleconditionofamaster:itwillbeakindofcomplexobject，resolvableintothebeneficialconditionofamaster，andtheburthensomeobligationwhichisannexedtoit。Stillhowever，ifthenatureoftheobligationlieswithinanarrowcompass，anddoesnot，inthemannerofthatwhichconstitutesatrust，interferewiththeexerciseofthosepowersbywhichtheconditionofthesuperiorisconstituted，thelatter，notwithstandingthisforeignmixture，willstillretainthenameofmastership。Inthiscasetherefore，butnototherwise，theconditionofamastermaystandexposedtotheoffencesofwrongfulabdication，wrongfuldetrectation，andwrongfulimposition。Nextastothebehaviourofpersonswithreferencetothiscondition，whileconsideredassubsisting。Invirtueofitsbeingabenefit，itisexposedtodisturbance。Thisdisturbancewilleitherbetheoffenceofastranger，ortheoffenceoftheservanthimself。Whereitistheoffenceofastranger，andiscommittedbytakingthepersonoftheservant，incircumstancesinwhichthetakingofanobjectbelongingtotheclassofthingswouldbeanactoftheft，orwhatisscarcelyworthdistinguishingfromtheftanactofembezzlement:itmaybetermedservant-stealing。
Whereitistheoffenceoftheservanthimself，itisstyledbreachofduty。Nowthemostflagrantspeciesofbreachofduty，andthatwhichincludesindeedeveryother，isthatwhichconsistsintheservant\'swithdrawinghimselffromtheplaceinwhichthedutyshouldbeperformed。Thisspeciesofbreachofdutyistermedelopement。Again，invirtueofthepowerbelongingtothiscondition，itisliable，onthepartofthemastertoabuse。Butthispowerisnotcoupledwithatrust。Theconditionofamasteristhereforenotexposedtoanyoffencewhichisanalogoustobreachoftrust。Lastly，onaccountofitsbeingexposedtoabuse，itmaybeconceivedtostand，inpointofpossibility，exposedtobribery。Butconsideringhowfew，andhowinsignificant，thepersonsarewhoareliabletobesubjecttothepowerhereinquestion，thisisanoffencewhich，onaccountofthewantoftemptation，therewillseldombeanyexampleofinpractice。Wemaythereforereckonthirteensortsofoffencestowhichtheconditionofamasterisexposed；viz。1。Wrongfulnon-investmentofmastership。2。Wrongfulinterceptionofmastership。
3。Wrongfuldivestmentofmastership。4。Usurpationofmastership。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofmastership。6。Wrongfulabdicationofmastership。7。Wrongfuldetrectationofmastership。8。Wrongfulimpositionofmastership。9。Abuseofmastership。
10。Disturbanceofmastership。11。Breachofdutyinservants。12。Elopementofservants。13。Servant-stealing。
XLII。Astothepowerbywhichtheconditionofamasterisconstituted，thismaybeeitherlimitedorunlimited。Whenitisaltogetherunlimited，theconditionoftheservantisstyledpureslavery。
Butastherulesoflanguageareasfarascanbeconceivedfrombeingsteadyonthishead，thetermslaveryiscommonlymadeuseofwhereverthelimitationsprescribedtothepowerofthemasterarelookeduponasinconsiderable。Wheneveranysuchlimitationisprescribed，akindoffictitiousentityistherebycreated，and，inqualityofanincorporealobjectofpossession，isbestowedupontheservant:thisobjectisoftheclassofthosewhicharecalledrights:andinthepresentcaseistermed，inamoreparticularmanner，aliberty；andsometimesaprivilege，animmunity，oranexemption。Nowthoselimitationsontheonehand，andtheselibertiesontheother，may，itisevident，beasvariousastheactspositiveornegativewhichthemastermayormaynothavethepowerofobligingtheservanttosubmittoortoperform。Correspondentthentotheinfinitudeoftheseliberties，istheinfinitudeofthemodificationswhichtheconditionofmastershipor，asitismorecommontosayinsuchacase，thatofservitudeadmitsof。Thesemodifications，itisevident，may，indifferentcountries，beinfinitelydiversified。Indifferentcountries，therefore，theoffencescharacterisedbytheabovenameswill，ifspecificallyconsidered，admitofverydifferentdescriptions。Iftherebeaspotupontheearthsowretchedastoexhibitthespectacleofpureandabsolutelyunlimitedslavery，onthatspottherewillbenosuchthingasanyabuseofmastership；whichmeansneithermorenorlessthanthatnoabuseofmastershipwilltherebetreatedonthefootingofanoffence。Astothequestion，Whetherany，andwhat，modesofservitudeoughttobeestablishedorkeptonfoot？thisisaquestion，thesolutionofwhichbelongstothecivilbranchoftheartoflegislation。
XLIII。Next，withregardtotheoffencesthatmayconcerntheconditionofaservant。Itmightseematfirstsight，thataconditionofthiskindcouldnothaveasparkofbenefitbelongingtoit:thatitcouldnotbeattendedwithanyotherconsequencesthansuchasrendereditamereburthen。Butaburthenitselfmaybeabenefit，incomparisonofagreaterburthen。Conceiveaman\'ssituationthentobesuch，thathemust，atanyrate，beinastateofpureslavery。Stillmayitbematerialtohim，andhighlymaterial，whothepersoniswhomhehasforhismaster。Astateofslaverythen，underonemaster，maybeabeneficialstatetohim，incomparisonwithastateofslaveryunderanothermaster。Theconditionofaservantthenisexposedtotheseveraloffencestowhichacondition，invirtueofitsbeingabeneficialone，isexposed。[*]Morethanthis，wherethepowerofthemasterislimited，andthelimitationsannexedtoit，andthencethelibertiesoftheservant，areconsiderable，theservitudemayevenbepositivelyeligible。Foramongstthoselimitationsmaybesuchasaresufficienttoenabletheservanttopossesspropertyofhisown:beingcapablethenofpossessingpropertyofhisown，hemaybecapableofreceivingitfromhismaster:inshort，hemayreceivewages，orotheremoluments，fromhismaster；andthebenefitresultingfromthesewagesmaybesoconsiderableastooutweightheburthenoftheservitude，and，bythatmeans，renderthatconditionmorebeneficialuponthewhole，andmoreeligible，thanthatofonewhoisnotinanyrespectunderthecontrolofanysuchpersonasamaster。Accordingly，bythesemeanstheconditionoftheservantmaybesoeligible，thathisentranceintoit，andhiscontinuanceinit，mayhavebeenaltogethertheresultofhisownchoice。Thatthenatureofthetwoconditionsmaybethemoreclearlyunderstood，itmaybeofusetoshowthesortofcorrespondencythereisbetweentheoffenceswhichaffecttheexistenceoftheone，andthosewhichaffecttheexistenceoftheother。
Thatthiscorrespondencycannotbutbeveryintimateisobviousatfirstsight。Itisnot，however，thatagivenoffenceintheformercataloguecoincideswithanoffenceofthesamenameinthelattercatalogue:usurpationofservantshipwithusurpationofmastership，forexample。Butthecaseis，thatanoffenceofonedenominationintheonecataloguecoincideswithanoffenceofadifferentdenominationintheothercatalogue。Noristhecoincidenceconstantandcertain:butliabletocontingencies，asweshallsee。First，then，wrongfulnon-investmentoftheconditionofaservant，ifitbetheoffenceofonewhoshouldhavebeenthemaster，coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitnon-investmentofmastership，which，providedthemastershipbeintheeyesofhimwhoshouldhavebeenmasterabeneficialthing，butnototherwise，iswrongful。2。Wrongfulinterceptionoftheconditionofaservant，ifitbetheoffenceofhimwhoshouldhavebeenmaster，coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，andthemastershipbeabeneficialthing，itinvolvesinitwrongfulinterceptionofmastership。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofservantship，ifitbetheoffenceofthemaster，butnototherwise，coincideswithwrongfulabdicationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofastranger，itinvolvesinitdivestmentofmastership，which，inasfarasthemastershipisabeneficialthing，iswrongful。4。Usurpationofservantshipcoincidesnecessarilywithwrongfulimpositionofmastership:itwillbeapttoinvolveinitwrongfuldivestmentofmastership:butthisonlyinthecasewheretheusurper，previouslytotheusurpation，wasinastateofservitudeundersomeothermaster。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofservantshiptheservantshipbeingconsideredasabeneficialthingcoincideswithimpositionofmastership；which，ifintheeyesofthepretendedmasterthemastershipshouldchancetobeaburthen，willbewrongful。6。Wrongfulabdicationofservantshipcoincideswithwrongfuldivestmentofmastership。7。Wrongfuldetrectationofservantship，withwrongfulnon-investmentofmastership。8。Wrongfulimpositionofservantship，ifitbetheoffenceofthepretendedmaster，coincideswithusurpationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofastranger，itinvolvesinitimpositionofmastership，which，ifintheeyesofthepretendedmasterthemastershipshouldbeaburthen，willbewrongful。Astoabuseofmastership，disturbanceofmastership，breachofdutyinservants，elopementofservants，andservant-stealing，theseareoffenceswhich，withoutanychangeofdenomination，bearequalrelationtobothconditions。Andthuswemayreckonthirteensortsofoffencestowhichtheconditionofaservantstandsexposed:viz。1。Wrongfulnon-investmentofservantship。2。
Wrongfulinterceptionofservantship。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofservantship。4。Usurpationofservantship。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofservantship。6。Wrongfulabdicationofservantship。7。Wrongfuldetrectationofservantship。8。Wrongfulimpositionofservantship。9。Abuseofmastership。10。
Disturbanceofmastership。11。Breachofdutyinservants。12。Elopementofservants。13。Servant-stealing。
Part3
XLIV。Wenowcometotheoffencestowhichtheconditionofofaguardianisexposed。Aguardianisonewhoisinvestedwithpoweroveranother，livingwithinthecompassofthesamefamily，andcalledaward；thepowerbeingtobeexercisedforthebenefitoftheward。Nowthen，whatarethecasesinwhichitcanbeforthebenefitofoneman，thatanother，livingwithinthecompassofthesamefamily，shouldexercisepoweroverhim？Considereitherofthepartiesbyhimself，andsupposehim，inpointofunderstanding，tobeonalevelwiththeother，itseemsevidentenoughthatnosuchcasescaneverexist。Totheproductionofhappinessonthepartofanygivenpersoninlikemannerastotheproductionofanyothereffectwhichistheresultofhumanagencythreethingsitisnecessaryshouldconcur:
knowledge，inclination，andphysicalpower。Nowasthereisnomanwhoissosureofbeinginclined，onalloccasions，topromoteyourhappinessasyouyourselfare，soneitheristhereanymanwhouponthewholecanhavehadsogoodopportunitiesasyoumusthavehadofknowingwhatismostconducivetothatpurpose。Forwhoshouldknowsowellasyoudowhatitisthatgivesyoupainorpleasure？Moreover，astopower，itismanifestthatnosuperiorityinthisrespect，onthepartofastranger，could，foraconstancy，makeupforsogreatadeficiencyashemustlieunderinrespectoftwosuchmaterialpointsasknowledgeandinclination。Ifthentherebeacasewhereitcanbefortheadvantageofonemantobeunderthepowerofanother，itmustbeonaccountofsomepalpableandveryconsiderabledeficiency，onthepartoftheformer，inpointofintellects，orwhichisthesamethinginotherwordsinpointofknowledgeorunderstanding。Nowtherearetwocasesinwhichsuchpalpabledeficiencyisknowntotakeplace。Theseare，1。Whereaman\'sintellectisnotyetarrivedatthatstateinwhichitiscapableofdirectinghisowninclinationinthepursuitofhappiness:thisisthecaseofinfancy。2。Wherebysomeparticularknownorunknowncircumstancehisintellecthaseitherneverarrivedatthatstate，orhavingarrivedatithasfallenfromit:whichisthecaseofinsanity。
Bywhatmeansthenisittobeascertainedwhetheraman\'sintellectisinthatstateorno？Forexhibitingthequantityofsensibleheatinahumanbodywehaveaverytolerablesortofinstrument，thethermometer；butforexhibitingthequantityofintelligence，wehavenosuchinstrument。Itisevident，therefore，thatthelinewhichseparatesthequantityofintelligencewhichissufficientforthepurposesofself-governmentfromthatwhichisnotsufficient，mustbe，inagreatmeasure，arbitrary。Wheretheinsufficiencyistheresultofwantofage，thesufficientquantityofintelligence，beitwhatitmay，doesnotaccruetoallatthesameperiodoftheirlives。Itbecomesthereforenecessaryforlegislatorstocutthegordianknot，andfixuponaparticularperiod，atwhichandnotbefore，trulyornot，everypersonwhatevershallbedeemed，asfarasdependsuponage，tobeinpossessionofthissufficientquantity。Inthiscasethenalineisdrawnwhichmaybethesameforeveryman，andinthedescriptionofwhich，suchasitis，whateverpersonsareconcernedmaybecertainofagreeing:thecircumstanceoftimeaffordingamarkbywhichthelineinquestionmaybetracedwiththeutmostdegreeofnicety。Ontheotherhand，wheretheinsufficiencyistheresultofinsanity，thereisnoteventhisresource:
sothatherethelegislatorhasnootherexpedientthantoappointsomeparticularpersonorpersonstogiveaparticulardeterminationofthequestion，ineveryinstanceinwhichitoccurs，accordingtohisortheirparticularandarbitrarydiscretion。
Arbitraryenoughitmustbeatanyrate，sincetheonlywayinwhichitcanbeexercisedisbyconsideringwhethertheshareofintelligencepossessedbytheindividualinquestiondoesordoesnotcomeuptothelooseandindeterminateideawhichpersonssoappointedmaychancetoentertainwithrespecttothequantitywhichisdeemedsufficient。
XLV。Thelinethenbeingdrawn，orsupposedtobeso，itisexpedienttoamanwhocannot，withsafetytohimself，beleftinhisownpower，thatheshouldbeplacedinthepowerofanother。Howlongthenshouldheremainso？Justsolongashisinabilityissupposedtocontinue:thatis，inthecaseofinfancy，tillhearrivesatthatperiodatwhichthelawdeemshimtobeoffullage:
inthecaseofinsanity，tillhebeofsoundmindandunderstanding。
Nowitisevident，thatthisperiod，inthecaseofinfancy，maynotarriveforaconsiderabletime:andinthecaseofinsanity，perhapsnever。Thedurationofthepowerbelongingtothistrustmusttherefore，intheonecase，beveryconsiderable；intheothercase，indefinite。
XLVI。Thenextpointtoconsider，iswhatmaybetheextentofit？forastowhatoughttobe，thatisamattertobesettled，notinageneralanalyticalsketch，butinaparticularandcircumstantialdissertation。Bypossibility，then，thispowermaypossessanyextentthatcanbeimagined:itmayextendtoanyactswhich，physicallyspeaking，itmaybeinthepowerofthewardtoperformhimself，orbetheobjectofifexercisedbytheguardian。
Conceivethepower，foramoment，tostanduponthisfooting:
theconditionofthewardstandsnowexactlyuponafootingwithpureslavery。Addtheobligationbywhichthepoweristurnedintoatrust:thelimitsofthepowerarenowveryconsiderablynarrowed。
Whatthenisthepurportofthisobligation？Ofwhatnatureisthecourseofconductitprescribes？Itissuchacourseofconductasshallbebestcalculatedforprocuringtothewardthegreatestquantityofhappinesswhichhisfaculties，andthecircumstancesheisin，willadmitof:savingalways，inthefirstplace，theregardwhichtheguardianispermittedtoshowtohisownhappiness；and，inthesecondplace，thatwhichheisobliged，aswellaspermitted，toshowtothatofothermen。Thisis，infact，nootherthanthatcourseofconductwhichtheward，didhebutknowhow，ought，inpointofprudence，tomaintainofhimself:sothatthebusinessoftheformeristogovernthelatterpreciselyinthemannerinwhichthislatteroughttogovernhimself。Nowtoinstructeachindividualinwhatmannertogovernhisownconductinthedetailsoflife，istheparticularbusinessofprivateethics:toinstructindividualsinwhatmannertogoverntheconductofthosewhosehappiness，duringnonage，iscommittedtotheircharge，isthebusinessoftheartofprivateeducation。Thedetails，therefore，oftherulestobegivenforthatpurpose，anymorethantheactswhicharecapableofbeingcommittedinviolationofthoserules，belongnottotheartoflegislation:
since，aswillbeseenmoreparticularlyhereafter，suchdetailscouldnot，withanychanceofadvantage，beprovidedforbythelegislator。Somegeneraloutlinesmightindeedbedrawnbyhisauthority:and，inpointoffact，someareineverycivilizedstate。Butsuchregulations，itisevident，mustbeliabletogreatvariation:inthefirstplace，accordingtotheinfinitediversityofcivilconditionswhichamanmaystandinvestedwithinanygivenstate:inthenextplace，accordingtothediversityoflocalcircumstancesthatmayinfluencethenatureoftheconditionswhichmaychancetobeestablishedindifferentstates。Onthisaccount，theoffenceswhichwouldbeconstitutedbysuchregulationscouldnotbecomprisedunderanyconciseandsettleddenominations，capableofapermanentandextensiveapplication。Noplace，therefore，canbeallottedtothemhere。
XLVII。Bywhathasbeensaid，wearethebetterpreparedfortakinganaccountoftheoffencestowhichtheconditioninquestionstandsexposed。Guardianshipbeingaprivatetrust，isofcourseexposedtothoseoffences，andnoothers，bywhichaprivatetrustisliabletobeaffected。Someofthem，however，onaccountofthespecialqualityofthetrust，willadmitofsomefurtherparticularityofdescription。Inthefirstplace，breachofthisspeciesoftrustmaybetermedmismanagementofguardianship:inthesecondplace，ofwhatevernaturethedutiesarewhicharecapableofbeingannexedtothiscondition，itmustoftenhappen，thatinordertofulfilthem，itisnecessarytheguardianshouldbeatacertainparticularplace。
Mismanagementofguardianship，whenitconsistsinthenotbeing，ontheoccasioninquestion，attheplaceinquestion，maybetermeddesertionofguardianship。Thirdly，Itismanifestenough，thattheobjectwhichtheguardianoughttoproposetohimself，intheexerciseofthepowerstowhichthosedutiesareannexed，istoprocureforthewardthegreatestquantityofhappinesswhichcanbeprocuredforhim，consistentlywiththeregardwhichisduetotheotherintereststhathavebeenmentioned:forthisistheobjectwhichthewardwouldhaveproposedtohimself，andmightandoughttohavebeenallowedtoproposetohimself，hadhebeencapableofgoverninghisownconduct。Now，inordertoprocurethishappiness，itisnecessarythatheshouldpossessacertainpowerovertheobjectsontheuseofwhichsuchhappinessdepends。Theseobjectsareeitherthepersonofthewardhimself，orotherobjectsthatareextraneoustohim。Theseotherobjectsareeitherthingsorpersons。Astothings，then，objectsofthisclass，insofarasaman\'shappinessdependsupontheuseofthem，arestyledhisproperty。Thecaseisthesamewiththeservicesofanypersonsoverwhomhemayhappentopossessabeneficialpower，ortowhoseserviceshemayhappentopossessabeneficialright。Nowwhenpropertyofanykind，whichisintrust，suffersbythedelinquencyofhimwithwhomitisintrust，suchoffence，ofwhatevernatureitisinotherrespects，maybestyleddissipationinbreachoftrust:andifitbeattendedwithaprofittothetrustee，itmaybestyledpeculation。Fourthly，Foronepersontoexerciseapowerofanykindoveranother，itisnecessarythatthelattershouldeitherperformcertainacts，uponbeingcommandedsotodobytheformer，oratleastshouldsuffercertainactstobeexerciseduponhimself。Inthisrespectawardmuststanduponthefootingofaservant:andtheconditionofawardmust，inthisrespect，standexposedtothesameoffencestowhichthatofaservantstandsexposed:thatis，onthepartofastranger，todisturbance，which，inparticularcircumstances，willamounttotheft:onthepartoftheward，tobreachofduty:which，inparticularcircumstances，maybeeffectedbyelopement。Fifthly，Theredoesnotseemtobeanyoffenceconcerningguardianshipthatcorrespondstoabuseoftrust:Imeaninthesensetowhichthelast-mentioneddenominationhasbeenhereconfined。Thereasonis，thatguardianship，beingatrustofaprivatenature，doesnot，assuch，conferuponthetrusteeanypower，eitheroverthepersonsoroverthepropertyofanyparty，otherthanthebeneficiaryhimself。Ifbyaccidentitconfersonthetrusteeapoweroveranypersonswhoseservicesconstituteapartofthepropertyofthebeneficiary，thetrusteebecomesthereby，incertainrespects，themasterofsuchservants。Sixthly，Briberyalsoisasortofoffencetowhich，inthiscase，thereisnotcommonlymuchtemptation。Itisanoffence，however，whichbypossibilityiscapableoftakingthisdirection:
andmustthereforebeaggregatedtothenumberoftheoffencestowhichtheconditionofaguardianstandsexposed。Andthuswehaveinallseventeenoftheseoffences:viz。1。
Wrongfulnon-investmentofguardianship。2。Wrongfulinterceptionofguardianship。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofguardianship。4
Usurpationofguardianship。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofguardianship。
6。Wrongfulabdicationofguardianship。7。Detrectationofguardianship。8。Wrongfulimpositionofguardianship。9。Mismanagementofguardianship。10。Desertionofguardianship。11。
Dissipationinprejudiceofwardship。12。Peculationinprejudiceofwardship。13。Disturbanceofguardianship。14。Breachofdutytoguardians。15。Elopementfromguardians。16。Ward-stealing。
17。Briberyinprejudiceofwardship。
XLVIII。Next，withregardtooffencestowhichtheconditionofwardshipisexposed。Thosewhichfirstaffecttheexistenceoftheconditionitselfareasfollows:1。Wrongfulnon-investmentoftheconditionofaward。This，ifitbetheoffenceofonewhoshouldhavebeenguardian，coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofguardianship:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitnon-investmentofguardianship，which，providedtheguardianshipis，intheeyesofhimwhoshouldhavebeenguardian，adesirablething，iswrongful。2。Wrongfulinterceptionofwardship。
This，ifitbetheoffenceofhimwhoshouldhavebeenguardian，coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofguardianship:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitinterceptionofguardianship，which，providedtheguardianshipis，intheeyesofhimwhoshouldhavebeenguardian，adesirablething，iswrongful。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofwardship。This，ifitbetheoffenceoftheguardian，butnototherwise，coincideswithwrongfulabdicationofguardianship:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitdivestmentofguardianship，which，iftheguardianshipis，intheeyesoftheguardian，adesirablething，iswrongful。4。Usurpationoftheconditionofaward:anoffencenotverylikelytobecommitted。Thiscoincidesatanyratewithwrongfulimpositionofguardianship；andiftheusurperwerealreadyundertheguardianshipofanotherguardian，itwillinvolveinitwrongfuldivestmentofsuchguardianship。5。
Wrongfulinvestmentofwardshipthewardshipbeingconsideredasabeneficialthing:thiscoincideswithimpositionofguardianship，which，ifintheeyesofthepretendedguardiantheguardianshipshouldbeaburthen，willbewrongful。6。
Wrongfulabdicationofwardship。Thiscoincideswithwrongfuldivestmentofguardianship。7。Wrongfuldetrectationofwardship。Thiscoincideswithwrongfulinterceptionofguardianship。
8。Wrongfulimpositionofwardship，This，iftheoffenderbethepretendedguardian，coincideswithusurpationofguardianship:
ifastranger，itinvolvesinitwrongfulimpositionofguardianship。Astosuchoftheoffencesrelativetothiscondition，asconcerntheconsequencesofitwhilesubsisting，theyareofsuchanaturethat，withoutanychangeofdenomination，theybelongequallytotheconditionofaguardianandthatofaward。Wemaythereforereckonseventeensortsofoffencesrelativetotheconditionofaward:1。Wrongfulnon-investmentofwardship。2。Wrongfulinterceptionofwardship。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofwardship。4。Usurpationofwardship。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofwardship。6。Wrongfulabdicationofwardship。7。Wrongfuldetrectationofwardship。8。Wrongfulimpositionofwardship。9。Mismanagementofguardianship。10。Desertionofguardianship。