11。Dissipationinprejudiceofwardship。12。
Peculationinprejudiceofwardship。13。Disturbanceofguardianship。
14。Breachofdutytoguardians。15。Elopementfromguardians。16。Ward-stealing。17。Briberyinprejudiceofwardship。
Part4
XLIX。Wecomenowtotheoffencestowhichtheconditionorofaparentstandsexposed:andfirst，withregardtothosebywhichtheveryexistenceoftheconditionisaffected。Onthisoccasion，inordertoseethemoreclearlyintothesubject，itwillbenecessarytodistinguishbetweenthenaturalrelationship，andthelegalrelationshipwhichissuperinducedasitwereuponthenaturalone。Thenaturalonebeingconstitutedbyaparticularevent，which，eitheronaccountofitsbeingalreadypast，oronsomeotheraccount，isequallyoutofthepowerofthelawneitheris，norcanbemade，thesubjectofanoffence。Isamanyourfather？Itisnotanyoffenceofminethatcanmakeyounothisson。
Ishenotyourfather？Itisnotanyoffenceofminethatcanrenderhimso。Butalthoughhedoesinfactbearthatrelationtoyou，I，byanoffenceofmine，mayperhapssomanagematters，thatheshallnotbethoughttobearit:which，withrespecttoanylegaladvantageswhicheitherheoryoucouldderivefromsuchrelationship，willbethesamethingasifhedidnot。Inthecapacityofawitness，Imaycausethejudgestobelievethatheisnotyourfather，andtodecreeaccordingly:or，inthecapacityofajudge，Imaymyselfdecreehimnottobeyourfather。
Leavingthenthepurelynaturalrelationshipasanobjectequallyoutofthereachofjusticeandinjustice，thelegalcondition，itisevident，willstandexposedtothesameoffences，neithermorenorless，aseveryothercondition，thatiscapableofbeingeitherbeneficialorburthensome，standsexposedto。Next，withregardtotheexerciseofthefunctionsbelongingtothiscondition，consideredasstillsubsisting。Inparentalitytheremustbetwopersonsconcerned，thefatherandthemother。Theconditionofaparentincludes，therefore，twoconditions；thatofafather，andthatofamother，withrespecttosuchorsuchachild。Nowitisevident，thatbetweenthesetwoparties，whateverbeneficiarypowers，andotherrights，asalsowhateverobligations，areannexedtotheconditionofaparent，maybesharedinanyproportionsthatcanbeimagined。Butifintheseseveralobjectsoflegalcreation，eachofthesetwopartieshaveseverallyashare，andiftheinterestsofallthesepartiesareinanydegreeprovidedfor，itisevidentthateachoftheparentswillstand，withrelationtothechild，intwoseveralcapacities:thatofamaster，andthatofaguardian。Theconditionofaparentthen，inasfarasitistheworkoflaw，maybeconsideredasacomplexcondition，compoundedofthatofaguardian，andthatofamaster。Totheparentthen，inqualityofguardian，resultsasetofduties，involving，asnecessarytothedischargeofthem，certainpowers:tothechild，inthecharacterofaward，asetofrightscorrespondingtotheparent\'sduties，andasetofdutiescorrespondingtohispowers。Totheparentagain，inqualityofmaster，asetofbeneficiarypowers，withoutanyothernecessarylimitationsolongastheylastthanwhatisannexedtothembythedutiesincumbentonhiminqualityofaguardian:tothechild，inthecharacterofaservant，asetofdutiescorrespondingtotheparent\'sbeneficiarypowers，andwithoutanyothernecessarylimitationsolongastheylastthanwhatisannexedtothembytherightswhichbelongtothechildinhiscapacityofward。
Theconditionofaparentwillthereforebeexposedtoalltheoffencestowhicheitherthatofaguardianorthatofamasterareexposed:and，aseachoftheparentswillpartake，moreorless，ofboththosecharacters，theoffencestowhichthetwoconditionsareexposedmaybenominally，astheywillbesubstantially，thesame。Takingthemthenalltogether，theoffencestowhichtheconditionofaparentisexposedwillstandasfollows:1。Wrongfulnon-investmentofparentality。2。Wrongfulinterceptionofparentality。3。Wrongfuldivestmentofparentality。4。Usurpationofparentality。5。Wrongfulinvestmentofparentality。6。Wrongfulabdicationofparentality。7。
Wrongfuldetrectationofparentality。8。Wrongfulimpositionofparentality。
9。Mismanagementofparentalguardianship。10。
Desertionofparentalguardianship。11。Dissipationinprejudiceoffilialwardship。12。Peculationinprejudiceoffilialwardship。
13。Abuseofparentalpowers。14。Disturbanceofparentalguardianship。
15。Breachofdutytoparents。16。Elopementfromparents。17。Child-stealing。18。Briberyinprejudiceoffilialwardship。
L。Nextwithregardtotheoffencestowhichthefilialcondition，theconditionofasonordaughter，standsexposed。Theprinciplestobepursuedintheinvestigationofoffencesofthisdescriptionhavealreadybeensufficientlydeveloped。Itwillbesufficient，therefore，toenumeratethemwithoutfurtherdiscussion。
Theonlypeculiaritiesbywhichoffencesrelativetotheconditioninquestionstanddistinguishedfromtheoffencesrelativetoalltheprecedingconditions，dependuponthisonecircumstance；viz。thatitiscertaineveryonemusthavehadafatherandamother:atthesametimethatitisnotcertainthateveryonemusthavehadamaster，aservant，aguardian，oraward。
Itwillbeobservedallalong，thatwhereaperson，fromwhom，ifalive，thebenefitwouldbetaken，oronwhomtheburthenwouldbeimposed，bedead，somuchofthemischiefisextinctalongwiththeobjectoftheoffence。Therestill，however，remainssomuchofthemischiefasdependsupontheadvantageordisadvantagewhichmightaccruetopersonsrelated，orsupposedtoberelated，intheseveralremoterdegrees，tohiminquestion。Thecataloguethenoftheseoffencesstandsasfollows:
1。Wrongfulnon-investmentoffiliation。This，ifitbetheoffenceofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognizedastheparent，coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofparentality:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitnon-investmentofparentality，which，providedtheparentalityis，intheeyesofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognisedastheparent，adesirablething，iswrongful。2。Wrongfulinterceptionoffiliation。
This，ifitbetheoffenceofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognisedastheparent，coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofparentality:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitinterceptionofparentality，which，providedtheparentalityis，intheeyesofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognizedasparent，adesirablething，iswrongful。3。Wrongfuldivestmentoffiliation。This，ifitbetheoffenceofhimorherwhoshouldberecognizedasparent，coincideswithwrongfulabdicationofparentality:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itinvolvesinitdivestmentofparentality；towit，ofpaternity，orofmaternity，orofboth；which，iftheparentalityis，intheeyesofhimorherwhoshouldberecognizedasparent，adesirablething，arerespectivelywrongful。4。Usurpationoffiliation。Thiscoincideswithwrongfulimpositionofparentality；towit，eitherofpaternity，orofmaternity，orofboth:andnecessarilyinvolvesinitdivestmentofparentality，which，iftheparentalitythusdivestedwere，intheeyesofhimorherwhoarethusdivestedofit，adesirablething，iswrongful。5。Wrongfulinvestmentoffiliation:thefiliationbeingconsideredasabeneficialthing。
Thiscoincideswithimpositionofparentality，which，ifintheeyesofthepretendedfatherormothertheparentalityshouldbeanundesirablething，willbewrongful。6。Wrongfulabdicationoffiliation。Thisnecessarilycoincideswithwrongfuldivestmentofparentality；
italsoisapttoinvolveinitwrongfulimpositionofparentality；thoughnotnecessarilyeithertotheadvantageortotheprejudiceofanycertainperson。Forifaman，supposedatfirsttobeyourson，appearsafterwardsnottobeyours，itiscertainindeedthatheisthesonofsomeotherman，butitmaynotappearwhothatothermanis。7。Wrongfuldetrectationoffiliation。
Thiscoincideswithwrongfulnoninvestmentorwrongfulinterceptionofparentality。8。Wrongfulimpositionoffiliation。This，ifitbetheoffenceofthepretendedparent，coincidesnecessarilywithusurpationofparentality:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson，itnecessarilyinvolvesimpositionofparentality；
asalsodivestmentofparentality:eitherorbothofwhich，accordingtothecircumstanceabovementioned，mayormaynotbewrongful。9。Mismanagementofparentalguardianship。10。Desertionofparentalguardianship。11。Dissipationinprejudiceoffilialwardship。12。Peculationinprejudiceoffilialwardship。13。
Abuseofparentalpower。14。Disturbanceofparentalguardianship。15。Breachofdutytoparents。16。Elopementfromparents。
17。Child-stealing。18。Briberyinprejudiceofparentalguardianship。
Part5
LI。Weshallnowbeabletoapplyourselveswithsomeadvantagetotheexaminationoftheseveraloffencestowhichthemaritalcondition，orconditionofahusband，standsexposed。Ahusbandisaman，betweenwhomandacertainwoman，whointhiscaseiscalledhiswife，theresubsistsalegalobligationforthepurposeoftheirlivingtogether，andinparticularforthepurposeofasexualintercoursetobecarriedonbetweenthemThisobligationwillnaturallybeconsideredinfourpointsofview:1。Inrespectofitscommencement。2。Inrespectoftheplacingofit。3。Inrespectofthenatureofit。4。Inrespectofitsduration。Firstthen，itisevident，thatinpointofpossibility，onemethodofcommencementisasconceivableasanother:thetimeofitscommencementmighthavebeenmarkedbyonesortofeventbyonesortofsignal，asitmayherebecalledaswellasbyanother。Butinpracticethesignalhasusuallybeen，asinpointofutilityitoughtconstantlytobe，acontractenteredintobytheparties:thatis，asetofsigns，pitcheduponbythelaw，asexpressiveoftheirmutualconsent，totakeuponthemthiscondition。Secondly，andthirdly，withregardtotheplacingoftheobligationswhicharetheresultofthecontract，itisevidentthattheymustresteithersolelyononeside，ormutuallyonboth。Onthefirstsupposition，theconditionisnottobedistinguishedfrompureslavery。Inthiscase，eitherthewifemustbetheslaveofthehusband，orthehusbandofthewife。Thefirstofthesesuppositionshasperhapsneverbeenexemplified；theopposinginfluenceofphysicalcausesbeingtoouniversaltohaveeverbeensurmounted:thelatterseemstohavebeenexemplifiedbuttoooften；perhapsamongthefirstRomans；atanyrate，inmanybarbarousnations。Thirdly，withregardtothenatureoftheobligations。Iftheyarenotsufferedtorestallononeside，certainrightsaretherebygiventotheother。Theremust，therefore，berightsonbothsides。Now，wheretherearemutualrightspossessedbytwopersons，asagainsteachother，eithertherearepowersannexedtothoserights，ornot。Butthepersonsinquestionare，bythesupposition，tolivetogether:inwhichcasewehaveshown，thatitisnotonlyexpedient，butinamannernecessary，thatononesidethereshouldbepowers。Nowitisonlyononesidethatpowerscanbe:forsupposethemonbothsides，andtheydestroyoneanother。Thequestionisthen，Inwhichofthepartiesthesepowersshallbelodged？wehaveshown，thatontheprincipleofutilitytheyoughttobelodgedinthehusband。Thepowersthenwhichsubsistbeinglodgedinthehusband，thenextquestionis，Shalltheinterestofonepartyonly，orofboth，beconsultedintheexerciseofthem？itisevident，thatontheprincipleofutilitytheinterestsofbothoughtaliketobeconsulted:sinceintwopersonstakentogether，morehappinessisproduciblethaninone。Thisbeingthecase，itismanifest，thatthelegalrelationwhichthehusbandwillbeartothewifewillbeacomplexone:compoundedofthatofmasterandthatofguardian。
LII。Theoffencesthentowhichtheconditionofahusbandofwillbeexposed，willbethesumofthosetowhichthetwoconditionsofmasterandguardianareexposed。Thusfartheconditionofahusband，withrespecttothegeneraloutlinesofit，standsuponthesamefootingasthatofaparent。Buttherearecertainreciprocalservices，whichbeingthemainsubjectofthematrimonialcontract，constitutetheessenceofthetwomatrimonialrelations，andwhichneitheramasternorguardian，assuch，noraparent，atanyrate，haveusuallybeenpermittedtoreceive。
Thesemustofcoursehavebeendistinguishedfromtheindiscriminatetrainofservicesatlargewhichthehusbandinhischaracterofmasterisempoweredtoexact，andofthosewhichinhischaracterofguardianheisboundtorender。Beingthusdistinguished，theoffencesrelativetothetwoconditionshave，inmanyinstances，inasfarastheyhavereferencetothesepeculiarservices，acquiredparticulardenominations。Inthefirstplace，withregardtothecontract，fromthecelebrationofwhichthelegalconditiondatesitsexistence。Itisobviousthatinpointofpossibility，thiscontractmight，onthepartofeithersex，subsistwithrespecttoseveralpersonsoftheothersexatthesametime:thehusbandmighthaveanynumberofwives:thewifemighthaveanynumberofhusbands:thehusbandmightenterintothecontractwithanumberofwivesatthesametime:or，ifwithonlyoneatatime，hemightreservetohimselfarightofengaginginasimilarcontractwithanynumber，orwithonlysuchorsuchanumberofotherwomenafterwards，duringthecontinuanceofeachformercontract。Thislatteraccordinglyisthefootinguponwhich，asiswellknown，marriageisandhasbeenestablishedinmanyextensivecountries:particularlyinallthosewhichprofesstheMahometanreligion。Inpointofpossibility，itisevidentthatthelikelibertymightbereservedonthepartofthewife:thoughinpointofpracticenoexamplesofsuchanarrangementseemevertohaveoccurred。Whichofallthesearrangementsisinpointofutilitythemostexpedient，isaquestionwhichwouldrequiretoomuchdiscussiontoanswerinthecourseofananalyticalprocesslikethepresent，andwhichbelongsindeedtothecivilbranchoflegislation，ratherthantothepenal。InChristiancountries，thesolemnizationofanysuchcontractismadetoexcludethesolemnizationofanysubsequentoneduringthecontinuanceofaformer:andthesolemnizationofanysuchsubsequentcontractisaccordinglytreatedasanoffence，underthenameofPolygamy。Polygamythenisatanyrate，onthepartoftheman，aparticularmodificationofthatoffencewhichmaybestyledusurpationoftheconditionofahusband。Astoitsothereffects，theywillbedifferent，accordingasitwasthemanonly，orthewomanonly，orboth，thatwereinastateofmatrimonyatthetimeofthecommissionoftheoffence。
Ifthemanonly，thenhisoffenceinvolvesinitprotantothatofwrongfuldivestmentoftheconditionofawife，inprejudiceofhispriorwife。Ifthewomanonly，thenitinvolvesinitprotantothatofwrongfuldivestmentoftheconditionofahusband，inprejudiceofherpriorhusband。Ifbothwerealreadymarried，itofcourseinvolvesboththewrongfuldivestmentswhichhavejustbeenmentioned。Andontheotherhandalso，theconverseofallthismaybeobservedwithregardtopolygamyonthepartofthewoman。Secondly，Astheengagingnottoenterintoanysubsequentengagementofthelikekindduringthecontinuanceofthefirst，isoneoftheconditionsonwhichthelawlendsitssanctiontothefirst；soanotheris，theinsertingasoneofthearticlesofthisengagementanundertakingnottorenderto，oracceptfrom，anyotherpersontheserviceswhichformthecharacteristicobjectofit:therenderingoracceptanceofanysuchservicesisaccordinglytreatedasanoffence，underthenameofadultery:underwhichnameisalsocomprisedtheoffenceofthestranger，who，inthecommissionoftheaboveoffence，isthenecessaryaccomplice。Thirdly，Disturbingeitherofthepartiestothisengagement，inthepossessionofthesecharacteristicservices，may，inlikemanner，bedistinguishedfromtheoffenceofdisturbingthemintheenjoymentofthemiscellaneousadvantagesderivablefromthesamecondition；andonwhicheversidetheblamerests，whetherthatoftheparty，orthatofathirdperson，maybetermedwrongfulwithholdingofconnubialservices。Andthuswehaveone-and-twentysortsofoffencestowhich，asthelawstandsatpresentinChristiancountries，theconditionofahusbandstandsexposed:viz。1。Wrongfulnon-investmentoftheconditionofahusband。2。
Wrongfulinterceptionoftheconditionofahusband。3。Wrongfuldivestmentoftheconditionofahusband。4。Usurpationoftheconditionofahusband。5。Polygamy。6。Wrongfulinvestmentoftheconditionofahusband。7。Wrongfulabdicationoftheconditionofahusband。8。Wrongfuldetrectationoftheconditionofahusband。9。Wrongfulimpositionoftheconditionofahusband。10。Mismanagementofmaritalguardianship。11。Desertionofmaritalguardianship。12。Dissipationinprejudiceofmatrimonialwardship。13。Peculationinprejudiceofmatrimonialwardship。
14。Abuseofmaritalpower。15。Disturbanceofmaritalguardianship。16。Wrongfulwithholdingofconnubialservices。
17。Adultery。18。Breachofdutytohusbands。19。
Elopementfromhusbands。20。Wife-stealing。21。Briberyinprejudiceofmaritalguardianship。{Correspondingsemi-publicandself-regardingoffences。}
LIII。Nextwithregardtotheoffencestowhichtheconditionofawifestandsexposed。Fromthepatternsthathavebeenexhibitedalready，thecoincidencesandassociationsthattakeplacebetweentheoffencesthatconcerntheexistenceofthisconditionandthosewhichconcerntheexistenceoftheconditionofahusband，mayeasilyenoughbeapprehendedwithoutfartherrepetitions。Thecatalogueofthosenowunderconsiderationwillbepreciselythesameineveryarticleasthecataloguelastexhibited。
LIV。Thusmuchfortheseveralsortsofoffencesrelativetotheseveralsortsofdomesticconditions:thosewhichareconstitutedbysuchnaturalrelationsasarecontiguousbeingincluded。
Thereremainthosewhichareuncontiguous:ofwhich，aftersomuchashasbeensaidoftheothers，itwillnaturallybeexpectedthatsomenoticeshouldbetaken。These，however，donotaffordanyofthatmatterwhichisnecessarytoconstituteacondition。
Inpointoffact，nopowerseemsevertobeannexedtoanyofthem。Agrandfather，perhaps，maybecalledbythelawtotakeuponhimtheguardianshipofhisorphangrandson:
butthenthepowerhehasbelongstohimnotasgrandfather，butasguardian。Inpointofpossibility，indeed，powermightbeannexedtotheserelations，justasitmighttoanyother。Butstillnonewsortofdomesticconditionwouldresultfromit:sinceithasbeenshownthattherecanbenoothers，that，beingconstitutedbypower，shallbedistinctfromthosewhichhavebeenalreadymentioned。Suchastheyare，however，theyhavethisincommonwiththebefore-mentionedrelations，thattheyarecapableofimportingeitherbenefitorburthen:theythereforestandexposedtotheseveraloffenceswherebythoseoranyotherrelationsareliabletobeaffectedinpointofexistence。Itmightbeexpected，therefore，thatinvirtueoftheseoffences，theyshouldbeaddedtothelistoftherelationswhichareliabletobeobjectsofdelinquency。Butthefactis，thattheyalreadystandincludedinit:andalthoughnotexpresslynamed，yetaseffectuallyasiftheywere。Ontheonehand，itisonlybyaffectingsuchorsuchacontiguousrelationthatanyoffenceaffectinguncontiguousrelationscantakeplace。Ontheotherhand，neithercananyoffenceaffectingtheexistenceofthecontiguousrelationsbecommitted，withoutaffectingtheexistenceofanindefinitemultitudeofsuchasareuncontiguous。Afalsewitnesscomes，andcausesittobebelievedthatyouarethesonofawoman，who，intruth，isnotyourmother。Whatfollows？Anendlesstribeofotherfalsepersuasions梩hatyouarethegrandsonofthefatherandofthemotherofthissupposedmother:thatyouarethesonofsomehusbandofhers，or，atleast，ofsomemanwithwhomshehascohabited:thegrandsonofhisfatherandhismother；
andsoon:thebrotheroftheirotherchildren，iftheyhaveany:thebrother-in-lawofthehusbandsandwivesofthosechildren，ifmarried:theuncleofthechildrenofthosechildren:andsoon。桹ntheotherhand，thatyouarenotthesonofyourrealmother，norofyourrealfather:thatyouarenotthegrandsonofeitherofyourrealgrandfathersorgrandmothers；andsoonwithoutend:allwhichpersuasionsresultfrom，andareincludedin，theoneoriginalfalsepersuasionofyourbeingthesonofthisyourpretendedmother。
Itshouldseem，therefore，atfirstsight，thatnoneoftheoffencesagainsttheseuncontiguousrelationscouldevercomeexpresslyintoquestion:forbythesamerulethatoneought，soitmightseemoughtathousandothers:theoffencesagainsttheuncontiguousbeingmergedasitwereinthosewhichaffectthecontiguousrelations。Sofar，however，isthisfrombeingthecase，thatinspeakingofanoffenceofthisstamp，itisnotuncommontohearagreatdealsaidofthisorthatuncontiguousrelationshipwhichitaffects，atthesametimethatnonoticeatallshallbetakenofanyofthosewhicharecontiguous。Howhappensthis？Because，totheuncontiguousrelationareannexedperhapscertainremarkableadvantagesordisadvantages，whiletoalltheintermediaterelationsnoneshallbeannexedwhichareincomparisonworthnoticing。SupposeAntonyorLepidustohavecontestedtherelationshipofOctaviusafterwardsAugustustoCaiusJuliusCæ；sar。Howcouldithavebeendone？Itcouldonlyhavebeenbycontesting，eitherOctavius\'sbeingthesonofAtia，orAtia\'sbeingthedaughterofJulia，orJulia\'sbeingthedaughterofLuciusJuliusCæ；sar，orLuciusJuliusCæ；sar\'sbeingthefatherofCaius。ButtohavebeenthesonofAtia，orthegrandsonofJulia，orthegreatgrandsonofLuciusJuliusCæ；sar，was，incomparison，ofsmallimportance。Thoseinterveningrelationshipswere，comparativelyspeaking，ofnootherusetohimthaninvirtueoftheirbeingsomanynecessarylinksinthegenealogicalchainwhichconnectedhimwiththesovereignoftheempire。
Astotheadvantagesanddisadvantageswhichmayhappentobeannexedtoanyofthoseuncontiguousrelationships，wehaveseenalreadythatnopowersoverthecorrelativeperson，noranycorrespondingobligations，areofthenumber。Ofwhatnaturethencantheybe？Theyare，intruth，nootherthanwhataretheresulteitheroflocalandaccidentalinstitutions，orofsomespontaneousbiasthathasbeentakenbythemoralsanction。Itwould，therefore，betolittlepurposetoattempttracingthemoutaprioribyanyexhaustiveprocess:allthatcanbedoneis，topickupandlaytogethersomeoftheprincipalarticlesineachcataloguebywayofspecimen。Theadvantageswhichagivenrelationshipisapttoimpart，seemtobereferablechieflytothefollowingheads:1。Chanceofsuccessiontotheproperty，orapartoftheproperty，ofthecorrelativeperson。2。Chanceofpecuniarysupport，tobeyieldedbythecorrelativeperson，eitherbyappointmentoflaw，orbyspontaneousdonation。3。
Accessionoflegalrank；includinganylegalprivilegeswhichmayhappentobeannexedtoit:suchascapacityofholdingsuchandsuchbeneficialoffices；exemptionfromsuchandsuchburthensomeobligations；forinstance，payingtaxes，servingburthensomeoffices，&；c。&；c。4。Accessionofrankbycourtesy；
includingthesortofreputationwhichiscustomarilyandspontaneouslyannexedtodistinguishedbirthandfamilyalliance:whereonmaydependthechanceofadvancementinthewayofmarriage，orinathousandotherwayslessobvious。Thedisadvantageswhichagivenrelationisliabletoimpart，seemtobereferablechieflytothefollowingheads:1。Chanceofbeingobliged，eitherbylaw，orbyforceofthemoralsanction，toyieldpecuniarysupporttothecorrelativeparty。2。Lossoflegalrank:
includingthelegaldisabilities，aswellastheburthensomeobligations，whichthelawisapttoannex，sometimeswithinjusticeenough，tothelowerstations。3。Lossofrankbycourtesy:
includingthelossoftheadvantagesannexedbycustomtosuchrank。
4。Incapacityofcontractingmatrimonywiththecorrelativeperson，wherethesupposedconsanguinityoraffinitylieswithintheprohibiteddegrees。{Publicoffences}
Part6
LV。Wecomenowtocivilconditions:these，itmaywellbeimagined，maybeinfinitelyvarious:asvariousastheactswhichamanmaybeeithercommandedorallowed，whetherforhisownbenefit，orthatofothers，toabstainfromortoperform。Asmanydifferentdenominationsasthereareofpersonsdistinguishedwithaviewtosuchcommandsandallowancesthosedenominationsonlyexceptedwhichrelatetotheconditionsabovespokenofunderthenameofdomesticonessomanycivilconditionsonemightenumerate。Meanshowever，moreorlessexplicit，maybefoundoutofcircumscribingtheirinfinitude。
Whatthematerialsare，ifsotheymaybecalled，ofwhichconditions，oranyotherkindoflegalpossession，canbemadeup，wehavealreadyseen:beneficialpowers，fiduciarypowers，beneficialrights，fiduciaryrights，relativeduties，absoluteduties。Butasmanyconditionsasimportapowerorrightofthefiduciarykind，aspossessedbythepersonwhoseconditionisinquestion，belongtotheheadoftrusts。Thecatalogueoftheoffencestowhichtheseconditionsareexposed，coincidesthereforeexactlywiththecatalogueofoffencesagainsttrust:underwhichheadtheyhavebeenconsideredinageneralpointofviewundertheheadofoffencesagainsttrust:andsuchofthemasareofadomesticnature，inamoreparticularmannerinthecharacterofoffencesagainsttheseveraldomesticconditions。Conditionsconstitutedbysuchdutiesoftherelativekind，ashavefortheircounterpartstrustsconstitutedbyfiduciarypowers，aswellasrightsonthesideofthecorrelativeparty，andthoseofaprivatenature，havealsobeenalreadydiscussedundertheappellationofdomesticconditions。Thesameobservationmaybeappliedtotheconditionsconstitutedbysuchpowersofthebeneficialkindoverpersonsasareofaprivatenature:asalsotothesubordinatecorrelativeconditionsconstitutedbythedutiescorrespondingtothoserightsandpowers。Astoabsoluteduties，thereisnoinstanceofaconditionthuscreated，ofwhichtheinstitutionisupontheprincipleofutilitytobejustified；unlesstheseveralreligiousconditionsofthemonastickindshouldbeallowedofasexamples。Thereremain，astheonlymaterialsoutofwhichtheconditionswhichyetremaintobeconsideredcanbecomposed，conditionsconstitutedbybeneficialpowersoverthings；conditionsconstitutedbybeneficialrightstothingsthatis，rightstopowersoverthingsorbyrightstothoserights，andsoon；conditionsconstitutedbyrightstoservices；andconditionsconstitutedbythedutiescorrespondingtothoserespectiverights。Outofthesearetobetakenthoseofwhichthematerialsaretheingredientsoftheseveralmodificationsofproperty，theseveralconditionsofproprietorship。Thesearetheconditions，ifsuchforamomenttheymaybestyled，whichhavingbuthereandthereanyspecificnames，arenotcommonlyconsideredonthefootingofconditions:sothattheactswhich，ifsuchconditionswererecognisedmightbeconsideredasoffencesagainstthoseconditions，arenotwonttobeconsideredinanyotherlightthanthatofoffencesagainstproperty。
Nowthecaseis，ashathbeenalreadyintimated，thatofthesecivilconditions，thosewhicharewonttobeconsideredunderthatname，arenotdistinguishedbyanyuniformandexplicitlinefromthoseofwhichthematerialsarewonttobecarriedtotheheadofproperty:asetofrightsshall，inoneinstance，beconsideredasconstitutinganarticleofpropertyratherthanacondition:while，inanotherinstance，asetofrightsofthesamestampisconsideredasconstitutingratheraconditionthananarticleofproperty。Thiswillprobablybefoundtobethecaseinalllanguages:andtoeusageisdifferentagaininonelanguagefromwhatitisinanother。Fromthesecausesitseemstobeimpracticabletosubjecttheclassofcivilconditionstoanyexhaustivemethod:sothatformakingacompletecollectionofthemthereseemstobenootherexpedientthanthatofsearchingthelanguagethroughforthem，andtakingthemastheycome。
Toexemplifythisobservation，itmaybeofusetolayopenthestructureasitwereoftwoorthreeoftheprincipalsortsorclassesofconditions，comparingthemwithtwoorthreearticlesofpropertywhichappeartobenearlyofthesamecomplexion:
bythismeansthenatureandgeneration，ifonemaysocallit，ofboththeseclassesofidealobjectsmaybethemoreclearlyunderstood。
Theseveralsortsofcivilconditionsthatarenotfiduciarymayall，oratleastthegreaterpartofthem，becomprehendedundertheheadofrank，orthatofprofession；thelatterwordbeingtakeninitsmostextensivesense，soastoincludenotonlywhatarecalledtheliberalprofessions，butthosealsowhichareexercisedbytheseveralsortsoftraders，artists，manufacturers，andotherpersonsofwhatsoeverstation，whoareinthewayofmakingaprofitbytheirlabour。Amongranksthen，aswellasprofessions，letus，forthesakeofperspicuity，takeforexamplessucharticlesasstandtheclearestfromanymixtureofeitherfiduciaryorbeneficialpower。Therankofknighthoodisconstituted，how？byprohibitingallotherpersonsfromperformingcertainacts，theperformanceofwhichisthesymboloftheorder，atthesametimethattheknightinquestion，andhiscompanions，arepermitted:forinstance，toweararibbonofacertaincolourinacertainmanner:tocallhimselfbyacertaintitle:touseanarmorialsealwithacertainmarkonit。Bylayingallpersonsbuttheknightunderthisprohibition，thelawsubjectsthemtoasetofduties:andsincefromthedischargeofthesedutiesabenefitresultstothepersoninwhosefavourtheyarecreated，towit，thebenefitofenjoyingsuchashareofextraordinaryreputationandrespectasmenarewonttoyieldtoapersonthusdistinguished，todischargethemistorenderhimaservice:
andthedutybeingadutyofthenegativeclass，adutyconsistingintheperformanceofcertainactsofthenegativekind，theserviceiswhatmaybecalledaserviceofforbearance。
Itappearsthen，thattogeneratethisconditiontheremustbetwosortsofservices:thatwhichistheimmediatecauseofit，aserviceofthenegativekind，toberenderedbythecommunityatlarge:
thatwhichisthecauseagainofthisservice，aserviceofthepositivekind，toberenderedbythelaw。
Theconditionofaprofessionalmanstandsuponanarrowerfooting。
Toconstitutethisconditionthereneedsnothingmorethanapermissiongivenhimonthepartofthelegislatortoperformthoseacts，intheperformanceofwhichconsiststheexerciseofhisprofession:togiveorsellhisadviceorassistanceinmattersoflaworphysic:togiveorsellhisservicesasemployedintheexecutingoroverseeingofamanufactureorpieceofworkofsuchorsuchakind:tosellacommodityofsuchorsuchasort。
Herethenweseethereisbutonesortofservicerequisite；aservicewhichmaybemerelyofthenegativekind，toberenderedbythelaw:theserviceofpermittinghimtoexercisehisprofession:
aservicewhich，iftherehasbeennoprohibitionlaidonbefore，isrenderedbysimplyforbearingtoprohibithim。
Nowtheidealobjects，whichinthecasesabovespecifiedaresaidtobeconferreduponamanbytheservicesthatarerespectivelyinquestion，areinbothcasesnotarticlesofpropertybutconditions。Bysuchabehaviouronthepartofthelaw，asshallbethereverseofthatwherebytheywererespectivelyproduced，amanmaybemadetoforfeitthem:andwhatheisthensaidtoforfeitisinneithercasehisproperty；butinonecase，hisrankordignity:intheothercase，histradeorhisprofession:
andinbothcases，hiscondition。
Othercasesthereareagaininwhichthelaw，byaprocessofthesamesortwiththatbywhichitconstitutedtheformerofthetwoabove-mentionedconditions，confersonhimanidealobject，whichthelawsoflanguagehaveplacedundertheheadofproperty。Thelawpermitsamantosellbooks:thatis，allsortsofbooksingeneral。Thusfarallthatithasdoneistoinvesthimwithacondition:andthisconditionhewouldequallypossess，althougheverybodyelseintheworldweretosellbookslikewise。
Letthelawnowtakeanactivepartinhisfavour，andprohibitallotherpersonsfromsellingbooksofacertaindescription，heremainingatlibertytosellthemasbefore。Itthereforeconfersonhimasortofexclusiveprivilegeormonopoly，whichiscalledacopy-right。Butbyinvestinghimwiththisright，itisnotsaidtoinvesthimwithanynewsortofcondition:whatitinvestshimwithisspokenofasanarticleofproperty；towit，ofthatsortofpropertywhichistermedincorporeal:andsooninthecaseofanengraving，amechanicalengine，amedicine；or，inshort，ofasaleablearticleofanyothersort。Yetwhenitgavehimanexclusiverightofwearingaparticularsortofribbon，theobjectwhichitwasthenconsideredasconferringonhimwasnotanarticleofpropertybutacondition。
Byforbearingtosubjectyoutocertaindisadvantages，towhichitsubjectsanalien，thelawconfersonyoutheconditionofanatural-bornsubject:bysubjectinghimtothem，itimposesonhimtheconditionofanalien:byconferringonyoucertainprivilegesorrights，whichitdeniestoaroturier，thelawconfersonyoutheconditionofagentilhomme；byforbearingtoconferonhimthoseprivileges，itimposesonhimtheconditionofaroturier。Therights，outofwhichthetwoadvantageousconditionshereexemplifiedarebothofthemasitwerecomposed，havefortheircounterpartasortofservicesofforbearance，rendered，aswehaveseen，notbyprivateindividuals，butbythelawitself。Astothedutieswhichitcreatesinrenderingyoutheseservices，theyaretobeconsideredasdutiesimposedbythelegislatorontheministersofjustice。
Itmaybeobserved，withregardtothegreaterpartoftheconditionsherecomprisedunderthegeneralappellationofcivil，thattherelationscorrespondingtothosebywhichtheyarerespectivelyconstituted，arenotprovidedwithappellatives。Therelationwhichhasaname，isthatwhichisbornebythepartyfavouredtothepartybound:thatwhichisbornebythepartyboundtothepartyfavouredhasnotany。Thisisacircumstancethatmayhelptodistinguishthemfromthoseconditionswhichwehavetermeddomestic。Inthedomesticconditions，ifontheonesidethepartytowhomthepowerisgiveniscalledamaster；ontheotherside，thepartyoverwhomthatpowerisgiven，thepartywhoistheobjectofthatpower，istermedaservant。Inthecivilconditionsthisisnotthecase。Ontheoneside，aman，invirtueofcertainservicesofforbearance，whichtherestofthecommunityareboundtorenderhim，isdenominatedaknightofsuchorsuchanorder:butontheotherside，theseservicesdonotbestowanyparticulardenominationonthepersonsfromwhomsuchservicesaredue。Anotherman，invirtueofthelegislator\'srenderingthatsortofnegativeservicewhichconsistsinthenotprohibitinghimfromexercisingatrade，investshimathisoptionwiththeconditionofatrader:itaccordinglydenominateshimafarmer，abaker，aweaver，andsoon:buttheministersofthelawdonot，invirtueoftheirrenderingthemanthissortofnegativeservice，acquireforthemselvesanyparticularname。Supposeeventhatthetradeyouhavetherightofexercisinghappenstobetheobjectofamonopoly，andthatthelegislator，besidesrenderingyouhimselfthoseserviceswhichyouderivefromthepermissionhebestowsonyou，obligesotherpersonstorenderyouthosefartherserviceswhichyoureceivefromtheirforbearingtofollowthesametrade；yetneitherdothey，invirtueoftheirbeingthusbound，acquireanyparticularname。
Afterwhathasbeensaidofthenatureoftheseveralsortsofcivilconditionsthathavenames，theoffencestowhichtheyareexposedmay，withoutmuchdifficulty，beimagined。Takenbyitself，everyconditionwhichisthusconstitutedbyapermissiongrantedtothepossessor，isofcourseofabeneficialnature:itis，therefore，exposedtoallthoseoffencestowhichthepossessionofabenefitisexposed。Buteitheronaccountofaman\'sbeingobligedtoperseverewhenonceengagedinit，oronaccountofsuchotherobligationsasmaystandannexedtothepossessionofit，oronaccountofthecomparativedegreeofdisreputewhichmaystandannexedtoitbythemoralsanction，itmaybyaccidentbeaburthen:itisonthisaccountliabletostandexposedtotheoffencestowhich，ashathbeenseen，everythingthatpartakesofthenatureofaburthenstandsexposed。
Astoanyoffenceswhichmayconcerntheexerciseofthefunctionsbelongingtoit，ifithappenstohaveanydutiesannexedtoit，suchasthose，forinstance，whichareconstitutedbyregulationstouchingtheexerciseofatrade，itwillstandexposedtosomanybreachesofduty；andlastly，whatsoeverarethefunctionsbelongingtoit，itwillstandexposedatanyratetodisturbance。
Intheforminghoweverofthecatalogueoftheseoffences，exactnessisofthelessconsequence，inasmuchasanact，ifitshouldhappennottobecomprisedinthiscatalogue，andyetisinanyrespectofaperniciousnature，willbesuretobefoundinsomeotherdivisionofthesystemofoffences:ifabakersellsbadbreadforthepriceofgood，itisakindoffrauduponthebuyer；
andperhapsaninjuryofthesimplecorporalkinddonetothehealthofanindividual，oraneighbourhood:ifaclothiersellsbadclothforgoodathome，itisafraud；iftoforeignersabroad，itmay，overandabovethefraudputupontheforeignpurchaser，haveperniciouseffectsperhapsintheprosperityofthetradeathome，andbecometherebyanoffenceagainstthenationalwealth。Soagainwithregardtodisturbance:ifamanbedisturbedintheexerciseofhistrade，theoffencewillprobablybeawrongfulinterceptionoftheprofithemightbepresumedtohavebeeninawaytomakebyit:andwereiteventoappearinanycasethatamanexercisedatrade，orwhatislessunlikely，aliberalprofession，withouthavingprofitinhisview，theoffencewillstillbereducibletotheheadofsimpleinjuriousrestrainment，orsimpleinjuriouscompulsion。
4。Advantagesofthepresentmethod。
LVI。Afewwords，forthepurposeofgivingageneralviewofthemethodofdivisionherepursued，andoftheadvantageswhichitpossesses，mayhavetheiruse。Thewholesystemofoffences，wemayobserve，isbranchedoutintofiveclasses。Inthethreefirst，thesubordinatedivisionsaretakenfromthesamesource；
viz。fromtheconsiderationofthedifferentpoints，inrespectwhereoftheinterestofanindividualisexposedtosuffer。
Bythisuniformity，aconsiderabledegreeoflightseemstobethrownuponthewholesystem；particularlyupontheoffencesthatcomeunderthethirdclass:objectswhichhaveneverhithertobeenbroughtintoanysortoforder。Withregardtothefourthclass，insettlingtheprecedencebetweenitsseveralsubordinatedivisions，itseemedmostnaturalandsatisfactorytoplacethosefirst，theconnectionwhereofwiththewelfareofindividualsseemedmostobviousandimmediate。Themischievouseffectsofthoseoffences，whichtendinanimmediatewaytodepriveindividualsoftheprotectionprovidedforthemagainsttheattacksofoneanother，andofthosewhichtendtobringdownuponthemtheattacksofforeignassailants，seemalikeobviousandpalpable。
Themischievousqualityofsuchastendtoweakentheforcethatisprovidedtocombatthoseattacks，butparticularlythelatter，thoughevidentenough，isonelinkfartheroffinthechainofcausesandeffects。Theilleffectsofsuchoffencesasareofdisserviceonlybydiminishingtheparticularfundfromwhencethatforceistobeextracted，sucheffects，Isay，thoughindisputable，arestillmoredistantandoutofsight。Thesamethingmaybeobservedwithregardtosuchasaremischievousonlybyaffectingtheuniversalfund。Offencesagainstthesovereigntyingeneralwouldnotbemischievous，ifoffencesoftheseveraldescriptionsprecedingwerenotmischievous。Norinatemporalviewareoffencesagainstreligionmischievous，exceptinasfaras，byremoving，orweakening，ormisapplyingoneofthethreegreatincentivestovirtue，andcheckstovice，theytendtoopenthedoortotheseveralmischiefs，whichitisthenatureofallthoseotheroffencestoproduce。Astothefifthclass，this，ashathalreadybeenobserved，exhibits，atfirstview，anirregularity，whichhoweverseemstobeunavoidable。Butthisirregularityispresentlycorrected，whentheanalysisreturnsback，asitdoesafterasteportwo，intothepathfromwhichthetyrannyoflanguagehadforceditawhiletodeviate。
Itwasnecessarythatitshouldhavetwopurposesinview:theone，toexhibit，uponascalemoreorlessminute，asystematicalenumerationoftheseveralpossiblemodificationsofdelinquency，denominatedorundenominated；theother，tofindplacesinthelistforsuchnamesofoffencesaswereincurrentuse:forthefirstpurpose，naturewastosetthelaw；fortheother，custom。
Hadthenatureofthethingsthemselvesbeentheonlyguide，everysuchdifferenceinthemannerofperpetration，andsuchonly，shouldhaveservedasagroundforadifferentdenomination，aswasattendedwithadifferenceinpointofeffect。Thishoweverofitselfwouldneverhavebeensufficient；forasononehandthenewlanguage，whichitwouldhavebeennecessarytoinvent，wouldhavebeenuncouth，andinamannerunintelligible:soontheotherhandthenames，whichwerebeforeincurrentuse，andwhich，inspiteofallsystems，goodorbad，musthaveremainedincurrentuse，wouldhavecontinuedunexplained。Tohaveadheredexclusivelytothecurrentlanguage，wouldhavebeenasbadontheotherside；forinthatcasethecatalogueofoffences，whencomparedtothatofthemischiefsthatarecapableofbeingproduced，wouldhavebeenaltogetherbrokenanduncomplete。
Toreconcilethesetwoobjects，inasfarastheyseemedtobereconcilable，thefollowingcoursehasthereforebeenpursued。
Thelogicalwhole，constitutedbythesumtotalofpossibleoffences，hasbeenbisectedinasmanydifferentdirectionsaswerenecessary，andtheprocessineachdirectioncarrieddowntothatstageatwhichtheparticularideasthusdividedfoundnamesincurrentuseinreadinesstoreceivethem。AtthatperiodIhavestopped；leavinganyminuterdistinctionstobeenumeratedinthebodyofthework，assomanyspeciesofthegenuscharacterisedbysuchorsuchaname。IfinthecourseofanysuchprocessIcametoamodeofconductwhich，thoughitrequiredtobetakennoticeof，andperhapshadactuallybeentakennoticeof，underalllaws，inthecharacterofanoffence，hadhithertobeenexpressedunderdifferentlaws，bydifferentcircumlocutions，withouteverhavingreceivedanynamecapableofoccupyingtheplaceofasubstantiveinasentence，Ihavefrequentlyventuredsofarastofabricateanewnameforit，suchanoneastheidiomofthelanguage，andtheacquaintanceI
happenedtohavewithit，wouldadmitof。Thesenamesconsistinginmostinstances，andthatunavoidably，oftwoorthreewordsbroughttogether，inalanguagetoowhichadmitsnot，liketheGermanandtheGreek，oftheirbeingmeltedintoone，canneverbeuponapar，inpointofcommodiousness，withthoseunivocalappellativeswhichmakepartoftheestablishedstock。
Inthechoiceofnamesincurrentuse，carehasbeentakentoavoidallsuchashavebeengroundedonlocaldistinctions，illfoundedperhapsinthenationinwhichtheyreceivedtheirbirth，andatanyratenotapplicabletothecircumstancesofothercountries。
Theanalysis，asfarasitgoes，isasapplicabletothelegalconcernsofonecountryasofanother:andwhere，ifithaddescendedintofurtherdetails，itwouldhaveceasedtobeso，thereIhavetakencarealwaystostop:andthenceitisthatithascometobesomuchmoreparticularintheclassofoffencesagainstindividuals，thaninanyoftheotherclasses。Oneusethenofthisarrangement，ifitshouldbefoundtohavebeenproperlyconducted，willbeitsservingtopointoutinwhatitisthatthelegalinterestsofallcountriesagree，andinwhatitisthattheyareliabletodiffer:howfararulethatisproperforone，willserve，andhowfaritwillnotserve，foranother。Thatthelegalinterestsofdifferentagesandcountrieshavenothingincommon，andthattheyhaveeverything，aresuppositionsequallydistantfromthetruth。[*]
LVII。Anaturalmethod，suchasithathbeenhereattemptedtoexhibit，seemstopossessfourcapitaladvantages；nottomentionothersofinferiornote。Inthefirstplace，itaffordssuchassistancetotheapprehensionandtothememory，asthosefacultieswouldinvainlookforinanytechnicalarrangement。[*]
Thatarrangementoftheobjectsofanysciencemay，itshouldseem，betermedanaturalone，whichtakessuchpropertiestocharacterisethemby，asmeningeneralare，bythecommonconstitutionofman\'snature，independentlyofanyaccidentalimpressionstheymayhavereceivedfromtheinfluenceofanylocalorotherparticularcauses，accustomedtoattendto:such，inaword，asnaturally，thatisreadilyandatfirstsight，engage，andfirmlyfix，theattentionofanyonetowhomtheyhaveoncebeenpointedout。Nowbywhatothermeansshouldanobjectengageorfixaman\'sattention，unlessbyinterestinghim？andwhatcircumstancebelongingtoanyactioncanbemoreinteresting，orratherwhatothercircumstancebelongingtoitcanbeatallinterestingtohim，thanthatoftheinfluenceitpromisestohaveonhisownhappiness，andthehappinessofthosewhoareabouthim？Bywhatothermarkthenshouldhemoreeasilyfindtheplacewhichanyoffenceoccupiesinthesystem，orbywhatotherclueshouldhemorereadilyrecallit？
LVIII。Inthenextplace，itnotonlygivesatfirstglanceageneralintimationofthenatureofeachdivisionofoffences，inasfarasthatnatureisdeterminedbysomeonecharacteristicproperty，butitgivesroomforanumberofgeneralpropositionstobeformedconcerningtheparticularoffencesthatcomeunderthatdivision，insuchmannerastoexhibitavarietyofotherpropertiesthatmaybelongtothemincommon。Itgivesroomtherefore，fortheframingofanumberofpropositionsconcerningthem，which，thoughverygeneral，becausepredicatedofagreatnumberofarticles，shallbeasgenerallytrue。
LIX。Inthethirdplace，itissocontrived，thattheveryplacewhichanyoffenceismadetooccupy，suggeststhereasonofitsbeingputthere。Itservestoindicatenotonlythatsuchandsuchactsaremadeoffences，butwhytheyoughttobe。Bythismeans，whileitaddressesitselftotheunderstanding，itrecommendsitselfinsomemeasuretotheaffections。Bytheintimationitgivesofthenatureandtendencyofeachobnoxiousact，itaccountsfor，andinsomemeasurevindicates，thetreatmentwhichitmaybethoughtpropertobestowuponthatactinthewayofpunishment。
Tothesubjectthenitisakindofperpetualapology:
showingthenecessityofeverydefalcation，which，forthesecurityandprosperityofeachindividual，itisrequisitetomakefromthelibertyofeveryother。Tothelegislatoritisakindofperpetuallesson:servingatonceasacorrectivetohisprejudices，andasacheckuponhispassions。Isthereamischiefwhichhasescapedhim？inanaturalarrangement，ifatthesametimeanexhaustiveone，hecannotfailtofindit。Ishetemptedevertoforceinnocencewithinthepaleofguilt？thedifficultyoffindingaplaceforitadvertiseshimofhiserror。Sucharetheusesofamapofuniversaldelinquency，laiddownupontheprincipleofutility:suchtheadvantages，whichthelegislatoraswellasthesubjectmayderivefromit。Abidebyit，andeverythingthatisarbitraryinlegislationvanishes。Anevil-intentionedorprejudicedlegislatordurstnotlookitintheface。Hewouldproscribeit，andwithreason:itwouldbeasatireonhislaws。
LX。Inthefourthplace，anaturalarrangement，governedasitisbyaprinciplewhichisrecognisedbyallmen，willservealikeforthejurisprudenceofallnations。Inasystemofproposedlaw，framedinpursuanceofsuchamethod，thelanguagewillserveasaglossarybywhichallsystemsofpositivelawmightbeexplained，whilethematterservesasastandardbywhichtheymightbetried。Thusillustrated，thepracticeofeverynationmightbealessontoeveryother:andmankindmightcarryonamutualinterchangeofexperiencesandimprovementsaseasilyinthisasineveryotherwalkofscience。Ifanyoneoftheseobjectsshouldinanydegreebeattained，thelabourofthisanalysis，severeasithasbeen，willnothavebeenthrownaway。
5。CharactersofthefiveclassesLXI。Ithasbeenmentionedasanadvantagepossessedbythismethod，andnotpossessedbyanyother，thattheobjectscomprisedunderitarecastintogroups，towhichavarietyofpropositionsmaybeappliedincommon。Acollectionofthesepropositions，asappliedtotheseveralclasses，maybeconsideredasexhibitingthedistinctivecharactersofeachclass。Somanyofthesepropositionsascanbeappliedtotheoffencesbelongingtoanygivenclass，somanypropertiesaretheyfoundtohaveincommon:somanyofthesecommonpropertiesasmayrespectivelybeattributedtothem，somanypropertiesmaybesetdowntoserveascharactersoftheclass。Acollectionofthesecharactersitmayherebepropertoexhibit。Themoreofthemwecanbringtogether，themoreclearlyandfullywillthenatureoftheseveralclasses，andoftheoffencestheyarecomposedof，beunderstood。