Part1
XI。Letusseebywhatmethodtheseclassesmaybefarthersubdivided。
First，then，withregardtooffencesagainstindividuals。
Inthepresentperiodofexistence，aman\'sbeingandwellbeing，hishappinessandhissecurity；inaword，hispleasuresandhisimmunityfrompains，arealldependent，moreorless，inthefirstplace，uponhisownperson；inthenextplace，upontheexteriorobjectsthatsurroundhim。Theseobjectsareeitherthings，orotherpersons。Underoneorotheroftheseclassesmustevidentlybecomprisedeverysortofexteriorobject，bymeansofwhichhisinterestcanbeaffected。Ifthen，bymeansofanyoffence，amanshouldonanyoccasionbecomeasufferer，itmustbeinoneorotheroftwoways:1。absolutely，towit，immediatelyinhisownperson；inwhichcasetheoffencemaybesaidtobeanoffenceagainsthisperson:or，2。relatively，byreasonofsomematerialrelationwhichthebeforementionedexteriorobjectsmayhappentobear，inthewayofcausalityseech。vii。Actions，par。24tohishappiness。Nowinasfarasamanisinawaytoderiveeitherhappinessorsecurityfromanyobjectwhichbelongstotheclassofthings，suchthingissaidtobehisproperty，oratleastheissaidtohaveapropertyoraninteresttherein:anoffence，therefore，whichtendstolessenthefacilityhemightotherwisehaveofderivinghappinessorsecurityfromanobjectwhichbelongstotheclassofthingsmaybestyledanoffenceagainsthisproperty。Withregardtopersons，inasfaras，fromobjectsofthisclass，amanisinawaytoderivehappinessorsecurity，itisinvirtueoftheirservices:
invirtueofsomeservices，which，byonesortofinducementoranother，theymaybedisposedtorenderhim。Now，then，takeanyman，bywayofexample，andthedisposition，whateveritmaybe，whichhemaybeintorenderyouservice，eitherhasnootherconnectiontogivebirthorsupporttoit，thanthegeneralonewhichbindshimtothewholespecies，orithassomeotherconnectionmoreparticular。Inthelattercase，suchaconnectionmaybespokenofasconstituting，inyourfavour，akindoffictitiousorincorporealobjectofproperty，whichisstyledyourcondition。Anoffence，therefore，thetendencyofwhichistolessenthefacilityyoumightotherwisehaveofderivinghappinessfromtheservicesofapersonthusspeciallyconnectedwithyou，maybestyledanoffenceagainstyourconditioninlife，orsimplyagainstyourcondition。Conditionsinlifemustevidentlybeasvariousastherelationsbywhichtheyareconstituted。Thiswillbeseenmoreparticularlyfartheron。Inthemeantimethoseofhusband，wife，parent，child，master，servant，citizenofsuchorsuchacity，natural-bornsubjectofsuchorsuchacountry，mayanswerthepurposeofexamples。
Wherethereisnosuchparticularconnection，orwhatcomestothesamethingwherethedisposition，whateveritmaybe，whichamanisintorenderyouservice，isnotconsideredasdependinguponsuchconnection，butsimplyuponthegood-willhebearstoyou；insuchcase，inordertoexpresswhatchanceyouhaveofderivingabenefitfromhisservices，akindoffictitiousobjectofpropertyisspokenof，asbeingconstitutedinyourfavour，andiscalledyourreputation。Anoffence，therefore，thetendencyofwhichistolessenthefacilityyoumightotherwisehavehadofderivinghappinessorsecurityfromtheservicesofpersonsatlarge，whetherconnectedwithyouornotbyanyspecialtie，maybestyledanoffenceagainstyourreputation。Itappears，therefore，thatifbyanyoffenceanindividualbecomesasufferer，itmustbeinoneorotherofthefourpointsabovementioned；viz。hisperson，hisproperty，hisconditioninlife，orhisreputation。Thesesourcesofdistinction，then，mayservetoformsomanysubordinatedivisions。Ifanyoffencesshouldbefoundtoaffectapersoninmorethanoneofthesepointsatthesametime，suchoffencesmayrespectivelybeputundersomanyseparatedivisions；andsuchcompounddivisionsmaybesubjoinedtotheprecedingsimpleonesTheseveraldivisionssimpleandcompoundtogetherwhicharehereinafterestablished，standasfollows:1。Offensesagainstperson。2。Offensesagainstreputation。3。Offensesagainstproperty。4。
Offensesagainstcondition。5。Offensesagainstpersonandpropertytogether。6。Offensesagainstpersonandreputationtogether。
XII。Nextwithregardtosemi-publicoffences。Pain，consideredwithreferencetothetimeoftheactfromwhichitisliabletoissue，must，itisevident，beeitherpresent，past，orfuture。Inasfarasitiseitherpresentorpast，itcannotbetheresultofanyactwhichcomesunderthedescriptionofasemi-publicoffence:forifitbepresentorpast，theindividualswhoexperience，orwhohaveexperienced，itareassignable。Thereremainsthatsortofmischief，which，ifitevercometoexistatall，isasyetbutfuture:mischief，thuscircumstanced，takesthenameofdanger。Now，then，whenbymeansoftheactofanypersonawholeneighbourhood，orotherclassofpersons，areexposedtodanger，thisdangermusteitherbeintentionalonhispart，orunintentional。Ifunintentional，suchdanger，whenitisconvertedintoactualmischief，takesthenameofacalamity:offences，productiveofsuchdanger，maybestyledsemi-publicoffencesoperatingthroughcalamity；or，morebriefly，offencesthroughcalamity。Ifthedangerbeintentional，insomuchthatitmightbeproduced，andmightconvertitselfintoactualmischief，withouttheconcurrenceofanycalamity，itmaybesaidtooriginateinmeredelinquency:offences，then，which，withouttheconcurrenceofanycalamity，tendtoproducesuchdangerasdisturbsthesecurityofalocal，orothersubordinateclassofpersons，maybestyledsemi-publicoffencesoperatingmerelybydelinquency，ormorebriefly，offencesofmeredelinquency。
XIII。Withregardtoanyfarthersub-divisions，offencesthroughcalamitywilldependuponthenatureoftheseveralcalamitiestowhichman，andtheseveralthingsthatareofusetohim，standexposed。Thesewillbeconsideredinanotherplace。
XIV。Semi-publicoffencesofmeredelinquencywillfollowthemethodofdivisionappliedtooffencesagainstindividuals。Itwilleasilybeconceived，thatwhateverpainorinconvenienceanygivenindividualmaybemadetosuffer，tothedangerofthatpainorinconveniencemayanynumberofindividuals，assignableornotassignable，beexposed。Nowtherearefourpointsorarticles，aswehaveseen，inrespecttowhichanindividualmaybemadetosufferpainorinconvenience。Ifthen，withrespecttoanyoneofthem，theconnectionofcausesandeffectsissuch，thattothedangerofsufferinginthatarticleanumberofpersons，whoindividuallyarenotassignable，may，bythedelinquencyofoneperson，beexposed，sucharticlewillformagroundofdistinctiononwhichaparticularsub-divisionofsemi-publicoffencesmaybeestablished:if，withrespecttoanysucharticle，nosucheffectcantakeplace，thatgroundofdistinctionwilllieforthepresentunoccupied:ready，however，uponanychangeofcircumstances，orinthemannerofviewingthesubject，toreceiveacorrespondentsubdivisionofoffences，ifeveritshouldseemnecessarythatanysuchoffencesshouldbecreated。
XV。Wecomenexttoself-regardingoffences；or，moreproperly，toactsproductiveinthefirstinstanceofnootherthanaself-regardingmischief:actswhich，ifinanyinstanceitbethoughtfittoconstitutethemoffences，willcomeunderthedenominationofoffencesagainstone\'sself。Thisclasswillnotforthepresentgiveusmuchtrouble。Foritisevident，thatinwhateverpointsamanisvulnerablebythehandofanother，inthesamepointsmayhebeconceivedtobevulnerablebyhisown。Whateverdivisionsthereforewillserveforthefirstclass，thesamewillserveforthis。Astothequestions，Whatactsareproductiveofamischiefofthisstamp？and，amongsuchasare，whichitmay，andwhichitmaynot，beworthwhiletotreatuponthefootingofoffences？thesearepoints，thelatterofwhichatleastistoounsettled，andtooopentocontroversy，tobelaiddownwiththatdegreeofconfidencewhichisimpliedintheexhibitionofpropertieswhicharemadeuseofasthegroundworkofanarrangement。Propertiesforthispurposeoughttobesuchasshowthemselvesatfirstglance，andappeartobelongtothesubjectbeyonddispute。
Part2
XVI。Publicoffencesmaybedistributedunderelevendivisions。1。Offencesagainstexternalsecurity。2。Offencesagainstjustice。3。Offencesagainstthepreventivebranchofthepolice。4。
Offencesagainstthepublicforce。5。Offencesagainstthepositiveincreaseofthenationalfelicity。6。Offencesagainstthepublicwealth。7。Offencesagainstpopulation。8。Offencesagainstthenationalwealth。9。Offencesagainstthesovereignty。10。
Offencesagainstreligion。11。Offencesagainstthenationalinterestingeneral。Thewayinwhichtheseseveralsortsofoffencesconnectwithoneanother，andwiththeinterestofthepublic，thatis，ofanunassignablemultitudeoftheindividualsofwhichthatbodyiscomposed，maybethusconceived。
XVII。Mischiefbywhichtheinterestofthepublicasabovedefinedmaybeaffected，must，ifproducedatall，beproducedeitherbymeansofaninfluenceexertedontheoperationsofgovernment，orbyothermeans，withouttheexertionofsuchinfluence。Tobeginwiththelattercase:mischief，beitwhatitwill，andletithappentowhomitwill，mustbeproducedeitherbytheunassistedpowersoftheagentinquestion，orbytheinstrumentalityofsomeotheragents。Inthelattercase，theseagentswillbeeitherpersonsorthings。Personsagainmustbeeithernotmembersofthecommunityinquestion，ormembers。Mischiefproducedbytheinstrumentalityofpersons，mayaccordinglybeproducedbytheinstrumentalityeitherofexternalorofinternaladversaries。Nowwhenitisproducedbytheagent\'sownunassistedpowers，orbytheinstrumentalityofinternaladversaries，oronlybytheinstrumentalityofthings，itisseldomthatitcanshowitselfinanyothershapesettingasideanyinfluenceitmayexertontheoperationsofgovernmentthaneitherthatofanoffenceagainstassignableindividuals，orthatofanoffenceagainstalocalorothersubordinateclassofpersons。Ifthereshouldbeawayinwhichmischiefcanbeproduced，byanyofthesemeans，toindividualsaltogetherunassignable，itwillscarcelybefoundconspicuousorimportantenoughtooccupyatitlebyitself:itmayaccordinglybereferredtothemiscellaneousheadofoffencesagainstthenationalinterestingeneral。
Theonlymischief，ofanyconsiderableaccount，whichcanbemadetoimpendindiscriminatelyoverthewholenumberofmembersinthecommunity，isthatcomplexkindofmischiefwhichresultsfromastateofwar，andisproducedbytheinstrumentalityofexternaladversaries；bytheirbeingprovoked，forinstance，orinvited，orencouragedtoinvasion。Inthiswaymayamanverywellbringdownamischief，andthataveryheavyone，uponthewholecommunityingeneral，andthatwithouttakingapartinanyoftheinjurieswhichcameinconsequencetobeofferedtoparticularindividuals。
Nextwithregardtothemischiefwhichanoffencemaybringuponthepublicbyitsinfluenceontheoperationsofthegovernment。Thisitmayoccasioneither，1。Inamoreimmediateway，byitsinfluenceonthoseoperationsthemselves:2。Inamoreremoteway，byitsinfluenceontheinstrumentsbyorbythehelpofwhichthoseoperationsshouldbeperformed:or3。
Inamoreremotewaystill，byitsinfluenceonthesourcesfromwhencesuchinstrumentsaretobederived。Firstthen，astotheoperationsofgovernment，thetendencyofthese，inasfarasitisconformabletowhatontheprincipleofutilityitoughttobe，isineverycaseeithertoavertmischieffromthecommunity，ortomakeanadditiontothesumofpositivegood。Nowmischief，wehaveseen，mustcomeeitherfromexternaladversaries，frominternaladversaries，orfromcalamities。Withregardtomischieffromexternaladversaries，thererequiresnofurtherdivision。
Astomischieffrominternaladversaries，theexpedientsemployedforavertingitmaybedistinguishedintosuchasmaybeappliedbeforethediscoveryofanymischievousdesigninparticular，andsuchascannotbeemployedbutinconsequenceofthediscoveryofsomesuchdesign:theformerofthesearecommonlyreferredtoabranchwhichmaybestyledthepreventivebranchofthepolice:thelattertothatofjustice。Secondly，Astotheinstrumentswhichgovernment，whetherintheavertingofevilorintheproducingofpositivegood，canhavetoworkwith，thesemustbeeitherpersonsorthings。Thosewhicharedestinedtotheparticularfunctionofguardingagainstmischieffromadversariesingeneral，butmoreparticularlyfromexternaladversaries，maybedistinguishedfromtherestunderthecollectiveappellationofthepublicmilitaryforce，and，forconciseness\'
sake，themilitaryforce。Therestmaybecharacterizedbythecollectiveappellationofthepublicwealth。Thirdly，withregardtothesourcesorfundsfromwhencetheseinstruments，howsoeverapplied，mustbederived，suchofthemascomeunderthedenominationofpersonsmustbetakenoutofthewholenumberofpersonsthatareinthecommunity，thatis，outofthetotalpopulationofthestate:sothatthegreaterthepopulation，thegreatermaycæ；terisparibusbethisbranchofthepublicwealth；andtheless，theless。Inlikemanner，suchascomeunderthedenominationofthingsmaybe，andmostofthemcommonlyare，takenoutofthesumtotalofthosethingswhicharetheseparatepropertiesoftheseveralmembersofthecommunity:
thesumofwhichpropertiesmaybetermedthethenationalwealthsothatthegreaterthenationalwealth，thegreatercæ；terisparibusmaybethisremainingbranchofthepublicwealth；andtheless，theless。Itisheretobeobserved，thatiftheinfluenceexertedonanyoccasionbyanyindividualovertheoperationsofthegovernmentbepernicious，itmustbeinoneorotheroftwoways:1。Bycausing，ortendingtocause，operationsnottobeperformedwhichoughttobeperformed；inotherwords，byimpedingtheoperationsofgovernment。Or，2。Bycausingoperationstobeperformedwhichoughtnottobeperformed；
inotherwords，bymisdirectingthem。Lastly，tothetotalassemblageofthepersonsbywhomtheseveralpoliticaloperationsabovementionedcometobeperformed，wesetoutwithapplyingthecollectiveappellationofthegovernment。Amongthesepersonstherecommonlyissomeoneperson，orbodyofpersonswhoseofficeitistoassignanddistributetotheresttheirseveraldepartments，todeterminetheconducttobepursuedbyeachintheperformanceoftheparticularsetofoperationsthatbelongstohim，andevenuponoccasiontoexercisehisfunctioninhisstead。Wherethereisanysuchperson，orbodyofpersons，heoritmay，accordingastheturnofthephraserequires，betermedthesovereign，orthesovereignty。Nowitisevident，thattoimpedeormisdirecttheoperationsofthesovereign，asheredescribed，maybetoimpedeormisdirecttheoperationsoftheseveraldepartmentsofgovernmentasdescribedabove。
Fromthisanalysis，bywhichtheconnectionbetweentheseveralabove-mentionedheadsofoffencesisexhibited，wemaynowcollectadefinitionforeacharticle。Byoffencesagainstexternalsecurity，wemayunderstandsuchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistobringuponthepublicamischiefresultingfromthehostilitiesofforeignadversaries。Byoffencesagainstjustice，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistoimpedeormisdirecttheoperationsofthatpowerwhichisemployedinthebusinessofguardingthepublicagainstthemischiefsresultingfromthedelinquencyofinternaladversaries，asfarasitistobedonebyexpedients，whichdonotcometobeappliedinanycasetillafterthediscoveryofsomeparticulardesignofthesortofthosewhichtheyarecalculatedtoprevent。Byoffencesagainstthepreventivebranchofthepolice，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistoimpedeormisdirecttheoperationsofthatpowerwhichisemployedinguardingagainstmischiefsresultingfromthedelinquencyofinternaladversaries，byexpedientsthatcometobeappliedbeforehand；orofthatwhichisemployedinguardingagainstthemischiefsthatmightbeoccasionedbyphysicalcalamities。Byoffencesagainstthepublicforce，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistoimpedeormisdirecttheoperationsofthatpowerwhich。destinedtoguardthepublicfromthemischiefswhichmayresultfromthehostilityofforeignadversaries，and，incaseofnecessity，inthecapacityofministersofjustice，frommischiefsofthenumberofthosewhichresultfromthedelinquencyofinternaladversaries。
Byoffencesagainsttheincreaseofthenationalfelicity，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistoimpedeormisapplytheoperationsofthosepowersthatareemployedintheconductingofvariousestablishments，whicharecalculatedtomake，insomanydifferentways，apositiveadditiontothestockofpublichappiness。
Byoffencesagainstthepublicwealth，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistodiminishtheamountormisdirecttheapplicationofthemoney，andotherarticlesofwealth，whichthegovernmentreservesasafund，outofwhichthestockofinstrumentsemployedintheserviceabovementionedmaybekeptup。Byoffencesagainstpopulation，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistodiminishthenumbersorimpairthepoliticalvalueofthesumtotalofthemembersofthecommunity。Byoffencesagainstthenationalwealth，suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistodiminishthequantity，orimpairthevalue，ofthethingswhichcomposetheseparatepropertiesorestatesoftheseveralmembersofthecommunity。
XVIII。Inthisdeduction，itmaybeasked，whatplaceisleftforreligion。
Thisweshallseepresently。Forcombatingthevariouskindsofoffencesaboveenumerated，thatis，forcombatingalltheoffencesthosenotexceptedwhichwearenowaboutconsideringwhichitisinman\'snaturetocommit，thestatehastwogreatengines，punishmentandreward:punishment，tobeappliedtoall，anduponallordinaryoccasions:reward，tobeappliedtoafew，forparticularpurposes，anduponextraordinaryoccasions。Butwhetherornoamanhasdonetheactwhichrendershimanobjectmeetforpunishmentorreward，theeyesofthose，whosoevertheybe，towhomthemanagementoftheseenginesisentrustedcannotalwayssee，nor，whereitispunishmentthatistobeadministered，cantheirhandsbealwayssuretoreachhim。Tosupplythesedeficienciesinpointofpower，itisthoughtnecessary，oratleastusefulwithoutwhichthetruthofthedoctrinewouldbenothingtothepurpose，toinculcateintothemindsofthepeoplethebeliefoftheexistenceofapowerapplicabletothesamepurposes，andnotliabletothesamedeficiencies:thepowerofasupremeinvisiblebeing，towhomadispositionofcontributingtothesameendstowhichtheseveralinstitutionsalreadymentionedarecalculatedtocontribute，mustforthispurposebeascribed。Itisofcourseexpectedthatthispowerwill，atonetimeorother，beemployedinthepromotingofthoseends:andtokeepupandstrengthenthisexpectationamongmen，isspokenofasbeingtheemploymentofakindofallegoricalpersonage，feigned，asbefore，forconvenienceofdiscourse，andstyledreligion。Todiminish，then，ormisapplytheinfluenceofreligion，isprotantotodiminishormisapplywhatpowerthestatehasofcombatingwitheffectanyofthebeforeenumeratedkindsofoffences；thatis，allkindsofoffenceswhatsoever。Actsthatappeartohavethistendencymaybestyledoffencesagainstreligion。Ofthesethenmaybecomposedthetenthdivisionoftheclassofoffencesagainstthestate，XIX。Iftherebeanyactswhichappearliabletoaffectthestateinanyoneormoreoftheaboveways，byoperatinginprejudiceoftheexternalsecurityofthestate，orofitsinternalsecurity；ofthepublicforce；oftheincreaseofthenationalfelicity；
ofthepublicwealth；oftherationalpopulation；ofthenationalwealth；
ofthesovereignty；orofreligion；atthesametimethatitisnotclearinwhichofallthesewaystheywillaffectitmost，norbutthat，accordingtocontingencies，theymayaffectitinoneofthesewaysonlyorinanother；suchactsmaybecollectedtogetherunderamiscellaneousdivisionbythemselves，andstyledoffencesagainstthenationalinterestingeneral。Ofthesethenmaybecomposedtheeleventhandlastdivisionoftheclassofoffencesagainstthestate。
Part3
XX。Wecomenowtoclassthefifth:consistingofmultiformoffences。
These，ashasbeenalreadyintimated，areeither。
offencesbyfalsehood，oroffencesconcerningtrust。Undertheheadofoffencesbyfalsehood，maybecomprehended，1。
Simplefalsehoods。2。Forgery。3。Personation。4。Perjury。Letusobserveinwhatparticularsthesefourkindsoffalsehoodagree，andinwhattheydiffer。
XXI。Offencesbyfalsehood，howeverdiversifiedinotherparticulars，havethisincommon，thattheyconsistinsomeabuseofthefacultyofdiscourse，orrather，asweshallseehereafter，ofthefacultyofinfluencingthesentimentofbeliefinothermen，whetherbydiscourseorotherwise。Theuseofdiscourseistoinfluencebelief，andthatinsuchmannerastogiveothermentounderstandthatthingsareastheyarereally。Falsehoods，ofwhateverkindtheybe，agreeinthis:thattheygivementounderstandthatthingsareotherwisethanasinrealitytheyare。
XXII。Personation，forgery，andperjury，areeachofthemdistinguishedfromothermodesofutteringfalsehoodbycertainspecialcircumstances。Whenafalsehoodisnotaccompaniedbyanyofthosecireumstanees，itmaybestyledsimplefalsehood。
Thesecircumstancesare，1。Theforminwhichthefalsehoodisuttered。
2。Thecircumstanceofitsrelatingornottotheidentityofthepersonofhimwhouttersit。3。Thesolemnityoftheoccasiononwhichitisuttered。{Othercircumstances。}Theparticularapplicationofthesedistinctivecharactersmaymorecommodiouslybereservedforanotherplace。
XXIII。Weeomenowtothesub-divisionsofoffencesbyfalsehood。Thesewillbringusbackintotheregulartrackofanalysis，pursued，withoutdeviation，throughthefourprecedingclasses。
Bywhatevermeansamischiefisbroughtabout，whetherfalsehoodbeorbenotofthenumber，theindividualsliabletobeaffectedbyitmusteitherbeassignableorunassignable。Ifassignable，therearebutfourmaterialarticlesinrespecttowhichtheycanbeaffected:towit，theirpersons，theirproperties，theirreputations，andtheirconditionsinlife。Thecaseisthesame，if，thoughunassignable，theyarecomprisableinanyclasssubordinatetothatwhichiscomposedofthewholenumberofmembersofthestate。Ifthefalsehoodtendtothedetrimentofthewholestate，itcanonlybebyoperatinginoneorotherofthecharacters，whicheveryactthatisanoffenceagainstthestatemustassume；viz。thatofanoffenceagainstexternalSecurity，againstjustice，againstthepreventivebranchofthepolice，againstthepublicforce，againsttheincreaseofthenationalfelicity，againstthepublicwealth，againstthenationalpopulation，againstthenationalwealth，againstthesovereigntyofthestate，oragainstitsreligion。
XXIV。Itisthecommonproperty，then，oftheoffencesthatbelongtothisdivision，torunoverthesamegroundthatisoccupiedbythoseoftheprecedingclasses。Butsomeofthem，asweshallsee，areapt，onvariousoccasions，todroporchangethenameswhichbringthemunderthisdivision:thisisehieflytheeasewithregardtosimplefalsehoods。Othersretaintheirnamesunchanged；andeventherebysupersedethenameswhichwouldotherwisebelongtotheoffenceswhichtheydenominate:thisischicflythecasewithregardtopersonation，forgery，andperjury。Whenthiscircumstancethen，thecircumstanceoffalsehood，intervenes，insomecasesthenamewhichtakestheleadisthatwhichindicatestheoffencebyitseffect；inothercases，itisthatwhichindicatestheexpedientorinstrumentasitwerebythehelpofwhichtheoffenceiscommitted。Falsehood，takeitbyitself，consideritasnotbeingaccompaniedbyanyothermaterialcircumstances，northereforeproductiveofanymaterialeffects，cannever，upontheprincipleofutility，constituteanyoffenceatall。Combinedwithothercircumstances，thereisscarceanysortofperniciouseffectwhichitmaynotbeinstrumentalinproducing。Itisthereforeratherincompliancewiththelawsoflanguage，thaninconsiderationofthenatureofthethingsthemselves，thatfalsehoodsaremadeseparatementionofunderthenameandinthecharacterofdistinctoffences。Allthiswouldappearplainenough，ifitwerenowatimeforenteringintoparticulars:butthatiswhatcannotbedone，consistentlywithanyprincipleoforderorconvenience，untiltheinferiordivisionsofthoseotherclassesshallhavebeenpreviouslyexhibited。
Part4
XXV。Wecomenowtooffencesagainsttrust。Atrustis，wherethereisanyparticularactwhichoneparty，intheexerciseofsomepower，orsomeright，whichisconferredonhim，isboundtoperformforthebenefitofanother。Or，morefully，thus:A
partyissaidtobeinvestedwithatrust，when，beinginvestedwithapower，orwitharight，thereisacertainbehaviourwhich，intheexerciseofthatpower，orofthatright，heisboundtomaintainforthebenefitofsomeotherparty。Ineuchcase，thepartyfirstmentionedisstyledatrustee:fortheotherparty，nonamehaseveryetbeenfound:forwantofaname，thereseemstobenootherresourcethantogiveanewandmoreextensivesensetothewordbeneficiary，ortosayatlengththepartytobebenefited。
Thetrusteeisalsosaidtohaveatrustconferredorimposeduponhim，tobeinvestedwithatrust，tohavehadatrustgivenhimtoexecute，toperform，todischarge，ortofurfil。Thepartytobebenefited，issaidtohaveatrustestablishedorcreatedinhisfavour:andsoonthroughavarietyofotherphrases。
XXVI。Nowitmayoccur，thatatrustisoftentimesspokenofasaspeciesofcondition:thatatrustisalsospokenofasaspeciesofproperty:andthataconditionitselfisalsospokenofsamelight。Itmaybethought，therefore，thatinthefirstclass，thedivisionofoffencesagainstconditionshouldhavebeenincludedunderthatoftheoffencesagainstproperty:andthatatanyrate，somuchofthefifthclassnowbeforeusascontainsoffencesagainsttrust，shouldhavebeenincludedunderoneorotherofthosetwodivisionsofthefirstclass。Butuponexaminationitwillappear，thatnooneofthesedivisionscouldwithconvenience，norevenperhapswithpropriety，havebeenincludedundereitheroftheothertwo。Itwillappearatthesametime，thatthereisanintimateconnectionsubsistingamongstthemall:insomuchthatofthelistsoftheoffencestowhichtheyarerespectivelyexposed，anyonemayserveingreatmeasureasamodelforanyother。Therearecertainoffencestowhichalltrustsassuchareexposed:toalltheseoffenceseverysortofconditionwillbefoundexposed:atthesametimethatparticularspeciesoftheoffencesagainsttrustwill，upontheirapplicationtoparticularconditions，receivedifferentparticulardenominations。Itwillappearalso，thatofthetwogroupsofoffencesintowhichthelistofthoseagainsttrustwillbefoundnaturallytodivideitself，thereisone，andbutone，towhichproperty，takeninitsproperandmoreconfinedsense，standsexposed:andthatthese，intheirapplicationtothesubjectofproperty，willbefoundsusceptibleofdistinctmodifications，towhichtheusageoflanguage，andtheoccasionthereisfordistinguishingtheminpointoftreatment，makeitnecessarytofindnames。
XXVI。nthefirstplace，asthereare，oratleastmaybeasweshallseeconditionswhicharenottrusts，sotherearetrustsofwhichtheideawouldnotbereadilyandnaturallyunderstoodtobeincludedunderthewordcondition:addtowhich，thatofthoseconditionswhichdoincludeatrust，thegreaternumberincludeotheringredientsalongwithit:sothattheideaofacondition，ifontheonehanditstretchesbeyondtheideaofatrust，doesontheotherhandfallshortofit。Oftheseveralsortsoftrusts，byfarthemostimportantarethoseinwhichitisthepublicthatstandsintherelationofbeneficiary。Nowthesetrusts，itshouldseem，wouldhardlypresentthemselvesatfirstviewuponthementionofthewordcondition。Atanyrate，whatismorematerial，themostimportantoftheoffencesagainstthesekindsoftrustwouldnotseemtobeincludedunderthedenominationofoffencesagainstcondition。Theoffenceswhichbythislatterappellationwouldbebroughttoview，wouldbesuchonlyasseemedtoaffecttheinterestsofanindividual:ofhim，forexample，whoisconsideredasbeinginvestedwiththatcondition。Butinoffencesagainstpublictrust，itistheinfluencetheyhaveontheinterestsofthepublicthatconstitutesbymuchthemostmaterialpartoftheirpernicioustendency:theinfluencetheyhaveontheinterestsofanyindividual，theonlypartoftheirinfluencewhichwouldbereadilybroughttoviewbytheappellationofoffencesagainstcondition，iscomparativelyasnothing。Thewordtrustdirectstheattentionatoncetotheinterestsofthatpartyforwhomthepersoninquestionistrustee:
whichparty，upontheadditionoftheepithetpublic，isimmediatelyunderstoodtobethebodycomposedofthewholeassemblage，oranindefiniteportionofthewholeassemblageofthemembersofthestate。Theideapresentedbythewordspublictrustisclearandunambiguous:itisbutanobscureandambiguousgarbthatthatideacouldbeexpressedinbythewordspubliccondition。Itappears，therefore，thattheprincipalpartoftheoffences，includedunderthedenominationofoffencesagainsttrust，couldnot，commodiouslyatleasthavebeenincludedundertheheadofoffencesagainstcondition。
XXVI。Itisevidentenough，thatforthesamereasonsneithercouldtheyhavebeenincludedundertheheadofoffencesagainstproperty。Itwouldhaveappearedpreposterous，andwouldhavearguedatotalinattentiontotheleadingprincipleofthewholework，theprincipleofutility，tohavetakenthemostmischievousandalarmingpartoftheoffencestowhichthepublicstandsexposed，andforcedthemintothelistofoffencesagainstthepropertyofanindividual:ofthatindividual，towit，whointhatcasewouldbeconsideredashavinginhimthepropertyofthatpublictrust，whichbytheoffencesinquestionisaffected。
Norwouldithavebeenlessimpropertohaveincludedconditions，allofthem，undertheheadofproperty:andtherebythewholecatalogueofoffencesagainstcondition，underthecatalogueofoffencesagainstproperty。Trueitis，thatthereareoffencesagainstcondition，whichperhapswithequalpropriety，andwithoutanychangeintheirnature，mightbeconsideredinthelightofoffencesagainstproperty:soextensiveandsovaguearetheideasthatarewonttobeannexedtoboththeseobjects。Butthereareotheroffenceswhichthoughwithunquestionableproprietytheymightbereferredtotheheadofoffencesagainstcondition，couldnot，withouttheutmostviolencedonetolanguage，beforcedundertheappellationofoffencesagainstproperty。Property，consideredwithrespecttotheproprietor，impliesinvariablyabenefit，andnothingelse:whateverobligationsorburthensmay，byaccident，standannexedtoit，yetinitselfitcanneverbeotherwisethanbaneficial。Onthepartoftheproprietor，itiscreatednotbyanycommandsthatarelaidonhim，butbyhisbeingleftfreetodowithsuchorsuchanarticleashelikes。Theobligationsitiscreatedby，areineveryinstancelaiduponotherpeople。Ontheotherhand，astoconditions，thereareseveralwhichareofamixednature，importingaswellaburthentohimwhostandsinvestedwiththemasabenefit:whichindeedisthecasewiththoseconditionswhichwehearmostofunderthatname，andwhichmakethegreatestfigure。
Thereareevenconditionswhichimportnothingbutburthen，withoutanysparkofbenefit。Accordingly，whenbetweentwopartiesthereissucharelation，thatoneofthemstandsintheplaceofanobjectofpropertywithrespecttotheother；thewordpropertyisappliedonlyononeside；butthewordconditionisappliedaliketoboth:itisbutoneofthemthatissaidonthataccounttobepossessedofproperty；butbothofthemarealikespokenofasbeingpossessedoforbeinginvestedwithacondition:itisthemasteralonethatisconsideredaspossessingaproperty，ofwhichtheservant，invirtueoftheservicesheisboundtorender，istheobject:buttheservant，notlessthanthemaster，isspokenofaspossessingorbeinginvestedwithacondition。
Thecaseis，thatifaman\'sconditioniseverspokenofasconstitutinganarticleofhisproperty，itisinthesamelooseandindefinitesenseofthewordinwhichalmosteveryotheroffencethatcouldbeimaginedmightbereckonedintothelistofoffencesagainstproperty。Ifthelanguageindeedwereineveryinstance，inwhichitmadeuseofthephrase，objectofproperty，perspicuousenoughtopointoutunderthatappellationthematerialandreallyexistentbody，thepersonorthethinginwhichthoseactsterminate，bytheperformanceofwhichthepropertyissaidtobeenjoyed；if，inshort，intheimportgiventothephraseobjectofproperty，itmadenootheruseofitthantheputtingittosignifywhatisnowcalledacorporealobject，thisdifficultyandthisconfusionwouldnothaveoccurred。Buttheimportofthephraseobjectofproperty，andinconsequencetheimportofthewordproperty，hasbeenmadetotakeamuchwiderrange。
Inalmosteverycaseinwhichthelawdoesanythingforaman\'sbenefitoradvantage，menareapttospeakofit，onsomeoccasionorother，asconferringonhimasortofproperty。Atthesametime，foronereasonorother，ithasinseveralcasesbeennotpracticable，ornotagreeable，tobringtoview，undertheappellationoftheobjectofhisproperty，thethinginwhichtheacts，bytheperformanceofwhichthepropertyissaidtobeenjoyed，havetheirtermination，orthepersoninwhomtheyhavetheircommencement。Yetsomethingwhichcouldbespokenofunderthatappellationwasabsolutelyrequisite。Theexpedientthenhasbeentocreate，asitwere，oneveryoccasion，anidealbeing，andtoassigntoamanthisidealbeingfortheobjectofhisproperty:andthesearethesortofobjectstowhichmenofscience，intakingaviewoftheoperationsofthelawinthisbehalf，came，inprocessoftime，togivethenameofincorporeal。Nowoftheseincorporealobjectsofpropertythevarietyisprodigious。Fictitiousentitiesofthiskindhavebeenfabricatedalmostoutofeverything:notconditionsonlythatofatrusteeincluded，butevenreputationhavebeenofthenumber。Evenlibertyhasbeenconsideredinthissamepointofview:
andthoughonsomanyoccasionsitiscontrastedwithproperty，yetonotheroccasions，beingreckonedintothecatalogueofpossessions，itseemstohavebeenconsideredasabranchofproperty。Someoftheseapplicationsofthewordsproperty，objectofpropertythelast，forinstance，arelookedupon，indeed，asmorefigurative，andlessproperthantherest:butsincethetruthis，thatwheretheimmediateobjectisincorporeal，theyareallofthemimproper，itisscarcepracticableanywheretodrawtheline。
Notwithstandingallthislatitude，yet，amongtherelationsinvirtueofwhichyouaresaidtobepossessedofacondition，thereisoneatleastwhichcanscarcely，bythemostforcedconstruction，besaidtorenderanyotherman，oranyotherthing，theobjectofyourproperty。Thisistherightofperseveringinacertaincourseofaction；forinstance，intheexercisingofacertaintrade。Nowtoconferonyouthisright，inacertaindegreeatleast，thelawhasnothingmoretodothanbarelytoabstainfromforbiddingyoutoexerciseit。Wereittogofarther，and，forthesakeofenablingyoutoexerciseyourtradetothegreateradvantage，prohibitothersfromexercisingthelike，then，indeed，personsmightbefound，whoinacertainsense，andbyaconstructionratherforcedthanotherwise，mightbespokenofasbeingtheobjectsofyourproperty:viz。bybeingmadetorenderyouthatsortofnegativeservicewhichconsistsintheforbearingtodothoseactswhichwouldlessentheprofitsofyourtrade。Buttheordinaryrightofexercisinganysuchtradeorprofession，asisnottheobjectofamonopoly，importsnosuchthing；andyet，bypossessingthisright，amanissaidtopossessacondition:andbyforfeitingit，toforfeithiscondition。
Afterall，itwillbeseen，thattheremustbecasesinwhich，accordingtotheusageoflanguage，thesameoffencemay，withmoreorlessappearanceofpropriety，bereferredtotheheadofoffencesagainstcondition，orthatofoffencesagainstproperty，indifferently。Insuchcasesthefollowingrulemayservefordrawingtheline。Wherever，invirtueofyourpossessingaproperty，orbeingtheobjectofapropertypossessedbyanotheryouarecharacterised，accordingtotheusageoflanguage，byaparticularname，suchasmaster，servant，husband，wife，steward，agent，attorney，orthelike，therethewordconditionmaybeemployedinexclusionofthewordproperty:andanoffenceinwhich，invirtueofyourbearingsuchrelation，youareconcerned，eitherinthecapacityofanoffender，orinthatofapartyinjured，maybereferredtotheheadofoffencesagainstcondition，andnottothatofoffencesagainstproperty。Togiveanexample:Beingbound，inthecapacityoflandstewardtoacertainperson，tooverseetherepairingofacertainbridge，youforbeartodoso:inthiscase，astheservicesyouareboundtorenderareofthenumberofthosewhichgiveoccasiontotheparty，fromwhomtheyaredue，tobespokenofunderacertaingenericalname，viz。thatoflandsteward，theoffenceofwithholdingthemmaybereferredtotheclassofoffencesagainstcondition。Butsupposethat，withoutbeingengagedinthatgeneralandmiscellaneouscourseofservice，whichwithreferencetoaparticularpersonwoulddenominateyouhislandsteward，youwerebound，whetherbyusageorbycontract，torenderhimthatsinglesortofservicewhichconsistsintheproviding，byyourselforbyothers，fortherepairingofthatbridge:inthiscase，asthereisnotanysuchcurrentdenominationtowhich，invirtueofyourbeingboundtorenderthisservice，youstandaggregatedforthatofarchitect，mason，orthelike，isnothereinquestion，theoffenceyoucommitbywithholdingsuchservicecannotwithproprietybereferredtotheclassofoffencesagainstcondition:itcanonlythereforebereferredtotheclassofoffencesagainstproperty。
Bywayoffurtherdistinction，itmayberemarked，thatwhereaman，invirtueofhisbeingboundtorender，orofothersbeingboundtorenderhim，certainservices，isspokenofaspossessingacondition，theassemblageofservicesisgenerallysoconsiderable，inpointofduration，astoconstituteacourseofconsiderablelength，soasonavarietyofoccasionstocometobevariedandrepeated:andinmostcases，whentheconditionisnotofadomesticnature，sometimesforthebenefitofoneperson，sometimesforthatofanother。Serviceswhichcometoberenderedtoaparticularpersononaparticularoccasion，especiallyiftheybeofshortduration，haveseldomtheeffectofoccasioningeitherpartytobespokenofasbeinginvestedwithacondition。Theparticularoccasionalserviceswhichonemanmaycome，bycontractorotherwise，tobeboundtorendertoanother，areinnumerablyvarious:butthenumberofconditionswhichhavenamesmaybecounted，andare，comparatively，butfew。
XXVI。Ifafterall，notwithstandingtheruleheregivenforseparatingconditionsfromarticlesofproperty，anyobjectshouldpresentitselfwhichshouldappeartobereferable，withequalpropriety，toeitherhead，theinconveniencewouldnotbematerial；sinceinsuchcases，aswillbeseenalittlefartheron，whicheverappellationwereadopted，thelistoftheoffences，towhichtheobjectstandsexposed，wouldbesubstantiallythesame。
Thesedifficultiesbeingclearedup，wenowproceedtoexhibitananalyticalviewoftheseveralpossibleoffencesagainsttrust。
Part5
XXVII。Offencesagainsttrustmaybedistinguished，inthefirstplace，intosuchasconcerntheexistenceofthetrustinthehandsofsuchorsuchaperson，andsuchasconcerntheexerciseofthefunctionsthatbelongtoit。Firstthen，withregardtosuchasrelatetoitsexistence。Anoffenceofthisdescription，likeoneofanyotherdescription，ifanoffenceitoughttobe，musttosomepersonorotherimportaprejudice。Thisprejudicemaybedistinguishedintotwobranches:1。Thatwhichmayfallonsuchpersonsasareorshouldbeinvestedwiththetrust:2。Thatwhichmayfallonthepersonsforwhosesakeitisorshouldbeinstituted，oronotherpersonsatlarge。Tobeginwiththeformerofthesebranches。Letanytrustbeconceived。Theconsequenceswhichitisinthenatureofittobeproductiveoftothepossessor，must，inasfarastheyarematerial，beeitherofanadvantageousorofadisadvantageousnature:inasfarastheyareadvantageous，thetrustmaybeconsideredasabenefitorprivilege:inasfarastheyaredisadvantageous，itmaybeconsideredasaburthen。[*]Toconsideritthenuponthefootingofabenefit。Thetrusteitherisofthenumberofthosewhichoughtbylawtosubsist；thatis，whichthelegislatormeantshouldbeestablished；orisnot。Ifitis，thepossessionwhichatanytimeyoumaybedeprivedof，withrespecttoit，mustatthattimebeeitherpresentortocome:iftocomeinwhichcaseitmayberegardedeitherascertainorascontingent，theinvestitiveevent，oreventfromwhenceyourpossessionofitshouldhavetakenitscommencement，waseitheraneventintheproductionofwhichthewilloftheoffendershouldhavebeeninstrumental，oranyothereventatlarge:intheformercase，theoffencemaybetermedwrongfulnon-investmentoftrust:inthelattercase，wrongfulinterceptionoftrust。[*]Ifatthetimeoftheoffencewherebyyouaredeprivedofit，youwerealreadyinpossessionofit，theoffencemaybestyledwrongfuldivestmentoftrust。Tnanyofthesecases，theeffectoftheoffenceiseithertoputsomebodyelseintothetrust，ornot:ifnot，itiswrongfuldivestment，wrongfulinterception，orwrongfuldivestment，andnothingmore:ifitbe，thepersonputinpossessioniseitherthewrong-doerhimself，inwhichcaseitmaybestyledusurpationoftrust；
orsomeotherperson，inwhichcaseitmaybestyledwrongfulinvestment，orattribution，oftrust。Ifthetrustinquestionisnotofthenumberofthosewhichoughttosubsist，itdependsuponthemannerinwhichonemandeprivesanotherofit，whethersuchdeprivationshallorshallnotbeanoffence，and，accordingly，whethernon-investment，interception，ordivestment，shallorshallnotbewrongful。Buttheputtinganybodyintoitmustatanyratebeanoffence:andthisoffencemaybeeitherusurpationorwrongfulinvestment，asbefore。
Inthenextplace，toconsiderituponthefootingofaburthen。Inthispointofview，ifnootherinterestthanthatofthepersonsliabletobeinvestedwithitwereconsidered，itiswhatoughtnot，upontheprincipleofutility，tosubsist:ifitought，itcanonlybeforthesakeofthepersonsinwhosefavouritisestablished。Ifthenitoughtnotonanyaccounttosubsist，neithernon-investment，interception，nordivestment，canbewrongfulwithrelationtothepersonsfirstmentioned，whatevertheymaybeonanyotheraccount，inrespectofthemannerinwhichtheyhappentobeperformed:forusurpation，thoughnotlikelytobecommitted，thereisthesameroomasbefore:solikewiseisthereforwrongfulinvestment；which，inasfarasthetrustisconsideredasaburthen，maybestyledwrongfulimpositionoftrust。
Ifthetrust，beingstilloftheburthensomekind，isofthenumberofthosewhichoughttosubsist，anyoffencethatcanbecommitted，withrelationtotheexistenceofit，mustconsisteitherincausingapersontobeinpossessionofit，whooughtnottobe，orincausingapersonnottobeinpossessionofitwhooughttobe:intheformercase，itmustbeeitherusurpationorwrongfuldivestment，asbefore:inthelattercase，thepersonwhoiscausedtobenotinpossession，iseitherthewrong-doerhimself，orsomeother:ifthewrong-doerhimself，eitheratthetimeoftheoffencehewasinpossessionofit，orhewasnot:
ifhewas，itmaybetermedwrongfulabdicationoftrust；
ifnot，wrongfuldetrectationornon-assumption:iftheperson，whomtheoffencecausesnottobeinthetrust，isanyotherperson，theoffencemustbeeitherwrongfuldivestment，wrongfulnon-investment，orwrongfulinterception，asbefore:inanyofwhichcasestoconsiderthetrustinthelightofaburthen，itmightalsobestyledwrongfulexemptionfromtrust。
XXVII。Lastly，withregardtotheprejudicewhichthepersonsforwhosebenefitthetrustisinstituted，oranyotherpersonswhoseinterestsmaycometobeaffectedbyitsexistingornotexistinginsuchorsuchhands，areliabletosustain。Uponexaminationitwillappear，thatbyeverysortofoffencewherebythepersonswhoareorshouldbeinpossessionofitareliable，inthatrespect，tosustainaprejudice，thepersonsnowinquestionarealsoliabletosustainaprejudice。Theprejudice，inthiscase，isevidentlyofaverydifferentnaturefromwhatitwasofintheother:butthesamegeneralnameswillbeapplicableinthiscaseasinthat。Ifthebeneficiaries，orpersonswhoseinterestsareatstakeupontheexerciseofthetrust，oranyofthem，areliabletosustainaprejudice，resultingfromthequalityofthepersonbywhomitmaybefilled，suchprejudicemustresultfromtheoneortheotheroftwocauses:1。Fromaperson\'shavingthepossessionofitwhooughtnottohaveit:or2。Fromaperson\'snothavingitwhoought:whetheritbeabenefitorburthentothepossessor，isacircumstancethattothispurposemakesnodifference。Inthefirstofthesecasestheoffencesfromwhichtheprejudicetakesitsrisearethoseofusurpationoftrust，wrongfulattributionoftrust，andwrongfulimpositionoftrust:
inthelatter，wrongfulnon-investmentoftrust，wrongfulinterceptionoftrust，wrongfuldivestmentoftrust，wrongfulabdicationoftrust，andwrongfuldetrectationoftrust。
Somuchfortheoffenceswhichconcerntheexistenceorpossessionofatrust:thosewhichconcerntheexerciseofthefunctionsthatbelongtoitmaybethusconceived。Youareinpossessionofatrust:thetimethenforyouractinginitmust，onanygivenoccasion，neglecting，forsimplicity\'ssake，thethenpresentinstantbeeitherpastoryettocome。Ifpast，yourconductonthatoccasionmusthavebeeneitherconformabletothepurposesforwhichthetrustwasinstituted，orunconformable:ifconformable，therehasbeennomischiefinthecase:
ifunconformable，thefaulthasbeeneitherinyourselfalone，orinsomeotherperson，orinboth:inasfarasithaslaininyourself，ithasconsistedeitherinyournotdoingsomethingwhichyououghttodo，inwhichcaseitmaybestylednegativebreachoftrust；orinyourdoingsomethingwhichyououghtnottodo:ifinthedoingsomethingwhichyououghtnottodo，thepartytowhomtheprejudicehasaccruediseitherthesameforwhosebenefitthetrustwasinstituted，orsomeotherpartyatlarge:intheformerofthesecases，theoffencemaybestyledpositivebreachoftrust；intheother，abuseoftrust。Inasfarasthefaultliesinanotherperson，theoffenceonhispartmaybestyleddisturbanceoftrust。Supposingthetimeforyouractinginthetrusttobeyettocome，theeffectofanyactwhichtendstorenderyourconductunconformabletothepurposesofthetrust，maybeeithertorenderitactuallyandeventuallyunconformable，ortoproduceachanceofitsbeingso。Intheformerofthesecases，itcandonootherwisethantakeoneorotheroftheshapesthathavejustbeenmentioned。Inthelattercase，theblamemustlieeitherinyourselfalone，orinsomeotherperson，orinbothtogether，asbefore。Ifinanotherperson，theactswherebyhemaytendtorenderyourconductunconformable，mustbeexercisedeitheronyourself，oronotherobjectsatlarge。Ifexercisedonyourself，theinfiuencetheypossessmusteitherbesuchasoperatesimmediatelyonyourbody，orsuchasoperatesimmediatelyonyourmind。Inthelattercase，again，thetendencyofthemmustbetodepriveyoueitheroftheknowledge，orofthepower，oroftheinclination，whichwouldbenecessarytoyourmaintainingsuchaconductasshallbeconformabletothepurposesinquestion。Iftheybesuch，ofwhichthetendencyistodepriveyouoftheinclinationinquestion，itmustbebyapplyingtoyourwilltheforceofsomeseducingmotive。Lastly，Thismotivemustbeeitherofthecoercive，orofthealluringkind；inotherwords，itmustpresentitselfeitherintheshapeofamischieforofanadvantage。Nowinnoneofallthecasesthathavebeenmentioned，exceptthelast，doestheoffencereceiveanynewdenomination；accordingtotheeventitiseitheradisturbanceoftrust，oranabortiveattempttobeguiltyofthatoffence。Inthislastitistermedbribery；
anditisthatparticularspeciesofitwhichmaybetermedactivebribery，orbribe-giving。Inthiscase，toconsiderthematteronyourpart，eitheryouacceptofthebribe，oryoudonot:
ifnot，andyoudonotafterwardscommit，orgoabouttocommit，eitherabreachoranabuseoftrust，thereisnooffence，onyourpart，inthecase:ifyoudoacceptit，whetheryoueventuallydoordonotcommitthebreachortheabusewhichitisthebribe-giver\'sintentionyoushouldcommit，youatanyratecommitanoffencewhichisalsotermedbribery:andwhich，fordistinctionsake，maybetermedpassivebribery，orbribe-taking。Astoanyfartherdistinctions，theywilldependuponthenatureoftheparticularsortoftrustinquestion，andthereforebelongnottothepresentplace。Andthuswehavethirteensub-divisionsofoffencesagainsttrust:viz。1。Wrongfulnon-investmentoftrust。2。Wrongfulinterceptionoftrust。3。Wrongfuldivestmentoftrust。4。Usurpationoftrust。5。Wrongfulinvestmentorattributionoftrust。6。Wrongfulabdicationoftrust。7。
Wrongfuldetrectationoftrust。8。Wrongfulimpositionoftrust。9。
Negativebreachoftrust。10。Positivebreachoftrust。11。
Abuseoftrust。12。Disturbanceoftrust。13。Bribery。
XXVIII。Fromwhathasbeensaid，itappearsthattherecannotbeanyotheroffences，onthepartofatrustee，bywhichabeneficiarycanreceiveonanyparticularoccasionanyassignablespecificprejudice。Onesortofacts，however，therearebywhichatrusteemaybeputinsomedangerofreceivingaprejudice，althoughneitherthenatureoftheprejudice，northeoccasiononwhichheisindangerofreceivingit，shouldbeassignable。
Thesecanbenootherthansuchacts，whatevertheymaybe，asdisposethetrusteetobeacteduponbyagivenbribewithgreatereffectthananywithwhichhecouldotherwisebeactedupon:orinotherwords，whichplacehiminsuchcircumstancesashaveatendencytoincreasethequantumofhissensibilitytotheactionofanymotiveofthesortinquestion。Oftheseacts，thereseemtobenoothers，thatwilladmitofadescriptionapplicabletoallplacesandtimesalike，thanactsofprodigalityonthepartofthetrustee。Butinactsofthisnaturetheprejudicetothebeneficiaryiscontingentonlyandunliquidated；
whiletheprejudicetothetrusteehimselfiscertainandliquidated。Ifthereforeonanyoccasionitshouldbefoundadvisabletotreatitonthefootingofanoffence，itwillfinditsplacemorenaturallyintheclassofself-regardingones。
XXIX。Astothesubdivisionsofoffencesagainsttrust，theseareperfectlyanalogoustothoseofoffencesbyfalsehood。Thetrustmaybeprivate，semi-public，orpublic:itmayconcernproperty，person，reputation，orcondition；oranytwoormoreofthosearticlesatatime:aswillbemoreparticularlycxplainedinanotherplace。Heretootheoffence，inrunningoverthegroundoccupiedbythethreepriorclasses，willinsomeinstanceschangeitsname，whileinothersitwillnot。
XXX。Lastly，ifitbeasked，Whatsortofrelationtheresubsistsbetweenfalsehoodsononehand，andoffencesconcerningtrustontheotherhand；theansweris，theyarealtogetherdisparate。Falsehoodisacircumstancethatmayenterintothecompositionofanysortofoffence，thoseconcerningtrust，aswellasanyother:
insomeasanaccidental，inothersasanessentialinstrument。
Breachorabuseoftrustarecircumstanceswhich，inthecharacterofaccidentalconcomitants，mayenterintothecompositionofanyotheroffencesthoseagainstfalsehoodincludedbesidesthosetowhichtheyrespectivelygivename。
3。GeneraofClassI。
Part1
XXXI。Returningnowtoclassthefirst，letuspursuethedistributionastepfarther，andbranchouttheseveraldivisionsofthatclass，asaboveexhibited，intotheirrespectivegenera，thatis，intosuchminuterdivisionsasarecapableofbeingcharacterisedbydenominationsofwhichagreatpartarealreadycurrentamongthepeople。Inthisplacetheanalysismuststop。Toapplyitinthesameregularformtoanyoftheotherclassesseemsscarcelypracticable:
tosemi-public，asalsotopublicoffences，onaccountoftheinterferenceoflocalcircumstances:toself-regardingones，onaccountofthenecessityitwouldcreateofdecidingprematurelyuponpointswhichmayappearliabletocontroversy:
tooffencesbyfalsehood，andoffencesagainsttrust，onaccountofthedependencethereisbetweenthisclassandthethreeformer。Whatremainstobedoneinthisway，withreferencetothesefourclasses，willrequirediscussion，andwillthereforebeintroducedwithmoreproprietyinthebodyofthework，thaninapreliminarypart，ofwhichthebusinessisonlytodrawoutlines。
XXXII。Anact，bywhichthehappinessofanindividualisdisturbed，iseithersimpleinitseffectsorcomplex。Itmaybestyledsimpleinitseffects，whenitaffectshiminoneonlyofthearticlesorpointsinwhichhisinterest，aswehaveseen，isliabletobeaffected:complex，whenitaffectshiminseveralofthosepointsatonce。Suchasaresimpleintheireffectsmustofcoursebefirstconsidered。