OftheProportionbetweenPunishmentsandOffencesI。Wehaveseenthatthegeneralobjectofalllawsistopreventmischief；
thatistosay，whenitisworthwhile；butthat，wheretherearenoothermeansofdoingthisthanpunishment，therearefourcasesinwhichitisnotworthwhile。
II。Whenitisworthwhile，therearefoursubordinatedesignsorobjects，which，inthecourseofhisendeavourstocompass，asfarasmaybe，thatonegeneralobject，alegislator，whoseviewsaregovernedbytheprincipleofutility，comesnaturallytoproposetohimself。
III。1。Hisfirst，mostextensive，andmosteligibleobject，istoprevent，inasfarasitispossible，andworthwhile，allsortsofoffenseswhatsoever:inotherwords，sotomanage，thatnooffensewhatsoevermaybecommitted。
IV。2。Butifamanmustneedscommitanoffenseofsomekindorother，thenextobjectistoinducehimtocommitanoffenselessmischievous，ratherthanonemoremischievous:inotherwords，tochoosealwaystheleastmischievous，oftwooffensesthatwilleitherofthemsuithispurpose。
V。3。Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffense，thenextobjectistodisposehimtodonomoremischiefthanisnecessarytohispurpose:inotherwords，todoaslittlemischiefasisconsistentwiththebenefithehasinview。
VI。4。Thelastobjectis，whateverthemischiefbe，whichitisproposedtoprevent，topreventitatascheaparateaspossible。
VII。Subservienttothesefourobjects，orpurposes，mustbetherulesorcanonsbywhichtheproportionofpunishmentstooffensesistobegoverned。
VIII。Rule1。Thefirstobject，ithasbeenseen，istoprevent，inasfarasitisworthwhile，allsortsofoffenses；therefore，Thevalueofthepunishmentmustnotlessinanycasethanwhatissufficienttooutweighthatoftheprofitoftheoffense。
Ifitbe，theoffenceunlesssomeotherconsiderations，independentofthepunishmentshouldinterveneandoperateefficaciouslyinthecharacteroftutelarymotiveswillbesuretobetocommittednotwithstanding:thewholelotofpunishmentwillbethrownaway:itwillbealtogetherinefficacious。
IX。Theaboverulehasbeenoftenobjectedto，onaccountofitsseemingharshness:butthiscanonlyhavehappenedforwantofitsbeingproperlyunderstood。Thestrengthofthetemptation，cæ；terisparibas，isastheprofitoftheoffense:thequantumofthepunishmentmustrisewiththeprofitoftheoffense:cæ；terisparibas，itmustthereforerisewiththestrengthofthetemptation。Thisthereisnodisputing。Trueitis，thatthestrongerthetemptation，thelessconclusiveistheindicationwhichtheactofdelinquencyaffordsofthedepravityoftheoffender\'sdisposition。
Sofarthenastheabsenceofanyaggravation，arisingfromextraordinarydepravityofdisposition，mayoperate，orattheutmost，sofarasthepresenceofagroundofextenuation，resultingfromtheinnocenceorbeneficenceoftheoffender\'sdisposition，canoperate，thestrengthofthetemptationmayoperateinabatementofthedemandforpunishment。Butitcanneveroperatesofarastoindicatetheproprietyofmakingthepunishmentineffectual，whichitissuretobewhenbroughtbelowtheleveloftheapparentprofitoftheoffense。
Thepartialbenevolencewhichshouldprevailforthereductionofitbelowthislevel，wouldcounteractaswellthosepurposeswhichsuchamotivewouldactuallyhaveinview，asthosemoreextensivepurposeswhichbenevolenceoughttohaveinview:itwouldbecrueltynotonlytothepublic，buttotheverypersonsinwhosebehalfitpleads:initseffects，Imean，howeveroppositeinitsintention。Crueltytothepublic，thatiscrueltytotheinnocent，bysufferingthem，forwantofanadequateprotection，tolieexposedtothemischiefoftheoffense:crueltyeventotheoffenderhimself，bypunishinghimtonopurpose，andwithoutthechanceofcompassingthatbeneficialend，bywhichalonetheintroductionoftheevilofpunishmentistobejustified。
X。Rule2。Butwhetheragivenoffenceshallbepreventedinagivendegreebyagivenquantityofpunishment，isneveranythingbetterthanachance；forthepurchasingofwhich，whateverpunishmentisemployed，issomuchexpendedintoadvance。
However，forthesakeofgivingitthebetterchanceofoutweighingtheprofitoftheoffence，Thegreaterthemischiefoftheoffense，thegreateristheexpensewhichitmaybeworthwhiletobeat，inthewayofpunishment。
XI。Rule3。Thenextobjectis，toinduceamantochoosealwaystheleastmischievousoftwooffenses；therefore，Wheretwooffencescomeincompetition，thepunishmentforthegreateroffencemustbesufficienttoinduceamantoprefertheless。
XII。Rule4。Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffense，thenextobjectis，toinducehimtodonomoremischiefthanwhatisnecessaryforhispurpose:thereforeThepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachparticularoffence，thatforeverypartofthemischieftheremaybeamotivetorestraintheoffenderfrowngivingbirthtoit。
XIII。Rule5。Thelastobjectis，whatevermischiefisguardedagainst，toguardagainstitatascheaparateaspossible:
thereforeThepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisnecessarytobringitintoconformitywiththerulesheregiven。
XIV。Rule6。Itisfurthertobeobserved，thatowingtothedifferentmannersanddegreesinwhichpersonsunderdifferentcircumstancesareaffectedbythesameexcitingcause，apunishmentwhichisthesameinnamewillnotalwayseitherreallyproduce，orevensomuchasappeartootherstoproduce，intwodifferentpersonsthesamedegreeofpain:thereforeThatthequantityactuallyindictedoneachindividualoffendernaycorrespondtothequantityintendedforsimilaroffendersingeneral，theseveralcircumstancesinfluencingsensibilityoughtalwaystobetakenintoaccount。
XV。Oftheaboverulesofproportion，thefirstfour，wemayperceiveservetomarkoutlimitsonthesideofdiminution；thelimitsbelowwhichapunishmentoughtnottobediminished:thefifththelimitsonthesideofincrease；thelimitsabovewhichitoughtnottobeincreased。Thefivefirstarecalculatedtoserveasguidestothelegislator:thesixthiscalculatedinsomemeasure，indeed，tothesamepurpose；butprincipallyforguidingthejudgeinhisendeavorstoconform，onbothsides，totheintentionsofthelegislator。
XVI。Letuslookbackalittle。Thefirstrule，inordertorenderitmoreconvenientlyapplicabletopractice，mayneedperhapstobealittlemoreparticularlyunfolded。Itistobeobserved，then，thatforthesakeofaccuracy，itwasnecessary，insteadofthewordquantitytomakeuseofthelessperspicuoustermvalue。Forthewordquantitywillnotproperlyincludeandthecircumstanceseitherofcertaintyorproximity:circumstanceswhich，inestimatingthevalueofalotofpainorpleasure，mustalwaysbetakenintotheaccount。Now，ontheonehand，alotofpunishmentisalotofpain；ontheotherhand，theprofitofanoffenseisalotofpleasure，orwhatisequivalenttoit。Buttheprofitoftheoffenseiscommonlymorecertainthanthepunishment，or，whatcomestothesamething，appearssoatleasttotheoffender。Itisatanyratecommonlymoreimmediate。
Itfollows，therefore，that，inordertomaintainitssuperiorityovertheprofitoftheoffense，thepunishmentmusthaveitsvaluemadeupinsomeotherway，inproportiontothatwherebyitfallsshortinthetwopointsofcertaintyandproximity。Nowthereisnootherwayinwhichitcanreceiveanyadditiontoitsvalue，butbyreceivinganadditioninpointofmagnitude。
Whereverthenthevalueofthepunishmentfallsshort，eitherinpointofcertainty，orofproximity，ofthatoftheprofitoftheoffence，itmustreceiveaproportionableadditioninpointofmagnitude。
XVII。Yetfarther。Tomakesureofgivingthevalueofthepunishmentthesuperiorityoverthatoftheoffence，itmaybeofnecessary，insomecases，totakeintoaccounttheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffencetowhichthepunishmentistobeannexed，butalsoofsuchotheroffencesofthesamesortastheoffenderislikelytohavealreadycommittedwithoutdetection。Thisrandommodeofcalculation，severeasitis，itwillbeimpossibletoavoidhavingrecourseto，incertaincases:insuch，towit，inwhichtheprofitispecuniary，thechanceofdetectionverysmall，andtheobnoxiousactofsuchanatureasindicatesahabit:forexample，inthecaseoffraudsagainstthecoin。
Ifitbenotrecurredto，thepracticeofcommittingtheoffencewillbesuretobe，uponthebalanceoftheaccount，againfulpractice。Thatbeingthecase，thelegislatorwillbeabsolutelysureofnotbeingabletosuppressit，andthewholepunishmentthatisbestoweduponitwillbethrownaway。Inawordtokeeptothesameexpressionswesetoutwiththatwholequantityofpunishmentwillbeinefficacious。
XVIII。Rule7。Thesethingsbeingconsidered，thethreefollowingrulesmaybelaiddownbywayofsupplementandexplanationtoRule1。
Toenablethevalueofthepunishmenttooutweighthatoftheprofitoftheoffense，itmustbeincreased，inpointofmagnitude，inproportionasitfallsshortinpointofcertainty。
XIX。Rule8。Punishmentmustbefurtherincreasedinpointofmagnitude，inproportionasitfallsshortinpointofproximity。
XX。Rule9。Wheretheactisconclusivelyindicativeofahabit，suchanincreasemustbegiventothepunishmentasmayenableittooutweightheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffence，butofsuchotherlikeoffensesasarelikelytohavebeencommittedwithimpunitybythesameoffender。
XXI。Theremaybeafewothercircumstancesorconsiderationswhichmayinfluence，insomesmalldegree，thedemandforpunishment:butastheproprietyoftheseiseithernotsodemonstrable，ornotsoconstant，ortheapplicationofthemnotsodeterminate，asthatoftheforegoing，itmaybedoubtedwhethertheybeworthputtingonalevelwiththeothers。
XXII。Rule10。Whenapunishment，whichinpointofqualityisparticularlywellcalculatedtoansweritsintentioncannotexistinlessthanacertainquantity，itmaysometimesbeofuse，forthesakeofemployingit，tostretchalittlebeyondthatquantitywhich，onotheraccounts，wouldbestrictlynecessary。
XXIII。Rule11。Inparticular，thismaysometimesbethecase，wherethepunishmentproposedisofsuchanatureastobeparticularlywellcalculatedtoanswerthepurposeofamorallesson。
XXIV。Rule12。Thetendencyoftheaboveconsiderationsistodictateanaugmentationinthepunishment:thefollowingruleoperatesinthewayofdiminution。Therearecertaincasesithasbeenseeninwhich，bytheinfluenceofaccidentalcircumstances，punishmentmayberenderedunprofitableinthewhole:
inthesamecasesitmaychancetoberenderedunprofitableastoapartonly。Accordingly，Inadjustingthequantumofpunishment，thecircumstances；bywhichallpunishmentmayberenderedunprofitable，oughttobeattendedto。
XXV。Rule13。Itistobeobserved，thatthemorevariousandminuteanysetofprovisionsare，thegreaterthechanceisthatanygivenarticleinthemwillnotbeborneinmind:withoutwhich，nobenefitcanensuefromit。Distinctions，whicharemorecomplexthanwhattheconceptionsofthosewhoseconductitisdesignedtoinfluencecantakein，willevenbeworsethanuseless。Thewholesystemwillpresentaconfusedappearance:andthustheeffect，notonlyoftheproportionsestablishedbythearticlesinquestion，butofwhateverisconnectedwiththem，willbedestroyed。Todrawapreciselineofdirectioninsuchcaseseemsimpossible。However，bywayofmemento，itmaybeofsomeusetosubjointhefollowingrule。
Amongprovisionsdesignedtoperfecttheproportionbetweenpunishmentsandoffences，ifanyoccur，which，bytheirownparticulargoodeffects，wouldnotmakeupfortheharmtheywoulddobyaddingtotheintricacyoftheCode，theyshouldbeomitted。
XXVI。Itmayberemembered，thatthepoliticalsanction，beingthattowhichthesortofpunishmentbelongs，whichinthischapterisallalonginview，isbutoneoffoursanctions，whichmayallofthemcontributetheirsharetowardsproducingthesameeffects。Itmaybeexpected，therefore，thatinadjustingthequantityofpoliticalpunishment，allowanceshouldbemadefortheassistanceitmaymeetwithfromthoseothercontrollingpowers。
Trueitis，thatfromeachoftheseseveralsourcesaverypowerfulassistancemaysometimesbederived。Butthecaseis，thatsettingasidethemoralsanction，inthecasewheretheforceofitisexpresslyadoptedintoandmodifiedbythepolitical
theforceofthoseotherpowersisneverdeterminateenoughtobedependedupon。Itcanneverbereduced，likepoliticalpunishment，intoexactlots，normetedoutinnumber，quantity，andvalue。Thelegislatoristhereforeobligedtoprovidethefullcomplementofpunishment，asifheweresureofnotreceivinganyassistancewhateverfromanyofthosequarters。Ifhedoes，somuchthebetter:butlestheshouldnot，itisnecessaryheshould，atallevents，makethatprovisionwhichdependsuponhimself。
XXVII。Itmaybeofuse，inthisplace，torecapitulatetheseveralcircumstances，which，inestablishingtheproportionbetwixtpunishmentsandoffenses，aretobeattendedto。Theseseemtobeasfollows:
I。Onthepartoftheoffence:
1。Theprofitoftheoffense；
2。Themischiefoftheoffense；
3。Theprofitandmischiefofothergreaterorlesseroffences，ofdifferentsorts，whichtheoffendermayhavetochooseoutof；
4。Theprofitandmischiefofotheroffenses，ofthesamesort，whichthesameoffendermayprobablyhavebeenguiltyofalready。
II。Onthepartofthepunishment:
5。Themagnitudeofthepunishment:composedofitsintensityandduration；
6。Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofcertainty；
7。Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofproximity；
8。Thequalityofthepunishment；
9。Theaccidentaladvantageinpointofqualityofapunishment，notstrictlyneededinpointofquantity；
10。Theuseofapunishmentofaparticularquality，inthecharacterofamorallesson。
III。Onthepartoftheoffender:
11。Theresponsibilityoftheclassofpersonsinawaytooffend；
12。Thesensibilityofeachparticularoffender13。Theparticularmeritsorusefulqualitiesofanyparticularoffender，incaseofapunishmentwhichmightdeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthem；
14。Themultitudeofoffendersonanyparticularoccasion。
IV。Onthepartofthepublic，atanyparticularconjuncture:
15。Theinclinationsofthepeople，fororagainstanyquantityormodeofpunishment；
16。Theinclinationsofforeignpowers。
V。Onthepartofthelaw:thatis，ofthepublicforacontinuance:
17。Thenecessityofmakingsmallsacrifices，inpointofproportionality，forthesakeofsimplicity。
XXVIII。Therearesome，perhaps，who，atfirstsight，maylookuponthenicetyemployedintheadjustmentofsuchrules，assomuchlabourlost:forgrossignorance，theywillsay，never，troublesitselfaboutlaws，andpassiondoesnotcalculate。But，theevilofignoranceadmitsofcure:andastothepropositionthatpassiondoesnotcalculate，this，likemostoftheseverygeneralandoracularpropositions，isnottrue。Whenmattersofsuchimportanceaspainandpleasureareatstake，andtheseinthehighestdegreetheonlymatters，inshort，thatcanbeofimportance
whoistherethatdoesnotcalculate？Mencalculate，somewithlessexactness，indeed，somewithmore:butallmencalculate。
Iwouldnotsay，thatevenamadmandoesnotcalculate。
Passioncalculates，moreorless，ineveryman:indifferentmen，accordingtothewarmthorcoolnessoftheirdispositions:
accordingtothefirmnessorirritabilityoftheirminds:accordingtothenatureofthemotivesbywhichtheyareactedupon。
Happily，ofallpassions，thatisthemostgiventocalculation，fromtheexcessesofwhich，byreasonofitsstrength，constancy，anduniversality，societyhasmosttoapprehend:Imeanthatwhichcorrespondstothemotiveofpecuniaryinterest:sothattheseniceties，ifsuchtheyaretobecalled，havethebestchanceofbeingefficacious，whereefficacyisofthemostimportance。
chapter15AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXV
OfthePropertiestobeGiventoaLotofPunishmentI。Ithasbeenshownwhattherulesare，whichoughttobeobservedinadjustingtheproportionbetweenthepunishmentsandtheoffense。Thepropertiestobegiventoalotofpunishment，ineveryinstance，willofcoursebesuchasitstandsinneedof，inordertobecapableofbeingapplied，inconformitytothoserules:
thequalitywillberegulatedbythequantity。
II。Thefirstofthoserules，wemayremember，was，thatthequantityofpunishmentmustnotbeless，inanycase，thanwhatissufficienttooutweightheprofitoftheoffence:since，asoftenasitisless，thewholelotunlessbyaccidentthedeficiencyshouldbesuppliedfromsomeoftheothersanctionsisthrownaway:itisinefficacious。Thefifthwas，thatthepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisrequiredbytheseveralotherrules:since，ifitbe，allthatisabovethatquantityisneedless。Thefourthwas，thatthepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachindividualoffence，thateverypartofthemischiefofthatoffencemayhaveapenaltythatis，atutelarymotivetoencounterit:otherwise，withrespecttosomuchoftheoffenseashasnotapenaltytocorrespondtoit，itisasiftherewerenopunishmentinthecase。Nowtononeofthoserulescanalotofpunishmentbeconformable，unless，foreveryvariationinpointofquantity，inthemischiefofthespeciesofoffensetowhichitisannexed，suchlotofpunishmentadmitsofacorrespondentvariation。
Toprovethis，lettheprofitoftheoffenceadmitofamultitudeofdegrees。Supposeit，then，atanyoneofthesedegrees:
ifthepunishmentbelessthanwhatissuitabletothatdegree，itwillbeinefficacious；itwillbesomuchthrownaway:ifitbemore，asfarasthedifferenceextends，itwillbeneedless；itwillthereforebethrownawayalsointhatcase。
Thefirstproperty，therefore，thatoughttobegiventoalotofpunishment，isthatofbeingvariableinpointofquantity，inconformitytoeveryvariationwhichcantakeplaceineithertheprofitormischiefoftheoffense。Thispropertymight，perhaps，betermed，inasingleword，variability。
III。Asecondproperty，intimatelyconnectedwiththeformer，maybestyledequability。Itwillavailbutlittle，thatamodeofpunishmentproperinallotherrespectshasbeenestablishedbythelegislator；andthatcapableofbeingscreweduporletdowntoanydegreethatcanberequired；if，afterall，whateverdegreeofitbepitchedupon，thatsamedegreeshallbeliable，accordingtocircumstances，toproduceaveryheavydegreeofpain，oraveryslightone，orevennoneatall。Inthiscase，asintheformer，ifcircumstanceshappenoneway，therewillbeagreatdealofpainproducedwhichwillbeneedless:iftheotherway，therewillbenopainatallapplied，ornonethatwillbeefficacious。
Apunishment，whenliabletothisirregularity，maybestyledanunequableone:whenfreefromit，anequableone。Thequantityofpainproducedbythepunishmentwill，itistrue，dependinaconsiderabledegreeuponcircumstancesdistinctfromthenatureofthepunishmentitself:upontheconditionwhichtheoffenderisin，withrespecttothecircumstancesbywhichaman\'ssensibilityisliabletobeinfluenced。Buttheinfluenceoftheseverycircumstanceswillinmanycasesbereciprocallyinfluencedbythenatureofthepunishment:inotherwords，thepainwhichisproducedbyanymodeofpunishment，willbethejointeffectofthepunishmentwhichisappliedtohim，andthecircumstancesinwhichheisexposedtoit。Nowtherearesomepunishments，ofwhichtheeffectmaybeliabletoundergoagreateralterationbytheinfluenceofsuchforeigncircumstances，thantheeffectofotherpunishmentsisliabletoundergo。Sofar，then，asthisisthecase，equabilityorunequabilitymayberegardedaspropertiesbelongingtothepunishmentitself。
IV。Anexampleofamodeofpunishmentwhichisapttobeunequable，isthatofbanishment，whenthelocusaquoorplacethepartyisbanishedfromissomedeterminateplaceappointedbythelaw，whichperhapstheoffendercaresnotwhetherheeverseeorno。Thisisalsothecasewithpecuniary，orquasi-pecuniarypunishment，whenitrespectssomeparticularspeciesofproperty，whichtheoffendermayhavebeenpossessedof，ornot，asitmayhappen。Allthesepunishmentsmaybesplitdownintoparcels，andmeasuredoutwiththeutmostnicety:beingdivisiblebytime，atleast，ifbynothingelse。Theyarenot，therefore，anyofthemdefectiveinpointofvariability:andyet，inmanycases，thisdefectinpointofequabilitymaymakethemasunfitforuseasiftheywere。
V。Thethirdruleofproportionwas，thatwheretwooffensescomeincompetition，thepunishmentforthegreateroffensesmustbesufficienttoinduceamantoprefertheless。Now，tobesufficientforthispurpose，itmustbeevidentlyanduniformlygreater:greater，notintheeyesofsomemenonly，butofallmenwhoareliabletobeinasituationtotaketheirchoicebetweenthetwooffenses；thatis，ineffect，ofallmankind。Inotherwords，thetwopunishmentsmustbeperfectlycommensurable。
Hencearisesathirdproperty，whichmaybetermedcommensurability:
towit，withreferencetootherpunishments。
VI。Butpunishmentsofdifferentkindsareinveryfewinstancesuniformlygreateronethananother；especiallywhenthelowestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilythegreater，arecomparedwiththehighestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilytheless:inotherwords，punishmentsofdifferentkindsareinfewinstancesuniformlycommensurable。Theonlycertainanduniversalmeansofmakingtwolotsofpunishmentperfectlycommensurable，isbymakingthelesseraningredientinthecompositionofthegreater。
Thismaybedoneineitheroftwoways。1。Byaddingtothelesserpunishmentanotherquantityofpunishmentofthesamekind。
2。Byaddingtoitanotherquantityofadifferentkind。Thelattermodeisnotlesscertainthantheformer:forthoughonecannotalwaysbeabsolutelysure，thattothesamepersonagivenpunishmentwillappeargreaterthananothergivenpunishment；yetonemaybealwaysabsolutelysure，thatanygivenpunishment，soasitdoesbutcomeintocontemplation，willappeargreaterthannoneatall。
VII。Again:Punishmentcannotactanyfartherthaninasfarastheideaofit，andofitsconnectionwiththeoffense，ispresentinthemind。Theideaofit，ifnotpresent，cannotactatall；andthenthepunishmentitselfmustbeinefficacious。Now，tobepresent，itmustberemembered，andtoberemembereditmusthavebeenlearnt。Butofallpunishmentsthatcanbeimagined，therearenoneofwhichtheconnectionwiththeoffenseiseithersoeasilylearnt，orsoefficaciouslyremembered，asthoseofwhichtheideaisalreadyinpartassociatedwithsomepartoftheideaoftheoffense:whichisthecasewhentheoneandtheotherhavesomecircumstancethatbelongstothemincommon。Whenthisisthecasewithapunishmentandanoffense，thepunishmentissaidtobearananalogyto，ortobecharacteristicof，theoffence。Characteristicalnessis，therefore，afourthproperty，whichonthisaccountoughttobegiven，wheneveritcanconvenientlybegiven，toalotofpunishment。
VIII。Itisobvious，thattheeffectofthiscontrivancewillbethegreater，astheanalogyisthecloser。Theanalogywillbethecloser，themorematerialthatcircumstanceis，whichisincommon。
Nowthemostmaterialcircumstancethatcanbelongtoanoffenseandapunishmentincommon，isthehurtordamagewhichtheyproduce。Theclosestanalogy，therefore，thatcansubsistbetweenanoffenseandthepunishmentannexedtoit，isthatwhichsubsistsbetweenthemwhenthehurtordamagetheyproduceisofthesamenature:inotherwords，thatwhichisconstitutedbythecircumstanceofidentityinpointofdamage。
Accordingly，themodeofpunishment，whichofallothersbearstheclosestanalogytotheoffense，isthatwhichintheproperandexactsenseofthewordistermedretaliation。Retaliation，therefore，inthefewcasesinwhichitispracticable，andnottooexpensive，willhaveonegreatadvantageovereveryothermodeofpunishment。
IX。Again:Itistheideaonlyofthepunishmentor，inotherwords，theapparentpunishmentthatreallyactsuponthemind；
thepunishmentitselftherealpunishmentactsnotanyfartherthanasgivingrisetothatidea。Itistheapparentpunishment，therefore，thatdoesalltheservice，Imeaninthewayofexample，whichistheprincipalobject。Itistherealpunishmentthatdoesallthemischief。Nowtheordinaryandobviouswayofincreasingthemagnitudeoftheapparentpunishment，isbyincreasingthemagnitudeofthereal。Theapparentmagnitude，however，maytoacertaindegreebeincreasedbyotherlessexpensivemeans:whenever，therefore，atthesametimethattheselessexpensivemeanswouldhaveansweredthatpurpose，anadditionalrealpunishmentisemployed，thisadditionalrealpunishmentisneedless。Astotheselessexpensivemeans，theyconsist，1。Inthechoiceofaparticularmodeofpunishment，apunishmentofaparticularquality，independentofthequantity。2。
Inaparticularsetofsolemnitiesdistinctfromthepunishmentitself，andaccompanyingtheexecutionofit。
X。Amodeofpunishment，accordingastheappearanceofitbearsagreaterproportiontothereality，maybesaidtobethemoreexemplary。Nowastowhatconcernsthechoiceofthepunishmentitself，thereisnotanymeansbywhichagivenquantityofpunishmentcanberenderedmoreexemplary，thanbychoosingitofsuchasortasshallbearananalogytotheoffense。Henceanotherreasonforrenderingthepunishmentanalogousto，orinotherwordscharacteristicof，theoffense。
XI。Punishment，itisstilltoberemembered，isinitselfanexpense:
itisinitselfanevil。Accordinglythefifthruleofproportionis，nottoproducemoreofitthanwhatisdemandedbytheotherrules。
Butthisisthecaseasoftenasanyparticleofpainisproduced，whichcontributesnothingtotheeffectproposed。Nowifanymodeofpunishmentismoreaptthananothertoproduceanysuchsuperfluousandneedlesspain，itmaybestyledunfrugal；
ifless，itmaybestyledfrugal。Frugality，therefore，isasixthpropertytobewishedforinamodeofpunishment。
XII。Theperfectionoffrugality，inamodeofpunishment，iswherenotonlynosuperfluouspainisproducedonthepartofthepersonpunished，buteventhatsameoperation，bywhichheissubjectedtopain，ismadetoanswerthepurposeofproducingpleasureonthepartofsomeotherperson。Understandaprofitorstockofpleasureoftheself-regardingkind:forapleasureofthedissocialkindisproducedalmostofcourse，onthepartofallpersonsinwhosebreaststheoffencehasexcitedthesentimentofill-will。Nowthisisthecasewithpecuniarypunishment，asalsowithsuchpunishmentsofthequasi-pecuniarykindasconsistinthesubtractionofsuchaspeciesofpossessionasistransferablefromonepartytoanother。Thepleasure，indeed，producedbysuchanoperation，isnotingeneralequaltothepain:
itmay，however，besoinparticularcircumstances，aswherehe，fromwhomthethingistaken，isveryrich，andhe，towhomitisgiven，verypoor:and，beitwhatitwill，itisalwayssomuchmorethancanbeproducedbyanyothermodeofpunishment。
XIII。Thepropertiesofexemplarityandfrugalityseemtopursuethesameimmediateend，thoughbydifferentcourses。Bothareoccupiedindiminishingtheratiooftherealsufferingtotheapparent:
butexemplaritytendstoincreasetheapparent；frugalitytoreducethereal。
XIV。Thusmuchconcerningthepropertiestobegiventopunishmentsingeneral，towhatsoeveroffensestheyaretobeapplied。Thosewhichfollowareoflessimportance，eitherasreferringonlytocertainoffensesinparticular，ordependingupontheinfluenceoftransitoryandlocalcircumstances。
Inthefirstplace，thefourdistinctendsintowhichthemainandgeneralendofpunishmentisdivisible，maygiverisetosomanydistinctproperties，accordingasanyparticularmodeofpunishmentappeartobemoreparticularlyadaptedtothecompassingofoneorofanotherofthoseends。Tothatofexample，asbeingtheprincipalone，aparticularpropertyhasalreadybeenadapted。Thereremainsthethreeinferioronesofreformation，disablement，andcompensation。
XV。Aseventhproperty，therefore，tobewishedforinamodeofpunishment，isthatofsubserviencytoreformation，orreformingtendency。Nowanypunishmentissubservienttoreformationinproportiontoitsquantity:sincethegreaterthepunishmentamanhasexperienced，thestrongeristhetendencyithastocreateinhimanaversiontowardstheoffensewhichwasthecauseofit:andthatwithrespecttoalloffensesalike。Buttherearecertainpunishmentswhich，withregardtocertainoffenses，haveaparticulartendencytoproducethateffectbyreasonoftheirquality:andwherethisisthecase，thepunishmentsinquestion，asappliedtotheoffensesinquestion，willprotantohavetheadvantageoverallothers。Thisinfluencewilldependuponthenatureofthemotivewhichisthecauseoftheoffence:thepunishmentmostsubservienttoreformationwillbethesortofpunishmentthatisbestcalculatedtoinvalidatetheforceofthatmotive。
XVI。Thus，inoffensesoriginatingfromthemotiveofill-will，thatpunishmenthasthestrongestreformingtendency，whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceoftheirascibleaffections。Andmoreparticularly，inthatsortofoffensewhichconsistsinanobstinaterefusal，onthepartoftheoffender，todosomethingwhichislawfullyrequiredofhim，andinwhichtheobstinacyisingreatmeasurekeptupbyhisresentmentagainstthosewhohaveaninterestinforcinghimtocompliance，themostefficaciouspunishmentseemstobethatofconfinementtosparediet。
XVII。Thus，also，inoffenseswhichowetheirbirthtothejointinfluenceofindolenceandpecuniaryinterest，thatpunishmentseemstopossessthestrongestreformingtendency，whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceoftheformerofthosedispositions。Andmoreparticularly，inthecasesoftheft，embezzlement，andeveryspeciesofdefraudment，themodeofpunishmentbestadaptedtothispurposeseems，inmostcases，tobethatofpenallabour。
XVIII。Aneighthpropertytobegiventoalotofpunishmentincertaincases，isthatofefficacywithrespecttodisablement，or，asitmightbestyledmorebriefly，disablingefficacy。Thisisapropertywhichmaybegiveninperfectiontoalotofpunishment；andthatwithmuchgreatercertaintythanthepropertyofsubserviencytoreformation。Theinconvenienceis，thatthispropertyisapt，ingeneral，toruncountertothatoffrugality:
therebeing，inmostcases，nocertainwayofdisablingamanfromdoingmischief，without，atthesametime，disablinghim，inagreatmeasure，fromdoinggood，eithertohimselforothers。
Themischiefthereforeoftheoffensemustbesogreatastodemandaveryconsiderablelotofpunishment，forthepurposeofexample，beforeitcanwarranttheapplicationofapunishmentequaltothatwhichisnecessaryforthepurposeofdisablement。
XIX。Thepunishment，ofwhichtheefficacyinthiswayisthegreatest，isevidentlythatofdeath。Inthiscasetheefficacyofitiscertain。Thisaccordinglyisthepunishmentpeculiarlyadaptedtothosecasesinwhichthenameoftheoffender，solongashelives，maybesufficienttokeepawholenationinaflame。Thiswillnowandthenbethecasewithcompetitorsforthesovereignty，andleadersofthefactionsincivilwars:though，whenappliedtooffensesofsoquestionableanature，inwhichthequestionconcerningcriminalityturnsmoreuponsuccessthananythingelse；aninflictionofthissortmayseemmoretosavourofhostilitythanpunishment。Atthesametimethispunishment，itisevident，isinaneminentdegreeunfrugal；whichformsoneamongthemanyobjectionsthereareagainsttheuseofit，inanybutveryextraordinarycases。
XX。Inordinarycasesthepurposemaybesufficientlyansweredbyoneorotherofthevariouskindsofconfinementandbanishment:ofwhich，imprisonmentisthemoststrictandefficacious。
Forwhenanoffenseissocircumstancedthatitcannotbecommittedbutinacertainplace，asisthecase，forthemostpart，withoffensesagainsttheperson，allthelawhastodo，inordertodisabletheoffenderfromcommittingit，istopreventhisbeinginthatplace。Inanyoftheoffenseswhichconsistinthebreachortheabuseofanykindoftrust，thepurposemaybecompassedatastillcheaperrate，merelybyforfeitureofthetrust:
andingeneral，inanyofthoseoffenseswhichcanonlybecommittedunderfavourofsomerelationinwhichtheoffenderstandswithreferencetoanyperson，orsetsofpersons，merelybyforfeitureofthatrelation:thatis，oftherightofcontinuingtoreaptheadvantagesbelongingtoit。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withanyofthoseoffenceswhichconsistinanabuseoftheprivilegesofmarriage，orofthelibertyofcarryingonanylucrativeorotheroccupation。
XXI。Theninthpropertyisthatofsubserviencytocompensation。Thispropertyofpunishment，ifitbevindictivecompensationthatisinview，will，withlittlevariation，beinproportiontothequantity:iflucrative，itisthepeculiarandcharacteristicpropertyofpecuniarypunishment。
XXII。Intherearofallthesepropertiesmaybeintroducedthatofpopularity；averyfleetingandindeterminatekindofproperty，whichmaybelongtoalotofpunishmentonemoment，andbelostbyitthenext。Bypopularityismeantthepropertyofbeingacceptable，orrathernotunacceptable，tothebulkofthepeople，amongwhomitisproposedtobeestablished。Instrictnessofspeech，itshouldratherbecalledabsenceofunpopularity:
foritcannotbeexpected，inregardtosuchamatteraspunishment，thatanyspeciesorlotofitshouldbepositivelyacceptableandgratefultothepeople:itissufficient，forthemostpart，iftheyhavenodecidedaversiontothethoughtsofit。Nowthepropertyofcharacteristicalness，abovenoticed，seemstogoasfartowardsconciliatingtheapprobationofthepeopletoamodeofpunishment，asany；insomuchthatpopularitymayberegardedasakindofsecondaryquality，dependinguponthatofcharacteristicalness。
Theuseofinsertingthispropertyinthecatalogue，ischieflytomakeitservebywayofmementotothelegislatornottointroduce，withoutacogentnecessity，anymodeorlotofpunishment，towardswhichhehappenstoperceiveanyviolentaversionentertainedbythebodyofthepeople。
XXIII。Theeffectsofunpopularityinamodeofpunishmentareanalogoustothoseofunfrugality。Theunnecessarypainwhichdenominatesapunishmentunfrugal，ismostapttobethatwhichisproducedonthepartoftheoffender。Aportionofsuperfluouspainisinlikemannerproducedwhenthepunishmentisunpopular:butinthiscaseitisproducedonthepartofpersonsaltogetherinnocent，thepeopleatlarge。Thisisalreadyonemischief；andanotheris，theweaknesswhichitisapttointroduceintothelaw。Whenthepeoplearesatisfiedwiththelaw，theyvoluntarilylendtheirassistanceintheexecution:whentheyaredissatisfied，theywillnaturallywithholdthatassistance；
itiswelliftheydonottakeapositivepartinraisingimpediments。Thiscontributesgreatlytotheuncertaintyofthepunishment；
bywhich，inthefirstinstance，thefrequencyoftheoffensereceivesanincrease。Inprocessoftimethatdeficiency，asusual，isapttodrawonanincreaseinmagnitude:anadditionofacertainquantitywhichotherwisewouldbeneedless。
XXIV。Thisproperty，itistobeobserved，necessarilysupposes，onthepartofthepeople，someprejudiceorother，whichitisthebusinessofthelegislatortoendeavourtocorrect。Foriftheaversiontothepunishmentinquestionweregroundedon，theprincipleofutility，thepunishmentwouldbesuchas，onotheraccounts，oughtnottobeemployed:inwhichcaseitspopularityorunpopularitywouldneverbeworthdrawingintoquestion。Itisproperlythereforeapropertynotsomuchofthepunishmentasofthepeople:adispositiontoentertainanunreasonabledislikeagainstanobjectwhichmeritstheirapprobation。Itisthesignalsoofanotherproperty，towit。indolenceorweakness，onthepartofthelegislator:insufferingthepeopleforthewantofsomeinstruction，whichoughttobeandmightbegiventhem，toquarrelwiththeirowninterest。Bethisasitmay，solongasanysuchdissatisfactionsubsists，itbehovesthelegislatortohaveaneyetoit，asmuchasifitwereeversowellgrounded。Everynationisliabletohaveitsprejudicesanditscapriceswhichitisthebusinessofthelegislatortolookoutfor，tostudy，andtocure。
XXV。Theeleventhandlastofallthepropertiesthatseemtoberequisiteinalotofpunishment，isthatofremissibility。Thegeneralpresumptionis，thatwhenpunishmentisapplied，punishmentisneedful:thatitoughttobeapplied，andthereforecannotwanttoberemitted。Butinveryparticular，andthosealwaysverydeplorablecases，itmaybyaccidenthappenotherwise。Itmayhappenthatpunishmentshallhavebeeninflicted，where，accordingtotheintentionofthelawitself，itoughtnottohavebeeninflicted:thatis，wherethesuffererisinnocentoftheoffense。
Atthetimeofthesentencepassedheappearedguilty:butsincethen，accidenthasbroughthisinnocencetolight。Thisbeingthecase，somuchofthedestinedpunishmentashehassufferedalready，thereisnohelpfor。Thebusinessisthentofreehimfromasmuchasisyettocome。Butisthereanyyettocome？Thereisverylittlechanceoftherebeingany，unlessitbesomuchasconsistsofchronicalpunishment:suchasimprisonment，banishment，penallabour，andthelike。Somuchasconsistsofacutepunishment，towitwherethepenalprocessitselfisoverpresently，howeverpermanentthepunishmentmaybeinitseffects，maybeconsideredasirremissible。Thisisthecase，forexample，withwhipping，branding，mutilation，andcapitalpunishment。Themostperfectlyirremissibleofanyiscapitalpunishment。Forthoughotherpunishmentscannot，whentheyareover，beremitted，theymaybecompensatedfor；andalthoughtheunfortunatevictimcannotbeputintothesamecondition，yetpossiblymeansmaybefoundofputtinghimintoasgoodacondition，ashewouldhavebeeninifhehadneversuffered。
Thismayingeneralbedoneveryeffectuallywherethepunishmenthasbeennootherthanpecuniary。
Thereisanothercaseinwhichthepropertyofremissibilitymayappeartobeofuse:thisis，where，althoughtheoffenderhasbeenjustlypunished，yetonaccountofsomegoodbehaviourofhis，displayedatatimesubsequenttothatofthecommencementofthepunishment，itmayseemexpedienttoremitapartofit。Butthisitcanscarcelybe，iftheproportionofthepunishmentis，inotherrespects，whatitoughttobe。Thepurposeofexampleisthemoreimportantobject，incomparisonofthatofreformation。Itisnotverylikely，thatlesspunishmentshouldberequiredfortheformerpurposethanforthelatter。
Foritmustberatheranextraordinarycase，ifapunishment，whichissufficienttodeteramanwhohasonlythoughtofitforafewmoments，shouldnotbesufficienttodeteramanwhohasbeenfeelingitallthetime。Whatever，then，isrequiredforthepurposeofexample，mustabideatallevents:itisnotanyreformationonthepartoftheoffender，thatcanwarranttheremittingofanypartofit:ifitcould，amanwouldhavenothingtodobuttoreformimmediately，andsofreehimselffromthegreatestpartofthatpunishmentwhichwasdeemednecessary。Inorder，then，towarranttheremittingofanypartofapunishmentuponthisground，itmustfirstbesupposedthatthepunishmentatfirstappointedwasmorethanwasnecessaryforthepurposeofexample，andconsequentlythatapartofitwasneedlessuponthewhole。
This，indeed，isaptenoughtobethecase，undertheimperfectsystemsthatareasyetonfoot:andtherefore，duringthecontinuanceofthosesystems，thepropertyofremissibilitymay，onthissecondgroundlikewise，aswellasontheformer，bedeemedausefulone。Butthiswouldnotbethecaseinanynew-constructedsystem，inwhichtherulesofproportionabovelaiddownshouldbeobserved。Insuchasystem，therefore，theutilityofthispropertywouldrestsolelyontheformerground。
XXVI。Upontakingasurveyofthevariouspossiblemodesofpunishment，itwillappearevidently，thatthereisnotanyoneofthemthatpossessesalltheabovepropertiesinperfection。Todothebestthatcanbedoneinthewayofpunishment，itwillthereforebenecessary，uponmostoccasions，tocompoundthem，andmakethemintocomplexlots，eachconsistingofanumberofdifferentmodesofpunishmentputtogether:thenatureandproportionsoftheconstituentpartsofeachlotbeingdifferent，accordingtothenatureoftheoffencewhichitisdesignedtocombat。
XXVII。Itmaynotbeamisstobringtogether，andexhibitinoneview，theelevenpropertiesaboveestablished。Theyareasfollows:
Twoofthemareconcernedinestablishingaproperproportionbetweenasingleoffenseanditspunishment；viz。
1。Variability。
2。Equability。
One，inestablishingaproportion，betweenmoreoffencesthanone，andmorepunishmentsthanone；viz。
3。Commensurability。
Afourthcontributestoplacethepunishmentinthatsituationinwhichaloneitcanbeefficacious；andatthesametimetobebestowingonitthetwofartherpropertiesofexemplarityandpopularity；
viz。
4。Characteristicalness。
Twoothersareconcernedinexcludingalluselesspunishment；theoneindirectly，byheighteningtheefficacyofwhatisuseful；
theotherinadirectway；viz。
5。Exemplarity。
6。Frugality。
Threeotherscontributeseverallytothethreeinferiorendsofpunishment；
viz。
7。Subserviencytoreformation。
8。Efficacyindisabling。
9。Subserviencytocompensation。
Anotherpropertytendstoexcludeacollateralmischief，whichaparticularmodeofpunishmentisliableaccidentallytoproduce；viz。
10。Popularity。
Theremainingpropertytendstopalliateamischief，whichallpunishment，assuchisliableaccidentallytoproduce；viz。
11。Remissibility。
Thepropertiesofcommensurability，characteristicalness，exemplarity，subserviencytoreformation，andefficacyindisabling，aremoreparticularlycalculatedtoaugmenttheprofitwhichistobemadebypunishment:frugality，subserviencytocompensation，popularity，andremissibility，todiminishtheexpense:
variabilityandequabilityarealikesubservienttoboththosepurposes。
XXVIII。Wenowcometotakeageneralsurveyofthesystemofoffences:
thatis，ofsuchactstowhich，onaccountofthemischievousconsequencestheyhaveanaturaltendencytoproduce，andintheviewofputtingastoptothoseconsequences，itmaybepropertoannexacertainartificialconsequence，consistingofpunishment，tobeinflictedontheauthorsofsuchactsaccordingtotheprinciplesjustestablished。
chapter16AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXVI
DivisionofOffenses1。ClassesofOffences。
I。Itisnecessary，attheoutset，tomakeadistinctionbetweensuchactsasareormaybe，andsuchasoughttobeoffences。
Anyactmaybeanoffence，whichtheywhomthecommunityofareinthehabitofobeyingshallbepleasedtomakeone:thattois，anyactwhichtheyshallbepleasedtoprohibitortopunish。
But，upontheprincipleofutility，suchactsaloneoughttobemadeoffences，asthegoodofthecommunityrequiresshouldbemadeso。
II。Thegoodofthecommunitycannotrequire，thatanyactshouldbemadeanoffence，whichisnotliable。insomewayorother，tobedetrimetaltothecommunity。Forinthecaseofsuchanact，allpunishmentisgroundless。
III。Butifthewholeassemblageofanynumberofindividualsbeconsideredasconstitutinganimaginarycompoundbody，acommunityorpoliticalstate；anyactthatisdetrimentaltoanyoneormoreofthosemembersis，astosomuchofitseffects，detrimentaltothestate。
IV。Anactcannotbedetrimentaltoastate，butbybeingdetrimentaltosomeoneormoreoftheindividualsthatcomposeit。
Buttheseindividualsmayeitherbeassignableorunassignable。
V。Whenthereisanyassignableindividualtowhomanoffenceisdetrimental，thatpersonmayeitherbeapersonotherthantheoffender，ortheoffenderhimself。
VI。Offencesthataredetrimental，inthefirstinstance，toassignablepersonsotherthantheoffender，maybetermedbyonecommonname，offencesagainstindividuals。Andofthesemaybecomposedthe1stclassofoffences。Tocontrastthemwithoffencesofthe2ndand4thclasses，itmayalsosometimesbeconvenienttostylethemprivateoffences。Tocontrastthematthesametimewithoffencesofthe3rdclass，theymaybestyledprivateextra-regardingoffences。
VII。Whenitappears，ingeneral，thattherearepersonstowhomtheactinquestionmaybedetrimental，butsuchpersonscannotbeindividuallyassigned，thecirclewithinwhichitappearsthattheymaybefound，iseitheroflessextentthanthatwhichcomprisesthewholecommunity，ornot。Ifofless，thepersonscomprisedwithinthislessercirclemaybeconsideredforthispurposeascomposingabodyofthemselves；comprisedwithin，butdistinguishablefrom，thegreaterbodyofthewholecommunity。Thecircumstancethatconstitutestheunionbetweenthemembersofthislesserbody，maybeeithertheirresidencewithinaparticularplace，or，inshort，anyotherlessexplicitprincipleofunion，whichmayservetodistinguishthemfromtheremainingmembersofthecommunity。Inthefirstcase，theactmaybestyledanoffenceagainstaneighbourhood:inthesecond，anoffenceagainstaparticularclassofpersonsinthecommunity。
Offenses，then，againstaclassorneighbourhood，may，together，constitutethe2ndclassofoffences。Tocontrastthemwithprivateoffencesontheonehand，andpublicontheother，theymayalsobestyledsemi-publicoffences。
VIII。Offences，whichinthefirstinstancearedetrimentaltotheoffenderhimself，andtonooneelse，unlessitbebytheirbeingdetrimentaltohimself，mayservetocomposeathirdclass。Tocontrastthemthebetterwithoffencesofthefirst，second，andfourthclasses，allwhichareofatransitivenature，theymightbestyledintransitiveoffences；butstillbetter，self-regarding。
IX。Thefourthclassmaybecomposedofsuchactsasoughttobemadeoffences，onaccountofthedistantmischiefwhichtheythreatentobringuponanunassignableindefinitemultitudeofthewholenumberofindividuals，ofwhichthecommunityiscomposed:althoughnoparticularindividualshouldappearmorelikelytobeasuffererbythemthananother。Thesemaybecalledpublicoffences，oroffencesagainstthestate。
X。Afifthclass，orappendix，maybecomposedofsuchactsas，accordingtothecircumstancesinwhichtheyarecommitted，orandmoreparticularlyaccordingtothepurposestowhichtheyareapplied，maybedetrimentalinanyoneofthewaysinwhichtheactofonemancanbedetrimentaltoanother。Thesemaytobetermedmultiform，orheterogeneousoffences。
Offencesthatareinthiscasemaybereducedtotwogreatheads:1。
Offencesbyfalsehood:and2。Offensesagainsttrust。
2。Divisionsandsub-divisions。