Rule2。Theapparentmischievousnessoftheactbeinggiven，aman\'sdispositionisthemoredepraved，theslighterthetemptationisbywhichhehasbeenovercome。
Thus，itshowsamoredepravedanddangerousdisposition，ifamankillanotheroutofmeresport，astheEmperorofMorocco，MuleyMahomet，issaidtohavedonegreatnumbers，thanoutofrevenge，asSyllaandMariusdidthousands，orintheviewofself-preservation，asAugustuskilledmany，orevenforlucre，asthesameEmperorissaidtohavekilledsome。Andtheeffectsofsuchadepravity，onthatpartofthepublicwhichisapprisedofit，runinthesameproportion。FromAugustus，somepersonsonlyhadtofear，undersomeparticularcircumstances。
FromMuleyMahomet，everymanhadtofearatalltimes。
Rule3。Theapparentmischievousnessoftheactbeinggiven，theevidencewhichitaffordsofthedepravityofaman\'sdispositionisthelessconclusive，thestrongerthetemptationisbywhichhehasbeenovercome。
Thus，ifapoorman，whoisreadytodiewithhunger，stealaloafofbread，itisalessexplicitsignofdepravity，thanifarichmanweretocommitathefttothesameamount。Itwillbeobserved，thatinthisruleallthatissaidis，thattheevidenceofdepravityisinthiscasethelessconclusive:itisnotsaidthatthedepravityispositivelytheless。Forinthiscaseitispossible，foranythingthatappearstothecontrary，thatthetheftmighthavebeencommitted，evenhadthetemptationbeennotsostrong。Inthiscase，thealleviatingcircumstanceisonlyamatterofpresumption；
intheformer，theaggravatingcircumstanceisamatterofcertainty。
Rule4。Wherethemotiveisofthedissocialkind，theapparentmischievousnessoftheact，andthestrengthofthetemptation，beinggiven，thedepravityisasthedegreeofdeliberationwithwhichitisaccompanied。
Forineveryman，behisdispositioneversodepraved，thesocialmotivesarethosewhich，wherevertheself-regardingonesstandneuter，regulateanddeterminethegeneraltenorofhislife。
Ifthedissocialmotivesareputinaction，itisonlyinparticularcircumstances，andonparticularoccasions；thegentlebutconstantforceofthesocialmotivesbeingforawhilesubdued。Thegeneralandstandingbiasofeveryman\'snatureis，therefore，towardsthatsidetowhichtheforceofthesocialmotiveswoulddeterminehimtoadhere。Thisbeingthecase，theforceofthesocialmotivestendscontinuallytoputanendtothatofthedissocialones；as，innaturalbodies，theforceoffrictiontendstoputanendtothatwhichisgeneratedbyimpulse。Time，then，whichwearsawaytheforceofthedissocialmotives，addstothatofthesocial。Thelonger，therefore，amancontinues，onagivenoccasion，underthedominionofthedissocialmotives，themoreconvincingistheproofthathasbeengivenofhisinsensibilitytotheforceofthesocialones。
Thus，itshowsaworsedisposition，whereamanlaysadeliberateplanforbeatinghisantagonist，andbeatshimaccordingly，thanifheweretobeathimuponthespot，inconsequenceofasuddenquarrel:andworseagain，if，afterhavinghadhimalongwhiletogetherinhispower，hebeatshimatintervals，andathisleisure。
XLIII。Thedepravityofdisposition，indicatedbyanact，isamaterialconsiderationinseveralrespects。Anymarkofextraordinarydepravity，byaddingtotheterroralreadyinspiredbythecrime，andbyholdinguptheoffenderasapersonfromwhomtheremaybemoremischieftobeapprehendedinfuture，addsinthatwaytothedemandforpunishment。Byindicatingageneralwantofsensibilityonthepartoftheoffender，itmayaddinanotherwayalsotothedemandforpunishment。Thearticleofdispositionisofthemoreimportance，inasmuchas，inmeasuringoutthequantumofpunishment，theprincipleofsympathyandantipathyisapttolookatnothingelse。Amanwhopunishesbecausehehates，andonlybecausehehates，suchaman，whenhedoesnotfindanythingodiousinthedisposition，isnotforpunishingatall；andwhenhedoes，heisnotforcarryingthepunishmentfurtherthanhishatredcarrieshim。Hencetheaversionwefindsofrequentlyexpressedagainstthemaxim，thatthepunishmentmustrisewiththestrengthofthetemptation；amaxim，thecontraryofwhich，asweshallsee，wouldbeascrueltooffendersthemselves，asitwouldbesubversiveofthepurposesofpunishment。
chapter12AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXII
OftheConsequencesofaMischievousAct§；1。Shapesinwhichthemischiefofanactmayshowitself。
I。Hithertowehavebeenspeakingofthevariousarticlesorobjectsonwhichtheconsequencesortendencyofanactmaydepend:ofthebareactitself:ofthecircumstancesitmayhavebeen，ormayhavebeensupposedtobe，accompaniedwith:oftheconsciousnessamanmayhavehadwithrespecttoanysuchcircumstances:
oftheintentionsthatmayhaveprecededtheact:ofthemotivesthatmayhavegivenbirthtothoseintentions:
andofthedispositionthatmayhavebeenindicatedbytheconnexionbetweensuchintentionsandsuchmotives。Wenowcometospeakofconsequencesortendency:anarticlewhichformstheconcludinglinkinallthischainofcausesandeffects，involvinginitthematerialityofthewhole。Now，suchpartofthistendencyasisofamischievousnature，isallthatwehaveanydirectconcernwith；tothat，therefore，weshallhereconfineourselves。
II。Thetendencyofanactismischievouswhentheconsequencesofitaremischievous；thatistosay，eitherthecertainconsequencesortheprobable。Theconsequences，howmanyandwhatsoevertheymaybe，ofanact，ofwhichthetendencyismischievous，may，suchofthemasaremischievous，beconceivedtoconstituteoneaggregatebody，whichmaybetermedthemischiefoftheact。
III。Thismischiefmayfrequentlybedistinguished，asitwere，intotwosharesorparcels:theonecontainingwhatmaybecalledtheprimarymischief；theother，whatmaybecalledthesecondary。
Thatsharemaybetermedtheprimary，whichitsustainedbyanassignableindividual，oramultitudeofassignableindividuals。
Thatsharemaybetermedthesecondary，which，takingitsoriginfromtheformer，extendsitselfeitheroverthewholecommunity，oroversomeothermultitudeofunassignableindividuals。
IV。Theprimarymischiefofanactmayagainbedistinguishedintotwobranches:1。Theoriginal:and，2。Thederivative。Bytheoriginalbranch，Imeanthatwhichalightsuponandisconfinedtoanypersonwhoisasuffererinthefirstinstance，andonhisownaccount:theperson，forinstance，whoisbeaten，robbed，ormurdered。Bythederivativebranch，Imeananyshareofmischiefwhichmaybefallanyotherassignablepersonsinconsequenceofhisbeingasufferer，andnootherwise。Thesepersonsmust，ofcourse，bepersonswhoinsomewayorotherareconnectedwithhim。Nowthewaysinwhichonepersonmaybeconnectedwithanother，havebeenalreadyseen:theymaybeconnectedinthewayofinterestmeaningself-regardinginterestormerelyinthewayofsympathy。Andagain，personsconnectedwithagivenperson，inthewayofinterest，maybeconnectedwithhimeitherbyaffordingsupporttohim，orbyderivingitfromhim。
V。Thesecondarymischief，again，mayfrequentlybeseentoconsistoftwoothersharesorparcels:thefirstconsistingofpain；
theotherofdanger。Thepainwhichitproducesisapainofapprehension:
apaingroundedontheapprehensionofsufferingsuchmischiefsorinconveniences，whatevertheymaybe，asitisthenatureoftheprimarymischieftoproduce。Itmaybestyled，inoneword，thealarm。Thedangeristhechance，whateveritmaybe，whichthemultitudeitconcernsmayinconsequenceoftheprimarymischiefstandexposedto，ofsufferingsuchmischiefsorinconveniences。Fordangerisnothingbutthechanceofpain，or，whatcomestothesamething，oflossofpleasure。
VI。Anexamplemayservetomakethisclear。Amanattacksyouontheroad，androbsyou。Yousufferapainontheoccasionoflosingsomuchmoney:youalsosufferedapainatthethoughtsofthepersonalill-treatmentyouapprehendedhemightgiveyou，incaseofyournothappeningtosatisfyhisdemands。Thesetogetherconstitutetheoriginalbranchoftheprimarymischief，resultingfromtheactofrobbery。Acreditorofyours，whoexpectedyoutopayhimwithpartofthatmoney，andasonofyours，whoexpectedyoutohavegivenhimanotherpart，areinconsequencedisappointed。Youareobligedtohaverecoursetothebountyofyourfather，tomakegoodpartofthedeficiency。
Thesemischiefstogethermakeupthederivativebranch。Thereportofthisrobberycirculatesfromhandtohand，andspreadsitselfintheneighbourhood。Itfindsitswayintothenewspapers，andispropagatedoverthewholecountry。Variouspeople，onthisoccasion，calltomindthedangerwhichtheyandtheirfriends，asitappearsfromthisexample，standexposedtointravelling；especiallysuchasmayhaveoccasiontotravelthesameroad。Onthisoccasiontheynaturallyfeelacertaindegreeofpain:slighterorheavier，accordingtothedegreeofill-treatmenttheymayunderstandyoutohavereceived；thefrequencyoftheoccasioneachpersonmayhavetotravelinthatsameroad，oritsneighbourhood；thevicinityofeachpersontothespot；hispersonalcourage；thequantityofmoneyhemayhaveoccasiontocarryaboutwithhim；andavarietyofothercircumstances。
Thisconstitutesthefirstpartofthesecondarymischief，resultingfromtheactofrobbery；viz。thealarm。Butpeopleofonedescriptionorother，notonlyaredisposedtoconceivethemselvestoincurachanceofbeingrobbed，inconsequenceoftherobberycommitteduponyou，butaswillbeshownpresentlytheydoreallyincursuchachance。Anditisthischancewhichconstitutestheremainingpartofthesecondarymischiefoftheactofrobbery；viz。thedanger。
VII。Letusseewhatthischanceamountsto；andwhenceitcomes。Howisit，forinstance，thatonerobberycancontributetoproduceanother？Inthefirstplace，itiscertainthat:itcannotcreateanydirectmotive。Amotivemustbetheprospectofsomepleasure，orotheradvantage，tobeenjoyedinfuture:buttherobberyinquestionispast:norwoulditfurnishanysuchprospectwereittocome:foritisnotonerobberythatwillfurnishpleasuretohimwhomaybeabouttocommitanotherrobbery。Theconsiderationthatistooperateuponaman，asamotiveorinducementtocommitarobbery，mustbetheideaofthepleasureheexpectstoderivefromthefruitsofthatveryrobbery:butthispleasureexistsindependentlyofanyotherrobbery。
VIII。Themeans，then，bywhichonerobberytends，asitshouldseem，toproduceanotherrobbery，aretwo。1。Bysuggestingtoapersonexposedtothetemptation，theideaofcommittingsuchanotherrobberyaccompanied，perhaps，withthebeliefofitsfacility。Inthiscasetheinfluenceitexertsappliesitself，inthefirstplace，totheunderstanding。2。Byweakeningtheforceofthetutelarymotiveswhichtendtorestrainhimfromsuchanaction，andtherebyaddingtothestrengthofthetemptation。Inthiscasetheinfluenceappliesitselftothewill。Theseforcesare，1。
Themotiveofbenevolence，whichactsasabranchofthephysicalsanction2。Themotiveofself-preservation，asagainstthepunishmentthatmaystandprovidedbythepoliticalsanction。3。Thefearofshame；amotivebelongingtothemoralsanction。
4。Thefearofthedivinedispleasure；amotivebelongingtothereligioussanction。Onthefirstandlastoftheseforcesithas，perhaps，noinfluenceworthinsistingon:butithasontheothertwo。
IX。Thewayinwhichapastrobberymayweakentheforcewithwhichthepoliticalsanctiontendstopreventafuturerobbery，maybethusconceived。Thewayinwhichthissanctiontendstopreventarobbery，isbydenouncingsomeparticularkindofpunishmentagainstanywhoshallbeguiltyofit:therealvalueofwhichpunishmentwillofcoursebediminishedbytherealuncertainty:asalso，iftherebeanydifference，theapparentvaluebytheapparentuncertainty。Nowthisuncertaintyisproportionablyincreasedbyeveryinstanceinwhichamanisknowntocommittheoffense，withoutundergoingthepunishment。
This，ofcourse，willbethecasewitheveryoffenseforacertaintime；inshort，untilthepunishmentallottedtoittakesplace。Ifpunishmenttakesplaceatlast，thisbranchofthemischiefoftheoffenseisthenatlast，butnottillthen，putastopto。
X。Thewayinwhichapastrobberymayweakentheforcewithwhichthemoralsanctiontendstopreventafuturerobbery，maybethusconceived。Thewayinwhichthemoralsanctiontendstopreventarobbery，isbyholdingforththeindignationofmankindasreadytofalluponhimwhoshallbeguiltyofit。Nowthisindignationwillbethemoreformidable，accordingtothenumberofthosewhojoininit:itwillbethelessso，thefewertheyarewhojoininit。Buttherecannotbeastrongerwayofshowingthatamandoesnotjoininwhateverindignationmaybeentertainedagainstapractice，thantheengaginginithimself。Itshowsnotonlythathehimselffeelsnoindignationagainstit，butthatitseemstohimthereisnosufficientreasonforapprehendingwhatindignationmaybefeltagainstitbyothers。Accordingly，whererobberiesarefrequent，andunpunished，robberiesarecommittedwithoutshame。ItwasthusamongsttheGreciansformerly。ItisthusamongtheArabsstill。
XI。InwhicheverwaythenapastoffensetendstopavethewayforthecommissionofafutureHence，whetherbysuggestingtheideaofcommittingit，orbyaddingtothestrengthofthetemptation，inbothcasesitmaybesaidtooperatebytheforceorinfluenceofexample。
XII。Thetwobranchesofthesecondarymischiefofanact，thealarmandthedanger，mustnotbeconfounded:thoughintimatelyconnected，theyareperfectlydistinct:eithermaysubsistwithouttheother。Theneighbourhoodmaybealarmedwiththereportofarobbery，when，infact，norobberyeitherhasbeencommittedorisinawaytobecommitted:aneighbourhoodmaybeonthepointofbeingdisturbedbyrobberies，withoutknowinganythingofthematter。Accordingly，weshallsoonperceive，thatsomeactsproducealarmwithoutdanger:others，dangerwithoutalarm。
XIII。Aswellthedangerasthealarmmayagainbedivided，eachofthem，intotwobranches:thefirst，consistingofsomuchofthealarmordangerasmaybeapttoresultfromthefuturebehaviourofthesameagent:thesecond，consistingofsomuchasmaybeapttoresultfromthebehaviourofotherpersons:suchothers，towit，asmaycometoengageinactsofthesamesortandtendency。
XIV。Thedistinctionbetweentheprimaryandthesecondaryconsequencesofanactmustbecarefullyattendedto。Itissojust，thatthelattermayoftenbeofadirectlyoppositenaturetobetheformer。Insomecases，wheretheprimaryconsequencesoftheactareattendedwithamischief，thesecondaryconsequencesbemaybebeneficial，andthattosuchadegree，asevengreatlytooutweighthemischiefoftheprimary。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withallactsofpunishment，whenproperlyapplied。Ofthese，theprimarymischiefbeingneverintendedtofallbutuponsuchpersonsasmayhappentohavecommittedsomeactwhichitisexpedienttoprevent，thesecondarymischief，thatis，thealarmandthedanger，extendsnofartherthantosuchpersonsasareundertemptationtocommitit:inwhichcase，inasfarasittendstorestrainthemfromcommittingsuchacts，itisofabeneficialnature。
XV。Thusmuchwithregardtoactsthatproducepositivepain，andthatimmediately。Thiscase，byreasonofitssimplicity，seemedthefittesttotakethelead。Butactsmayproducemischiefinvariousotherways；which，togetherwiththosealreadyspecified，mayallbecomprisedbythefollowingabridgedanalysis。
Mischiefmayadmitofadivisioninanyoneofthreepointsofview。
1。Accordingtoitsownnature。2。Accordingtoitscause。
3。Accordingtotheperson，orotherparty，whoistheobjectofit1。Withregardtoitsnature，itmaybeeithersimpleorcomplex[*]2:whensimple，itmayeitherbepositiveornegative:positive，consistingofactualpain:negative，consistingofthelossofpleasure。Whethersimpleorcomplex，andwhetherpositiveornegative，itmaybeeithercertainorcontingent。Whenitisnegative，itconsistsofthelossofsomebenefitoradvantage:
thisbenefitmaybematerialinbothoreitheroftwoways:1。Byaffordingactualpleasure:or，2。Byavertingpainordanger，whichisthechanceofpain:thatis，byaffordingsecurity。Inasfar，then，asthebenefitwhichamischieftendstoavert，isproductiveofsecurity，thetendencyofsuchmischiefistoproduceinsecurity。2。Withregardtoitscause，mischiefmaybeproducedeitherbyonesingleaction，ornotwithouttheconcurrenceofotheractions:ifnotwithouttheconcurrenceofotheractions，theseothersmaybetheactionseitherofthesameperson，orofotherpersons:ineithercase，theymaybeeitheractsofthesamekindasthatinquestion，orofotherkinds。3。Lastly，withregardtothepartywhoistheobjectofthemischief，or，inotherwords，whoisinawaytobeaffectedbyit，suchpartymaybeeitheranassignableindividual，orassemblageofindividuals，orelseamultitudeofunassignableindividuals。Whentheobjectisanassignableindividual，thisindividualmayeitherbethepersonhimselfwhoistheauthorofthemischief，orsomeotherperson。Whentheindividualswhoaretheobjectsofit，areanunassignablemultitude，thismultitudemaybeeitherthewholepoliticalcommunityorstate，orsomesubordinatedivisionofit。Nowwhentheobjectofthemischiefistheauthorhimself，itmaybestyledself-regarding:whenanyotherpartyistheobject，extra-regarding:
whensuchotherpartyisanindividual，itmaybestyledprivate:whenasubordinatebranchofthecommunity，semi-public:whenthewholecommunity，public。Here，forthepresent，wemuststop。Topursuethesubjectthroughitsinferiordistinctions，willbethebusinessofthechapterwhichexhibitsthedivisionofoffenses。
Thecaseswhichhavebeenalreadyillustrated，arethoseinwhichtheprimarymischiefisnotnecessarilyotherwisethanasimpleone，andthatpositive:present，andthereforecertain:produciblebyasingleaction，withoutanynecessityoftheconcurrenceofanyotheraction，eitheronthepartofthesameagent，orofothers；
andhavingforitsobjectanassignableindividual，or，byaccidentanassemblageofassignableindividuals:extra-regardingtherefore，andprivate。Thisprimarymischiefisaccompaniedbyasecondary:thefirstbranchofwhichissometimescontingentandsometimescertain，theotherneverotherwisethancontingent:bothextra-regardingandsemi-public:inotherrespects，prettymuchuponaparwiththeprimarymischief:exceptthatthefirstbranch，viz。thealarm，thoughinferiorinmagnitudetotheprimary，is，inpointofextent，andtherefore，uponthewhole，inpointofmagnitude，muchsuperior。
XVI。Twoinstancesmorewillbesufficienttoillustratethemostmaterialofthemodificationsaboveexhibited。
Amandrinksacertainquantityofliquor，andintoxicateshimself。
Theintoxicationinthisparticularinstancedoeshimnosortofharm:or，whatcomestothesamething，nonethatisperceptible。Butitisprobable，andindeednexttocertain，thatagivennumberofactsofthesamekindwoulddohimaveryconsiderabledegreeofharm:moreorlessaccordingtohisconstitutionandothercircumstances:forthisisnomorethanwhatexperiencemanifestseveryday。Itisalsocertain，thatoneactofthissort，byonemeansorother，tendsconsiderablytoincreasethedispositionamanmaybeintopractiseotheractsofthesamesort:forthisalsoisverifiedbyexperience。This，therefore，isoneinstancewherethemischiefproduciblebytheactiscontingentinotherwords，inwhichthetendencyoftheactisnootherwisemischievousthaninvirtueofitsproducingachanceofmischief。Thischancedependsupontheconcurrenceofotheractsofthesamekind；andthosesuchasmustbepracticedbythesameperson。Theobjectofthemischiefisthatverypersonhimselfwhoistheauthorofit，andheonly，unlessbyaccident。
Themischiefisthereforeprivateandself-regarding。
Astoitssecondarymischief，alarm，itproducesnone:itproducesindeedacertainquantityofdangerbytheinfluenceofexample:butitisnotoftenthatthisdangerwillamounttoaquantityworthregarding。
XVII。Again。Amanomitspayinghissharetoapublictax。Thisweseeisanactofthenegativekind。Isthisthentobeplaceduponthelistofmischievousacts？Yes，certainly。Uponwhatgrounds？
Uponthefollowing。Todefendthecommunityagainstitsexternalaswellasitsinternaladversariesaretasks，nottomentionothersofalessindispensablenaturewhichcannotbefulfilledbutataconsiderableexpense。Butwhenceisthemoneyfordefrayingthisexpensetocome？Itcanbeobtainedinnoothermannerthanbycontributionstobecollectedfromindividuals；
inaword，bytaxes。Theproducethenofthesetaxesistobelookeduponasakindofbenefitwhichitisnecessarythegoverningpartofthecommunityshouldreceivefortheuseofthewhole。Thisproduce，beforeitcanbeappliedtoitsdestination，requiresthatthereshouldbecertainpersonscommissionedtoreceiveandtoapplyit。Nowifthesepersons，hadtheyreceivedit，wouldhaveappliedittoitsproperdestination，itwouldhavebeenabenefit:thenotputtingtheminawaytoreceiveit，isthenamischief。Butitispossible，thatifreceived，itmightnothavebeenappliedtoitsproperdestination；orthattheservices，inconsiderationofwhichitwasbestowed，mightnothavebeenperformed。Itispossible，thattheunder-officer，whocollectedtheproduceofthetax，mightnothavepaiditovertohisprincipal:itispossiblethattheprincipalmightnothaveforwardeditonaccordingtoitsfartherdestination；tothejudge，forinstance，whoistoprotectthecommunityagainstitsclandestineenemiesfromwithin，orthesoldier，whoistoprotectitagainstitsopenenemiesfromwithout:itispossiblethatthejudge，orthesoldier，hadtheyreceivedit，wouldnothoweverhavebeeninducedbyittofulfiltheirrespectiveduties:itispossible，thatthejudgewouldnothavesatforthepunishmentofcriminals，andthedecisionofcontroversies:itispossiblethatthesoldierwouldnothavedrawnhisswordinthedefenseofthecommunity。
These，togetherwithaninfinityofotherintermediateacts，whichforthesakeofbrevityIpassover，formaconnectedchainofduties，thedischargeofwhichisnecessarytothepreservationofthecommunity。Theymusteveryoneofthembedischarged，erethebenefittowhichtheyarecontributorycanbeproduced。Iftheyarealldischarged，inthatcasethebenefitsubsists，andanyact，bytendingtointerceptthatbenefit，mayproduceamischief。
Butifanyofthemarenot，thebenefitfails:itfailsofitself:
itwouldnothavesubsisted，althoughtheactinquestiontheactofnon-paymenthadnotbeencommitted。Thebenefitisthereforecontingent；and，accordingly，uponacertainsupposition，theactwhichconsistsintheavertingofitisnotamischievousone。Butthissupposition，inanytolerably-orderedgovernment，willrarelyindeedbeverified。Intheveryworstorderedgovernmentthatexists，thegreatestpartofthedutiesthatareleviedarepaidoveraccordingtotheirdestination:and，withregardtoanyparticularsum，thatisattemptedtobelevieduponanyparticularpersonuponanyparticularoccasion，itisthereforemanifest，that，unlessitbecertainthatitwillnotbesodisposedof，theactofwithholdingitisamischievousone。
Theactofpayment，whenreferabletoanyparticularsum，especiallyifitbeasmallone，mightalsohavefailedofprovingbeneficialonanotherground:and，consequently，theactofnonpayment，ofprovingmischievous。Itispossiblethatthesameservices，precisely，mighthavebeenrenderedwithoutthemoneyaswithit。If，then，speakingofanysmalllimitedsum，suchasthegreatestwhichanyonepersoniscalledupontopayatatime，amanweretosay，thatthenon-paymentofitwouldbeattendedwithmischievousconsequences；thiswouldbefarfromcertain:
butwhatcomestothesamethingasifitwere，itisperfectlycertainwhenappliedtothewhole。Itiscertain，thatifallofasuddenthepaymentofalltaxeswastocease，therewouldnolongerbeanythingeffectualdone，eitherforthemaintenanceofjustice，orforthedefenceofthecommunityagainstitsforeignadversaries:thatthereforetheweakwouldpresentlybeoppressedandinjuredinallmannerofways，bythestrongathome，andbothtogetheroverwhelmedbyoppressorsabroad。Uponthewhole，therefore，itismanifest，thatinthiscase，thoughthemischiefisremoteandcontingent，thoughinitsfirstappearanceitconsistsofnothingmorethantheinterceptionofabenefit，andthoughtheindividuals，inwhosefavourthatbenefitwouldhavebeenreducedintotheexplicitformofpleasureorsecurity，arealtogetherunassignable，yetthemischievoustendencyoftheactisnotonalltheseaccountsthelessindisputable。
Themischief，inpointofintensityandduration，isindeedunknown:
itisuncertain:itisremote。Butinpointofextentitisimmense；andinpointoffecundity，pregnanttoadegreethatbafflescalculation。
XVIII。Itmaynowbetimetoobserve，thatitisonlyinthecasewherethemischiefisextra-regarding，andhasanassignablepersonorpersonsforitsobject，thatsomuchofthesecondarybranchofitasconsistsinalarmcanhaveplace。Whentheindividualsitaffectsareuncertain，andaltogetheroutofsight，noalarmcanbeproduced:asthereisnobodywhosesufferingsyoucansee，thereisnobodywhosesufferingsyoucanbealarmedat。
Noalarm，forinstance，isproducedbynonpaymenttoatax。Ifatanydistantanduncertainperiodoftimesuchoffenceshouldchancetobeproductiveofanykindofalarm，itwouldappeartoproceed，asindeedimmediatelyitwouldproceed，fromaverydifferentcause。Itmightbeimmediatelyreferable，forexample，totheactofalegislator，whoshoulddeemitnecessarytolayonanewtax，inordertomakeupforthedeficiencyoccasionedintheproduceoftheoldone。Oritmightbereferabletotheactofanenemy，who，underfavourofadeficiencythuscreatedinthefundallottedfordefense，mightinvadethecountry，andexactfromitmuchheaviercontributionsthanthosewhichhadbeenthuswithholdenfromthesovereign。
Astoanyalarmwhichsuchanoffencemightraiseamongthefewwhomightchancetoregardthematterwiththeeyesofstatesmen，itisoftooslightanduncertainanaturetobeworthtakingintotheaccount。{Tertiaryeffects}
2。Howintentionality，&；c。mayinfluencethemischiefofanact。
XIX。Wehaveseenthenatureofthesecondarymischief，whichisapttobereflected，asitwere，fromtheprimary，inthecaseswheretheindividualswhoaretheobjectsofthemischiefareassignable。
Itisnowtimetoexamineintothecircumstancesuponwhichtheproductionofsuchsecondarymischiefdepends。Thesecircumstancesarenoothersthanthefourarticleswhichhaveformedthesubjectsofthefourlastprecedingchapters:viz。1。Theintentionality，2。Theconsciousness。3。Themotive。4。Thedisposition。Itistobeobservedallalong，thatitisonlythedangerthatisimmediatelygovernedbytherealstateofthemindinrespecttothosearticles:itisbytheapparentstateofitthatthealarmisgoverned。Itisgovernedbytherealonlyinasfarastheapparenthappens，asinmostcasesitmaybeexpectedtodo，toquadratewiththereal。Thedifferentinfluencesofthearticlesofintentionalityandconsciousnessmayberepresentedintheseveralcasesfollowing。
XX。Case1。Wheretheactissocompletelyunintentional，astobealtogetherinvoluntary。Inthiscaseitisattendedwithnosecondarymischiefatall。
Abricklayerisatworkuponahouse:apassengeriswalkinginthestreetbelow。Afellow-workmancomesandgivesthebricklayeraviolentpush，inconsequenceofwhichhefallsuponthepassenger，andhurtshim。Itisplainthereisnothinginthiseventthatcangiveotherpeople，whomayhappentobeinthestreet，theleastreasontoapprehendanythinginfutureonthepartofthemanwhofell，whatevertheremaybewithregardtothemanwhopushedhim。
XXI。Case2。Wheretheact，thoughnotunintentional，isunadvised，insomuchthatthemischievouspartoftheconsequencesisunintentional，buttheunadvisednessisattendedwithheedlessness。
Inthiscasetheactisattendedwithsomesmalldegreeofsecondarymischief，inproportiontothedegreeofheedlessness。
Agroombeingonhorseback，andridingthroughafrequentedstreet，turnsacorneratafullpace，andridesoverapassenger，whohappenstobegoingby。Itisplain，bythisbehaviourofthegroom，somedegreeofalarmmaybeproduced，lessorgreater，accordingtothedegreeofheedlessnessbetrayedbyhim:accordingtothequicknessofhispace，thefullnessofthestreet，andsoforth。Hehasdonemischief，itmaybesaid，byhiscarelessness，already:whoknowsbutthatonotheroccasionsthelikecausemayproducethelikeeffect。
XXII。Case3。Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoacircumstance，which，haditexisted，wouldfullyhaveexcludedorwhatcomestothesamethingoutweighedtheprimarymischief:
andthereisnorashnessinthecase。Inthiscasetheactattendedwithnosecondarymischiefatall。
Itisneedlesstomultiplyexamplesanyfarther。
XXIII。Case4。Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoacircumstancewhichwouldhaveexcludedorcounterbalancedtheprimarymischiefinpart，butnotentirely:andstillthereisnorashness。
Inthiscasethesetisattendedwithsomedegreeofsecondarymischief，inproportiontothatpartoftheprimarywhichremainsunexcludedoruncounterbalanced。
XXIV。Case5。Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoacircumstance，which，haditexisted，wouldhaveexcludedorcounterbalancedtheprimarymischiefentirely，orinpart:andthereisadegreeofrashnessinthesupposal。Inthiscase，theactisalsoattendedwithafartherdegreeofsecondarymischief，inproportiontothedegreeofrashness。
XXV。Case6。Wheretheconsequencesarecompletelyintentional，andthereisnomis-supposalinthecase。Inthiscasethesecondarymischiefisatthehighest。
XXVI。Thusmuchwithregardtointentionalityandconsciousness。Wenowcometoconsiderinwhatmannerthesecondarymischiefisaffectedbythenatureofthemotive。
Whereanactisperniciousinitsprimaryconsequences，thesecondarymischiefisnotobliteratedbythegoodnessofthemotive；thoughthemotivebeofthebestkind。For，notwithstandingthegoodnessofthemotive，anactofwhichtheprimaryconsequencesarepernicious，isproducedbyitintheinstanceinquestion，bythesupposition。Itmay，therefore，inotherinstances:althoughthisisnotsolikelytohappenfromagoodmotiveasfromabadone。
XXVII。Anact，which，thoughperniciousinitsprimaryconsequences，isrenderedinotherrespectsbeneficialuponthewhole，byvirtueofitssecondaryconsequences，isnotchangedbackagain，andrenderedperniciousuponthewholebythebadnessofthemotive:althoughthemotivebeoftheworstkind。
XXVIII。Butwhennotonlytheprimaryconsequencesofanactarepernicious，but，inotherrespects，thesecondarylikewise，thesecondarymischiefmaybeaggravatedbythenatureofthemotive:
somuchofthatmischief，towit，asrespectsthefuturebehaviourofthesameperson。
XXIX。Itisnotfromtheworstkindofmotive，however，thatthesecondarymischiefofanactreceivesitsgreatestaggravation。
XXX。Theaggravationwhichthesecondarymischiefofanact，inasfarasitrespectsthefuturebehaviourofthesameperson，receivesfromthenatureofamotiveinanindividualcase，isasthetendencyofthemotivetoproduce，onthepartofthesameperson，actsofthelikebadtendencywiththatoftheactinquestion。
XXXI。Thetendencyofamotivetoproduceactsofthelikekind，onthepartofanygivenperson，isasthestrengthandconstancyofitsinfluenceonthatperson，asappliedtotheproductionofsucheffects。
XXXII。Thetendencyofaspeciesofmotivetogivebirthtoactsofanykind，amongpersonsingeneral，isasthestrength，constancy，andextensivenessofitsinfluence，asappliedtotheproductionofsucheffects。
XXXIII。Nowthemotives，whereoftheinfluenceisatoncemostpowerful，mostconstant，andmostextensive，arethemotivesofphysicaldesire，theloveofwealth，theloveofease，theloveoflife，andthefearofpain:allofthemself-regardingmotives。
Themotiveofdispleasure，whateveritmaybeinpointofstrengthandextensiveness，isnotnearsoconstantinitsinfluencethecaseofmereantipathyexceptedasanyoftheotherthree。Aperniciousact，therefore，whencommittedthroughvengeance。orotherwisethroughdispleasure，isnotnearsomischievousasthesameperniciousact，whencommittedbyforceofanyoneofthoseothermotives。
XXXIV。Astothemotiveofreligion，whateveritmaysometimesprovetobeinpointofstrengthandconstancy，itisnotinpointofextentsouniversal，especiallyinitsapplicationtoactsofamischievousnature，asanyofthethreeprecedingmotives。Itmay，however，beasuniversalinaparticularstate，orinaparticulardistrictofaparticularstate。Itisliableindeedtobeveryirregularinitsoperations。Itisapt，however，tobefrequentlyaspowerfulasthemotiveofvengeance，orindeedanyothermotivewhatsoever。Itwillsometimesevenbemorepowerfulthananyothermotive。Itis，atanyrate，muchmoreconstant。A
perniciousact，therefore，whencommittedthroughthemotiveofreligion，ismoremischievousthanwhencommittedthroughthemotiveofill-will。
XXXV。Lastly，Thesecondarymischief，towit，somuchofitashathrespecttothefuturebehaviourofthesameperson，isaggravatedorlessenedbytheapparentdepravityorbeneficenceofhisdisposition:andthatintheproportionofsuchapparentdepravityorbeneficence。
XXXVI。Theconsequenceswehavehithertobeenspeakingof，arethenaturalconsequences，ofwhichtheact，andtheotherarticleswehavebeenconsidering，arethecauses:consequencesthatresultfromthebehaviouroftheindividual，whoistheoffendingagent，withouttheinterferenceofpoliticalauthority。Wenowcometospeakofpunishment:which，inthesenseinwhichitishereconsidered，isanartificialconsequence，annexedbypoliticalauthoritytoanoffensiveact，inoneinstance，intheviewofputtingastoptotheproductionofeventssimilartotheobnoxiouspartofitsnaturalconsequences，inotherinstances。
chapter13AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXIII
CasesUnmeetforPunishment§；1。Generalviewofcasesunmeetforpunishment。
I。Thegeneralobjectwhichalllawshave，oroughttohave，incommon，istoaugmentthetotalhappinessofthecommunity；
andtherefore，inthefirstplace，toexclude，asfarasmaybe，everythingthattendstosubtractfromthathappiness:inotherwords，toexcludemischief。
II。Butallpunishmentismischief:allpunishmentinitselfisevil。
Upontheprincipleofutility，ifitoughtatalltobeadmitted，itoughtonlytobeadmittedinasfarasitpromisestoexcludesomegreaterevil。
III。Itisplain，therefore，thatinthefollowingcasespunishmentoughtnottobeinflicted。
1。Whereitisgroundless:wherethereisnomischiefforittoprevent；theactnotbeingmischievousuponthewhole。
2。Whereitmustbeinefficacious:whereitcannotactsoastopreventthemischief。
3。Whereitisunprofitable，ortooexpensive:wherethemischiefitwouldproducewouldbegreaterthanwhatitprevented。
4。Whereitisneedless:wherethemischiefmaybeprevented，orceaseofitself，withoutit:thatis，atacheaperrate。
2。Casesinwhichpunishmentisgroundless。
Theseare，IV。I。Wheretherehasneverbeenanymischief:wherenomischiefhasbeenproducedtoanybodybytheactinquestion。Ofthisnumberarethoseinwhichtheactwassuchasmight，onasomeoccasions，bemischievousordisagreeable，butthepersonwhoseinterestitconcernsgavehisconsenttotheperformanceofit。
Thisconsent，provideditbefree，andfairlyobtained，isthebestproofthatcanbeproduced，that，tothepersonwhogivesit，nomischief，atleastnoimmediatemischief，uponthewhole，isdone。Fornomancanbesogoodajudgeasthemanhimself，whatitisgiveshimpleasureordispleasure。
V。2。Wherethemischiefwasoutweighed:althoughamischiefwasproducedbythatact，yetthesameactwasnecessarytotheproductionofabenefitwhichwasofgreatervaluethanthemischief。
Thismaybethecasewithanythingthatisdoneinthewayofprecautionagainstinstantcalamity，asalsowithanythingthatisdoneintheexerciseoftheseveralsortsofpowersnecessarytobeestablishedineverycommunity，towit，domestic，judicial，military，andsupreme。
VI。3。Wherethereisacertaintyofanadequatecompensation:andthatinallcaseswheretheoffensecanbecommitted。Thissupposestwothings:1。Thattheoffenceissuchasadmitsofanadequatecompensation:2。Thatsuchacompensationissuretobeforthcoming。Ofthesesuppositions，thelatterwillbefoundtobeamerelyidealone:asuppositionthatcannot，intheuniversalityheregiventoit，beverifiedbyfact。Itcannot，therefore，inpractice，benumberedamongstthegroundsofabsoluteimpunity。Itmay，however，beadmittedasagroundforanabatementofthatpunishment，whichotherconsiderations，standingbythemselves，wouldseemtodictate。
3。CasesinwhichpunishmentmustbeinefficaciousTheseare，VII。1。Wherethepenalprovisionisnotestablisheduntilaftertheactisdone。Sucharethecases，1。Ofanex-post-factolaw；
wherethelegislatorhimselfappointsnotapunishmenttillaftertheactisdone。2。Ofasentencebeyondthelaw；wherethejudge，ofhisownauthority，appointsapunishmentwhichthelegislatorhadnotappointed。
VIII。2。Wherethepenalprovision，thoughestablished，isnotconveyedtothenoticeofthepersononwhomitseemsintendedthatitshouldoperate。Suchisthecasewherethelawhasomittedtoemployanyoftheexpedientswhicharenecessary，tomakesurethateverypersonwhatsoever，whoiswithinthereachofthelaw，beapprisedofallthecaseswhatsoever，inwhichbeinginthestationoflifeheisinhecanbesubjectedtothepenaltiesofthelaw。
IX。3。Wherethepenalprovision，thoughitwereconveyedtoaman\'snotice，couldproducenoeffectonhim，withrespecttothepreventinghimfromengaginginanyactofthesortinquestion。
Suchisthecase，1。Inextremeinfancy；whereamanhasnotyetattainedthatstateordispositionofmindinwhichtheprospectofevilssodistantasthosewhichareheldforthbythelaw，hastheeffectofinfluencinghisconduct。2。Ininsanity；wheretheperson，ifhehasattainedtothatdisposition，hassincebeendeprivedofitthroughtheinfluenceofsomepermanentthoughunseencause。3。Inintoxication；wherehehasbeenadeprivedofitbythetransientinfluenceofavisiblecause:suchastheuseofwine，oropium，orotherdrugs，thatactinthismanneronthenervoussystem:whichconditionisindeedneithermorenorlessthanatemporaryinsanityproducedbyanassignablecause。[*]
X。4。Wherethepenalprovisionalthough，beingconveyedtotheparty\'snotice，itmightverywellpreventhisengaginginactsofthesortinquestion，providedheknewthatitrelatedtothoseactscouldnothavethiseffect，withregardtotheindividualactheisabouttoengagein:towit，becauseheknowsnotthatitisofthenumberofthosetowhichthepenalprovisionrelates。
Thismayhappen，1。Inthecaseofunintentionality；whereheintendsnottoengage，andtherebyknowsnotthatheisabouttoengage，intheactinwhicheventuallyheisabouttoengage>2。
Inthecaseofunconsciousness；where，althoughhemayknowthatheisabouttoengageintheactitself，yet，fromnotknowingallthematerialcircumstancesattendingit，heknowsnotofthetendencyithastoproducethatmischief，incontemplationofwhichithasbeenmadepenalinmostinstances3。Inthecaseofmissupposal；where，althoughhemayknowofthetendencytheacthastoproducethatdegreeofmischief，hesupposesit，thoughmistakenly，tobeattendedwithsomecircumstance，orsetofcircumstances，which，ifithadbeenattendedwith，itwouldeithernothavebeenproductiveofthatmischief，orhavebeenproductiveofsuchagreaterdegreeofgood，ashasdeterminedthelegislatorinsuchacasenottomakeitpenal[*]。
XI。5。Where，thoughthepenalclausemightexerciseafullandprevailinginfluence，wereittoactalone，yetbythepredominantinfluenceofsomeoppositecauseuponthewill，itmustnecessarilybeineffectual；becausetheevilwhichhesetshimselfabouttoundergo，inthecaseofhisnotengagingintheact，issogreat，thattheevildenouncedbythepenalclause，incaseofhisengaginginit，cannotappeargreater。Thismayhappen，1。Inthecaseofphysicaldanger；wheretheevilissuchasappearslikelytobebroughtaboutbytheunassistedpowersofnature。
2。Inthecaseofathreatenedmischief；whereitissuchasappearslikelytobebroughtaboutthroughtheintentionalandconsciousagencyofman。[*]
XII。6。Wherethoughthepenalclausemayexertafullandprevailinginfluenceoverthewillofthepartyyethisphysicalfacultiesowingtothepredominantinfluenceofsomephysicalcause
arenotinaconditiontofollowthedeterminationofthewill:insomuchthattheactisabsolutelyinvoluntary。Suchisthecaseofphysicalcompulsionorrestraint，bywhatevermeansbroughtabout；wheretheman\'shand，forinstance，ispushedagainstsomeobjectwhichhiswilldisposeshimnottotouch；ortieddownfromtouchingsomeobjectwhichhiswilldisposeshimtotouch。
4。Caseswherepunishmentisunprofitable。
Theseare，XIII。1。Where，ontheonehand，thenatureoftheoffense，ontheotherhand，thatofthepunishment，are，intheordinarystateofthings，such，thatwhencomparedtogether，theevilofthelatterwillturnouttobegreaterthanthatoftheformer。
XIV。Nowtheevilofthepunishmentdividesitselfintofourbranches，bywhichsomanydifferentsetsofpersonsareaffected。
1。Theevilofcoercionorrestraint:orthepainwhichitgivesamannottobeabletodotheact，whateveritbe，whichbytheapprehensionofthepunishmentheisdeterredfromdoing。Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawisobserved。2。Theevilofapprehension:orthepainwhichaman，whohasexposedhimselftopunishment，feelsatthethoughtsofundergoingit。Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawhasbeenbroken，andwhofeelthemselvesindangerofitsbeingexecuteduponthem。3。Theevilofsufferance:orthepainwhichamanfeels，invirtueofthepunishmentitself，fromthetimewhenhebeginstoundergoit。
Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawisbroken，anduponwhomitcomesactuallytobeexecuted。4。Thepainofsympathy，andtheotherderivativeevilsresultingtothepersonswhoareinconnectionwiththeseveralclassesoforiginalsufferersjustmentioned。Nowofthesefourlotsofevil，thefirstwillbegreaterorless，accordingtothenatureoftheactfromwhichthepartyisrestrained:thesecondandthirdaccordingtothenatureofthepunishmentwhichstandsannexedtothatoffence。
XV。Ontheotherhand，astotheeviloftheoffense，thiswillalso，ofcourse，begreaterorless，accordingtothenatureofeachoffense。Theproportionbetweentheoneevilandtheotherwillthereforebedifferentinthecaseofeachparticularoffence。Thecases，therefore，wherepunishmentisunprofitableonthisground，canbynoothermeansbediscovered，thanbyanexaminationofeachparticularoffense；whichiswhatwillbethebusinessofthebodyofthework。
XVI。2。Where，althoughintheordinarystateofthings，theevilresultingfromthepunishmentisnotgreaterthanthebenefitwhichislikelytoresultfromtheforcewithwhichitoperates，duringthesamespaceoftime，towardstheexcludingtheeviloftheoffenses，yetitmayhavebeenrenderedsobytheinfluenceofsomeoccasionalcircumstances。Inthenumberofthesecircumstancesmaybe，1。Themultitudeofdelinquentsataparticularjuncture；beingsuchaswouldincrease，beyondtheordinarymeasure，thequantumofthesecondandthirdlots，andtherebyalsoofapartofthefourthlot，intheevilofthepunishment。2。Theextraordinaryvalueoftheservicesofsomeonedelinquent；inthecasewheretheeffectofthepunishmentwouldbetodeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthoseservices。
3。Thedispleasureofthepeople；thatis，ofanindefinitenumberofthemembersofthesamecommunity，incaseswhereowingtooftheinfluenceofsomeoccasionalincidenttheyhappentoconceive，thattheoffenseortheoffenderoughtnottobepunishedatall，oratleastoughtnottobepunishedinthewayinquestion。4。Thedispleasureofforeignpowers；thatis，ofthegoverningbody，oraconsiderablenumberofthemembersofsomeforeigncommunityorcommunities，withwhichthecommunityinquestionisconnected。
5。Caseswherepunishmentisneedless。
Theseare，XVII。1。Wherethepurposeofputtinganendtothepracticemaybeattainedaseffectuallyatacheaperrate:byinstruction，isforinstance，aswellasbyterror:byinformingtheunderstanding，aswellasbyexercisinganimmediateinfluenceonthewill。
Thisseemstobethecasewithrespecttoallthoseoffenseswhichconsistinthedisseminatingperniciousprinciplesinmattersofduty；ofwhateverkindthedutybe；whetherpolitical，ormoral，orreligious。Andthis，whethersuchprinciplesbedisseminatedunder，orevenwithout；asincerepersuasionoftheirbeingbeneficial。
Isay，evenwithout:forthoughinsuchacaseitisnotinstructionthatcanpreventthewriterfromendeavouringtoinculcatehisprinciples，yetitmaythereadersfromadoptingthem:
withoutwhich，hisendeavouringtoinculcatethemwilldonoharm。
Insuchacase，thesovereignwillcommonlyhavelittleneedtotakeanactivepart:ifitbetheinterestofoneindividualtoinculcateprinciplesthatarepernicious，itwillassurelybetheinterestofotherindividualstoexposethem。Butifthesovereignmustneedstakeapartinthecontroversy，thepenistheproperweapontocombaterrorwith，notthesword。
chapter14AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXIV