CUSTOMUPONMORALSENTIMENTS。
IntheestimationofDugaldStewart，themostvaluablecontributionof\'AdamSmithtotheimprovementofmoralscienceishisattempttoaccountfortheirregularityofourmoralsentiments，andfortheirliabilitytobemodifiedbyotherconsiderations，verydifferentfromtheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectionsoftheagent，orfromtheirbeneficialorhurtfultendency。AdamSmithwas，hethinks，thefirstphilosophertoappreciatethoroughlytheimportanceofthedifficulty，whichisequallygreatineverytheoryoftheoriginofourmoralsentiments；namely，thatouractualmoralsentimentsofapprobation，orthecontrary，aregreatlymodifiedbymattersextraneoustotheintentionoftheagent；as，forexample，bytheinfluenceontheactitselfofquitefortuitousoraccidentalcircumstances。
Thereare，firstofall，theeffectsofprosperityandadversityonthemoraljudgmentsofmenwithregardtotheproprietyofaction，wherebyitiseasiertoobtainapprobationintheoneconditionthanitisintheother。
Inequaldegreesofmeritthereisscarcelyanyonewhodoesnotmorerespecttherichandgreatthanthepoorandhumble；and，ontheotherhand，anequalamountofviceandfollyisregardedwithlessaversionandcontemptintheformerthanitisinthelatter。Howisthistobeexplained？andwhatistheoriginofthisperversionofmoralsentiment？
Therealexplanationofitistobesoughtinthefactofoursympatheticemotions，which，astheyentermorevividlyintothejoysthanintothesorrowsofothers，feelmorepleasureintheconditionofthewealthythaninthatofthepoor。Itisagreeabletosympathizewithjoy，andpainfultoenterintogrief；sothat，wherethereisnoenvyinthecase，ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoyismuchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow；andourfellow-feelingfortheagreeableemotionapproachesnearertoitsoriginalintensitythanourfellow-feelingforthepainfulemotionofanotherperson。Itisforthisreasonthatwearemoreashamedtoweepthantolaughbeforecompany，thoughwemayoftenhaveasrealoccasiontodotheoneastheother:wealwaysfeelthatthespectatorsaremorelikelytogoalongwithusintheagreeablethaninthepainfulemotion。Henceourdispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful，andtodespiseorneglectthepoorandlowly，arisesfromourassociationofjoyandpleasurewiththeconditionoftheformer，andofpainanddistresswiththatofthelatter。
Theconditionoftheformer，inthedelusivecoloursofourimagination，seemstobealmosttheabstractideaofaperfectandhappystate。Hencewefeelapeculiarsatisfactionwiththesatisfactionweattributetothem。
Wefavouralltheirinclinations，andforwardalltheirwishes。Weareeagertoassistthemincompletingasystemofhappinessthatapproachessoneartoperfection。
Itisfromthecommandwhichwealththushasoverthesympatheticandagreeablesentimentsofmankindthatleadstosoeagerapursuitandparadeofit，andtosostronganaversionto，andconcealmentof，poverty。Towhatpurposeisallthetoiloftheworldforwealth，power，andpre-eminence？
Theonlyadvantagereallylookedtofromitis\"tobeobserved，tobeattendedto，tobetakennoticeofwithsympathy，complacency，andapprobation；\"
andtherichmangloriesmoreinhisriches，becausetheynaturallydrawuponhimtheattentionoftheworld，thanforanyoftheotheradvantagesconnectedwiththem。Andforthesamereasonthepoormanisashamedofhispoverty，forthoughhemaybeaswellsuppliedastherichmanwiththenecessitiesoflife，heismortifiedatbeingplacedoutofthesightofmankind，atbeingtreatedwithneglect，andatbeinganobjectoftheantipathyratherthanofthesympathyofhisfellows。
Rankanddistinctionarethereforecoveted，assettingusinasituationmostinviewofgeneralsympathyandattention。\"Andthus，placethatgreatobjectwhichdividesthewivesofaldermenistheendofhalfthelaboursofhumanlife，andisthecauseofallthetumultandbustle，alltherapineandinjustice，whichavariceandambitionhaveintroducedintotheworld。\"
Andthus，fromournaturaldispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful，adifferentstandardofjudgmentarisesabouttheproprietyoftheirconductthanthatemployedaboutthebehaviourofothermen。Asingletransgressionoftherulesoftemperanceandproprietybyacommonmanisgenerallymoreresentedthantheirconstantandavowedneglectbyamanoffashion。Inthesuperiorstationsoflife，theroadtovirtueandthattofortunearenotalwaysthesame，astheyaregenerallyinthemiddlingandinferiorstations。Inthelatterstationsoflifesuccessnearlyalwaysdependsonthefavourandgoodopinionofequalsandneighbours，andthesecanseldombeobtainedwithoutatolerablyregularconduct。Inthem，therefore，\"wemaygenerallyexpectaconsiderabledegreeofvirtue；andfortunatelyforthegoodmoralsofsociety，thesearethesituationsofbyfarthegreaterpartofmankind。\"
Notonlyhoweverhasprosperityoradversitygreatinfluenceonourmoralsentiments，leadingustoseeaproprietyinacertaincourseofbehaviourintheoneconditionwhichweareapttocondemnasimproperintheother，butthepraiseorblameweattachtoanyactiondependstoagreatextentontheeffectuponitoffortuneoraccident。Althougheverybodyallowsthatthemeritordemeritofactionsisstillthesame，whatevertheirunforeseenconsequencesmaybe，yet，whenwecometoparticularcases，itisclearthatoursentimentsofmeritordemeritareverymuchaffectedbytheactualconsequenceswhichhappentoproceedfromanyaction，andthatoursenseofeitherofthemistherebyenhancedordiminished。
Everyactionconsistsofthreeparts，someoneofwhichmustconstitutethebasisofwhateverpraiseorblameweattributetoit。Thesethreepartsare:theintentionoraffectionoftheheart，fromwhichtheactionproceeds；
theexternalmovementofthebodywhichthisaffectioncauses；andthegoodorbadconsequenceswhichactuallyflowfromit。Itisevidentthatthemovementofthebody，beingoftenthesameinthemostinnocentasinthemostblameableactionsasinthecaseofshootingatabirdandshootingatamancannotbethesourceofpraiseorblame。Neithercantheaccidentalconsequencesofanaction，whichdependonfortune，notontheagent。Theonlyconsequencesforwhichthelatterisresponsiblearethoseinsomewayconnectedwithhisintention；sothatitistotheintentionoraffectionoftheheart，totheproprietyorimpropriety，tothebeneficenceorhurt-fulnessofthedesign，thatallpraiseorblame，allapprobationordisapprobationofanykind，mustultimatelybelong。
Theproblemthentobeexplainedisthefactthatoursenseofaman\'smeritordemeritisatallinfluencedbyre-suitswhichliebeyondhiscontrol，andthatwemoderateourpraiseorblameofhisconductaccordingashisgoodorbadintentionfailsornotofitsintendedbenefitorinjury。
Theexplanationisasfollows。
Thepassionsofgratitudeandresentment，onwhichdependourfeelingofthemeritordemeritofactions，areultimatelybasedonthebodilysensationofpleasureandpain。Theyareexcitedprimarilybywhateverproducespleasureorpain，evenbyinanimateobjects。\"Weareangryforamomentevenwiththestonethathurtsus。Achildbeatsit，adogbarksatit，acholericmanisapttocurseit。\"Weshouldfeelguiltyofasortofinhumanity，ifweneglectedtoavengeourfriendbythedestructionoftheinstrumentthathadaccidentlycausedhisdeath。Soitiswithgratitude。
Asailorwhomendedhisfirewiththeplankthathadsavedhimfromshipwreckwouldseemguiltyofanunnaturalact，forweshouldexpecthimtopreserveitwithcareandaffection。Soweconceivesomethinglikearealloveandaffectionforasnuff-box，orpen-knife，orastick，towhichwehavelongbeenaccustomed。\"Thehousewhichwehavelonglivedin，thetreewhoseverdureandshadewehavelongenjoyed，arebothlookeduponwithasortofrespectwhichseemsduetosuchbenefactors。Thedecayoftheone，ortheruinoftheother，affectsuswithakindofmelancholy，thoughweshouldsustainnolossbyit。\"
Neverthelesstobetheproperobjectofgratitudeandresentment，athingmustnotonlybethecauseofpleasureandpain，butitselfcapableoffeelingtheminreturn。Animalsthereforearelessimproperobjectsofgratitudeandresentmentthaninanimatethings。\"Thedogthatbites，theoxthatgores，arebothofthempunished。Iftheyhavebeenthecausesofthedeathofanyperson，neitherthepublic，northerelationsoftheslain，canbesatisfied，unlesstheyareputtodeathintheirturn。\"Andontheotherhand，animalsthathavedoneagreatservice，areregardedwithmuchgratitude；andweareshockedwiththeingratitudeoftheofficer，intheTurkishSpy，whostabbedthehorsewhichhadcarriedhimacrossanarmofthesea，lestitshouldeverdistinguishsomeotherpersonbyasimilarfeat。
Butsomethingmoreisstillnecessarytothecompletegratificationofgratitudeandresentmentthanthemerecapabilityforfeelingpleasureorpaininreturnforpainorpleasurecaused。Thelattermusthavebeencausedbydesign，andtheremustbeaconsciousnessofdesigninthereturn。
Theobjectofresentmentischieflynotsomuchtomakeourenemyfeelpaininhisturn，astomakehimconsciousthathefeelsituponaccountofhispastconduct，andtomakehimrepentofthatconduct。Andthechiefobjectofgratitudeisnotonlytomakeourbenefactorfeelpleasureinhisturn，buttomakehimconsciousthathemeetswiththatrewardonaccountofhispastconduct，andtomakehimpleasedwiththatconduct。
Hencethreedifferentqualificationsarenecessarytorenderanythingthecompleteandproperobjectofgratitudeorresentment。Itmustfirstofallbethecauseofpleasureorpain；itmustsecondlybecapableoffeelingpleasureorpain；anditmustthirdlyproducepleasureorpainfromadesign，approvedofintheonecaseordisapprovedofintheother。
Sincethentheproductivenessofpleasureorpainistheprimaryexcitingcauseofgratitudeorresentment，thoughtheintentionsofanypersonshouldbeeversoproperandbeneficent，oreversoimproperandmalevolent，yet，ifhehasfailedinproducingthegoodorevilheintended，lessgratitudeorresentmentseemsduetohim，orinotherwords，lessmeritordemeritseemstoattachtohim，becausethepleasureorpain，theexcitingcausesofgratitudeorresentment，areineithercasewanting。Andso，whereinaman\'sintentionstherehasbeennolaudablebenevolenceorblameablemalice，buthisactionshaveneverthelessdonegreatgoodorgreatevil，thensomegratitudeorresentmentwillattachtohim，becausetheirexcitingcauseshavebeenpresentineithercase。Butsincetheconsequencesofaman\'sactionsrestaltogetherwithfortune，oursentimentsofmeritordemeritdependtoagreatextentuponherinfluenceonevents，uponhercontrolofthegoodorbad，thepleasurableorpainfulresults，whichflowfromouractions。
Thustheirregularityofourmoralsentimentsconcerningthemeritordemeritofactionsdependsultimatelyontheaccidentalamountofpleasureorpaintheyproduce，sincethesearetheprimaryexcitingcausesofourgratitudeorresentment。Havingexplainedthecauseofthephenomenon，itremainstoillustratetheeffects。
Eventheimpartialspectatorfeelsin。somemeasureadifferenceofmeritinaman\'sconductaccordingashisgoodintentionshaveproducedornottheresultsintendedbyhim，althoughtheymayonlyhavebeendefeatedbyaccident。Itisindeedcommontosay，thatweareequallyobligedtothemanwhohasendeavouredtoserveus，astothemanwhoreallyhasservedus；butthissaying，\"likeallotherfinespeeches，mustbeunderstoodwithagrainofallowance。\"Whenallothercircumstancesareequal，therewillalwaysbe，eveninthebestandnoblestmind，somedifferenceofaffectioninfavourofthefriendwhocarriesouthisgoodintention，asagainstthefriendwhofailstodoso。
Andasthemeritofanunsuccessfulattempttodogoodisdiminishedbyitsmiscarriage，soisthedemeritofanun-successfulattempttodoevil。Exceptinthecaseoftreason，theconceptionofwhichisinmanycountriespunishedasseverelyasitscommission，themeredesigntocommitacrimeisscarcelyeverpunishedasheavilyasitsactualperpetration。
Inhardlyanycountryistheman，whofiresapistolathisenemybutmisseshim，punishedwithdeath，thoughthereisthesamedegreeofdepravityinthecriminaldesignasinthecriminalaction。\"Theresentmentofmankind，however，runssohighagainstthiscrime，theirterrorforthemanwhoshowshimselfcapableofcommittingitissogreat，thatthemereattempttocommititoughtinallcountriestobecapital。Theattempttocommitsmallercrimesisalmostalwayspunishedverylightly，andsometimesisnotpunishedatall。Thethief，whosehandhasbeencaughtinhisneighbour\'spocketbeforehehadtakenanythingoutofit，ispunishedwithignominyonly。Ifhehadgottimetotakeawayahandkerchief，hewouldhavebeenputtodeath。\"6Thestateofthelawonlyreflectsthenaturalfeelingsofindividuals，whofeellessresentmentwhenamanhasfailedinexecutingthemischiefheintendedthanwhenhehasactuallydonethemaninjury。
Forthesamereason，aman，whohasbeensavedpurelybyaccidentfromthecommissionofacrimeheintended，thoughheisconsciousthathisrealguilt，thatofhisheart，remainsthesame，considershimselfaslessdeservingofresentmentandpunishment；andthusallthesenseofhisguiltiseitherdiminishedordestroyedbythemerefactoffortunehavingfavouredhim。
Again，asFortuneinfluencesourmoralsentimentsbylesseningthegoodorevil，thepleasureorpain，intendedbyouractions，sodoessheincreaseoursenseoftheirmeritordemerit，beyondwhattheirmereintentionwouldjustify，whentheyhappentogiverisetoextraordinarypleasureorpain。
Evenwhenanintentiondeservesneitherpraisenorblame，weareconsciousofashadeofmeritordemerit，accordingtoitsagreeableordisagreeableeffectsonus。Wefeelatransitorygratitudetothebearerofgoodtidings，andatransitoryresentmenttotheinnocentauthorofoursorrow。AndthoughwethinkitbarbarousinTigranes，kingofArmenia，tohavestruckofftheheadofamanforbeingthefirsttoannouncetheapproachofanenemy，yetwethinkitreasonablethat，bythecustomofallcourts，。theofficerwhofirstbringsthenewsofavictoryshouldbeentitledtoconsiderablepreferments。
Whenthenegligenceofonemancausesdamagetoanother，eventhoughhisnegligenceshouldbenomorethanawantofextremecircumspection，thelawofteninsistsoncompensation。InRometherewasalawwhichcompelledanyonewho，byreasonofhishorsetakingfrightandbecomingunmanageable，rodeoveranotherman\'sslave，tocompensatetheloss。Themanhimselfwhothusunintentionallyhurtsanothershowssomesenseofhisowndemeritbyatleastofferinganapology。Yetwhyshouldhemakeanapologymorethananyoneelse？Itisbecauseheisawarethattheimpartialspectatorwillfeelsomesympathywiththenatural，butunjust，resentmentofthepersonhehasaccidentallyinjured。
Butthenegligencedisplayedinanyactionmaybesogreatastocallnotmerelyforblameandcensure，butforactualpunishment。Forwemaysofarenterintotheresentmentfeltbyonemanonaccountofanunintendedinjurydonetohimbyanother，astoapproveofhisinflictingapunishmentontheoffenderwhichwouldhaveseemedinexcessofthedemeritofhisoffencehadnounluckyconsequencesensued。Forinstance，thoughnothingwouldappearmoreshockingtoournaturalsenseofequitythantoexecuteamanmerelyforhavingcarelesslythrownastoneintothestreetwithouthurtinganybody，yet，ifthestonehappenedtokillanybody，sogreatwouldbetheeffectofthisaccidentonourmoralsentimentsthat，thoughtheman\'sfollyandinhumanitywouldnotbegreaterinonecasethanintheother，weshouldnotconsidertheseverestpunishmenttoohardforhim。
Grossnegligenceis，therefore，inlawalmostthesameasmaliciousdesign。Lataculpapropedolumest。
Butourmoralsentimentsarcconsiderablyaffected，notonlybythefactoftheprosperityoradversityofthepersonwhoseconductwejudge，andbytheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentontheresultofhisintentions，buttheyarealsogreatlymodifiedbythosetwogreatprinciplesofCustomandFashion，whichhavecausedsowideadifferenceofopinionaboutwhatisblameableorpraiseworthytoprevailindifferentagesandnations。
Forthevirtuesofthesavagestatearedifferentfromthoseofthecivilizedstate，thevirtuesofoneprofessionaredifferentfromthoseofanother，andthoseagainwhichweadmireinyoutharedifferentfromthosewelookforinoldage。
Thisfactisduetotheinfluenceofcustom，oroffashion，whichisaspeciesofcustom，asthecustomofpersonsofhighrankorcharacter。
Forboththeseaffectourmoralsentiments，albeitinalessdegree，yetinexactlythesamewaythattheyaffectourideasandfeelingsaboutbeautyinallobjectssubmittedtoourobservation。
Theinfluenceofcustomonourideasofbeautyisverygreat。Forwhenevertwoobjectshavebeenseeninfrequentconjunctiontogether，theimaginationacquiresahabitofpassingeasilyfromtheonetotheother；andthus，fromthemerehabitofexpectingtoseeonewhenweseetheother，thoughthereshouldbenorealbeautyintheirunion，weareconsciousofanimproprietywhentheychancetobeseparated。Ifevenasuitofclothesiswithoutsomeinsignificantbutusualornament，suchasabutton，weareinsomemeasuredispleasedbyitsabsence。
Thefashionofthingschangeswitharapidityproportionedtothedurablenessoftheirmaterial。Themodesoffurniturechangelessrapidlythanthoseofdress，becausefurnitureisgenerallymoredurable；butinfiveorsixyearsitgenerallyundergoesacompleterevolution，andeverymanseesitsfashionchangeinmanydifferentwayseveninhisownlifetime。Buttheproductionsofsuchartsasmusic，poetry，orarchitecture，beingmuchmorelasting，thefashionorcustom，whichprevailsnolessoverthemthanoverwhateverelseistheobjectoftaste，maycontinueunchangedforamuchlongertime。Abuildingmayendureforages，abeautifulairmaybehandeddownthroughgenerations，apoemmaylastaslongastheworld，andthustheymayallsetthefashionoftheirparticularstyleortastemuchlongerthanthedesignofaparticularmodeofdressorfurniture。
Itisonlybecauseofthegreaterpermanenceoftheirfashion，whichpreventsourhavingmuchexperienceofanychangeinthem，thatmakesitlesseasyforustorecognizethattheruleswethinkoughttobeobservedineachofthefineartsarenomorefoundedonreasonandthenatureofthingsthantheyareinthematterofourfurnitureanddress。
Inarchitecture，forinstance，noreasoncanbeassignedbeyondhabitandcustomfortheproprietyofattachingtoeachofthefiveorderstheirpeculiarornaments。Theeye，havingbeenusedtoassociateacertainornamentationwithacertainorder，wouldbeoffendedatmissingtheirconjunction；butitisinconceivablethat，priortoestablishedcustom，fivehundredotherformsshouldnothavesuitedthoseproportionsequallywell。
Itisthesameinpoetry。Theancientsthoughtthatacertainspeciesofversewasbynatureappropriatedtoaparticularspeciesofwriting，accordingtothesentimentorcharacterintendedtobedescribed。Onekindofversewasfitforgraveandanotherforgaythemes，norcouldeitherbeinterchangedwithoutthegreatestimpropriety。YetthatwhichistheverseofburlesqueinEnglishistheheroicverseinFrench，simplybecause\"customhasmadetheonenationassociatetheideasofgravity，sublimity，andseriousnesswiththatmeasurewhichtheotherhasconnectedwithwhateverisgay，flippant，andludicrous。\"
Custominfluencesourjudgmentnolesswithregardtothebeautyofnaturalobjects；andtheproportionswhichweadmireinonekindofanimalarequitedifferentfromthoseweadmireinanother。Everyclassofthingshasabeautyofitsown，distinctfromthatofeveryotherspecies。
AdamSmithstopsshort，however，ofadoptingthetheory，soablyadvocatedinthelastcenturybytheJesuitBuffier，andfollowedbySirJoshuaReynolds，thatcustomisthesoleprincipleofbeauty，andthatthebeautyofeveryobjectconsistssimplyinthatformandcolourwhichismostmoralineveryparticularclassofthings。AccordingtoBuffier，ineachspeciesofcreatures，thatformwasmostbeautifulwhichborethestrongestcharacterofthegeneralfabricofitsspecies，andhadthestrongestresemblancetothegreaternumberoftheindividualswithwhichitwasclassed。Hencethemostcustomaryformwasthemostbeautiful，andmuchpracticewasneededtojudgeofthebeautyofdistinctspeciesofthings，ortoknowwhereinthemiddleormostusualformconsisted。Hence，too，differentideasofbeautyexistedindifferentcountries，wheredifferenceofclimateproduceddifferenceoftype。AdamSmithsofaragreeswiththisdoctrineastoacknowledgethatthereisscarcelyanyexternalformsobeautifulastoplease，ifquitecontrarytocustom，noranysodeformedasnottobeagreeable，ifuniformlysupportedbyit；buthealsoarguesthat，independentlyofcustom，wearepleasedbytheappearanceoftheutilityofanyformbyitsfitnessforthepurposesforwhichitwasintended。Certaincolours，moreover，aremoreagreeablethanothers，eventhefirsttimetheyarebeheldbyus；andthoughhedoesnotlaythesamestressonsmoothnessasBurkedid，whoheldthatnothingwasbeautifulthatwasnotsmooth，healsoadmitsthatasmoothsurfaceisnaturallymoreagreeablethanaroughone。
Theinfluenceofcustomandfashionuponourideasofbeautygenerallybeingsogreatashasbeenexplained，whatistheirinfluenceuponourideasofbeautyofconduct？Tothistheansweris，thattheirinfluenceisperfectlysimilarinkind，thoughnotsogreat，orratherlesspotent，overmoralsthanitisoveranythingelse。Althoughthereisnoformofexternalobjectstowhichcustomwillnotreconcileus，norfashionrenderagreeabletous，thecharactersortheconductofaNerooraClaudiusarewhatnocustomcanevermakeagreeable，orotherthantheobjectsofourhatredorderision；forthesentimentsofmoralapprobationanddisapprobationarefoundedonthestrongestpassionsofhumannature，and，thoughtheycanbewarpt，theycanneverbeperverted。
Justascustomdiminishesoursenseoftheimproprietyof\'thingswhichweareaccustomedtoseetogether，asinthecaseofabsurdityofdress，sofamiliarityfromyouthupwardswithviolence，falsehood，andinjusticetakesawayallsenseoftheenormityofsuchconduct；and，ontheotherhand，whencustomandfashioncoincidewiththeprinciplesofrightandwrong，theyenhanceourmoralideasandincreaseourabhorrenceforeverythingevil。\"Thosewhohavebeeneducatedinwhatisreallygoodcompanynotinwhatiscommonlycalledsuchwhohavebeenaccustomedtoseenothinginthepersonswhomtheyesteemedandlivedwithbutjustice，modesty，humanityandgoodorder，aremoreshockedwithwhateverseemstobeinconsistentwiththeruleswhichthosevirtuesprescribe。\"
Customaffordsanexplanationofthedifferentideasofgoodconductprevalentindifferentdegreesofcivilization。Foreveryageandcountrylookuponthatdegreeofeachqualitywhichismostusualinthoseamongthemselveswhoaremostesteemedasthegoldenmeanofthatparticulartalentorvirtue。Theirsentimentsconcerningthedegreeofeachqualitythatdeservespraiseorblamevaryaccordingtothedegreewhichismostcommonintheirowncountryandtimes；thus，thatdegreeofpolitenesswhichmightbethoughteffeminateadulationinRussiamightberegardedasbarbarousrudenessinFrance。
Ingeneral，thestyleofmannersprevalentinanynationisthatwhichismostsuitabletoitssituation。Thatwhichismostsuitablebeing，then，thatwhichisnaturallymostcom-mon，differentstandardsarisewithregardtothegeneralproprietyofbehaviour。Asavage，incontinualdanger，orexposedtofrequentwant，acquiresahardinessofcharacter，aninsensibilitytothesufferingsofhimselforothers，whichismostsuitabletothecircumstancesofhissituation，andwhichaffordsaverydifferentstandardofself-commandthanthatwhichiseitherusualornecessaryincivilizedlife。Thegeneralsecurityandhappinesswhichprevailinagesofculture，byaffordinglittleexercisetocontemptofdanger，ortotheenduranceofpainorhunger，enablethevirtueswhicharefoundedonhumanitytobemorecultivatedthanthosewhicharefoundedonself-denial；sothattocomplainwheninpain，togrieveindistress，tobeovercomebyloveoranger，arenotregardedasweaknesses，astheywouldbeinsavagelife，norasaffectingtheessentialpartsofaman\'scharacter。
Inthedifferentprofessionsandagesoflifethesameinfluenceofcustommaybetraced。Ineachrankandprofessionweexpectadegreeofthosemannerswhichexperiencehastaughtustolookforinthem。Asineachspeciesofnaturalobjectswearepleasedwiththeconformitytothegeneraltype，soineachspeciesofmenwearepleased，\"iftheyhaveneithertoomuchnortoolittleofthecharacterwhichusuallyaccompaniestheirparticularconditionandsituation。\"Ourapprobationofacertainkindofmilitarycharacterisfoundedentirelyonhabit；forwearetaughtbycustomtoannextothemilitaryprofession\"thecharacterofgaiety，levity，andsprightlyfreedom，aswellasofsomedegreeofdissipation。\"Whateverbehaviourwehavebeenaccustomedtoseeinanyorderofmen，comestobesoassociatedwiththatorder，thatwheneverweseetheoneweexpecttoseetheother，andarepleasedordisappointedaccordingasweseeitornot。Nevertheless，theremayexistaproprietyofprofessionalbehaviour，independentofthecustomwhichleadsustoexpectit；andwefeelthat，apartfromallcustom，thereisaproprietyinthegravityofmannerswhichcustomhasallottedtotheprofessionofaclergyman。