CUSTOMUPONMORALSENTIMENTS。
IntheestimationofDugaldStewart,themostvaluablecontributionof\'AdamSmithtotheimprovementofmoralscienceishisattempttoaccountfortheirregularityofourmoralsentiments,andfortheirliabilitytobemodifiedbyotherconsiderations,verydifferentfromtheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectionsoftheagent,orfromtheirbeneficialorhurtfultendency。AdamSmithwas,hethinks,thefirstphilosophertoappreciatethoroughlytheimportanceofthedifficulty,whichisequallygreatineverytheoryoftheoriginofourmoralsentiments;namely,thatouractualmoralsentimentsofapprobation,orthecontrary,aregreatlymodifiedbymattersextraneoustotheintentionoftheagent;as,forexample,bytheinfluenceontheactitselfofquitefortuitousoraccidentalcircumstances。
Thereare,firstofall,theeffectsofprosperityandadversityonthemoraljudgmentsofmenwithregardtotheproprietyofaction,wherebyitiseasiertoobtainapprobationintheoneconditionthanitisintheother。
Inequaldegreesofmeritthereisscarcelyanyonewhodoesnotmorerespecttherichandgreatthanthepoorandhumble;and,ontheotherhand,anequalamountofviceandfollyisregardedwithlessaversionandcontemptintheformerthanitisinthelatter。Howisthistobeexplained?andwhatistheoriginofthisperversionofmoralsentiment?
Therealexplanationofitistobesoughtinthefactofoursympatheticemotions,which,astheyentermorevividlyintothejoysthanintothesorrowsofothers,feelmorepleasureintheconditionofthewealthythaninthatofthepoor。Itisagreeabletosympathizewithjoy,andpainfultoenterintogrief;sothat,wherethereisnoenvyinthecase,ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoyismuchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow;andourfellow-feelingfortheagreeableemotionapproachesnearertoitsoriginalintensitythanourfellow-feelingforthepainfulemotionofanotherperson。Itisforthisreasonthatwearemoreashamedtoweepthantolaughbeforecompany,thoughwemayoftenhaveasrealoccasiontodotheoneastheother:wealwaysfeelthatthespectatorsaremorelikelytogoalongwithusintheagreeablethaninthepainfulemotion。Henceourdispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful,andtodespiseorneglectthepoorandlowly,arisesfromourassociationofjoyandpleasurewiththeconditionoftheformer,andofpainanddistresswiththatofthelatter。
Theconditionoftheformer,inthedelusivecoloursofourimagination,seemstobealmosttheabstractideaofaperfectandhappystate。Hencewefeelapeculiarsatisfactionwiththesatisfactionweattributetothem。
Wefavouralltheirinclinations,andforwardalltheirwishes。Weareeagertoassistthemincompletingasystemofhappinessthatapproachessoneartoperfection。
Itisfromthecommandwhichwealththushasoverthesympatheticandagreeablesentimentsofmankindthatleadstosoeagerapursuitandparadeofit,andtosostronganaversionto,andconcealmentof,poverty。Towhatpurposeisallthetoiloftheworldforwealth,power,andpre-eminence?
Theonlyadvantagereallylookedtofromitis\"tobeobserved,tobeattendedto,tobetakennoticeofwithsympathy,complacency,andapprobation;\"
andtherichmangloriesmoreinhisriches,becausetheynaturallydrawuponhimtheattentionoftheworld,thanforanyoftheotheradvantagesconnectedwiththem。Andforthesamereasonthepoormanisashamedofhispoverty,forthoughhemaybeaswellsuppliedastherichmanwiththenecessitiesoflife,heismortifiedatbeingplacedoutofthesightofmankind,atbeingtreatedwithneglect,andatbeinganobjectoftheantipathyratherthanofthesympathyofhisfellows。
Rankanddistinctionarethereforecoveted,assettingusinasituationmostinviewofgeneralsympathyandattention。\"Andthus,placethatgreatobjectwhichdividesthewivesofaldermenistheendofhalfthelaboursofhumanlife,andisthecauseofallthetumultandbustle,alltherapineandinjustice,whichavariceandambitionhaveintroducedintotheworld。\"
Andthus,fromournaturaldispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful,adifferentstandardofjudgmentarisesabouttheproprietyoftheirconductthanthatemployedaboutthebehaviourofothermen。Asingletransgressionoftherulesoftemperanceandproprietybyacommonmanisgenerallymoreresentedthantheirconstantandavowedneglectbyamanoffashion。Inthesuperiorstationsoflife,theroadtovirtueandthattofortunearenotalwaysthesame,astheyaregenerallyinthemiddlingandinferiorstations。Inthelatterstationsoflifesuccessnearlyalwaysdependsonthefavourandgoodopinionofequalsandneighbours,andthesecanseldombeobtainedwithoutatolerablyregularconduct。Inthem,therefore,\"wemaygenerallyexpectaconsiderabledegreeofvirtue;andfortunatelyforthegoodmoralsofsociety,thesearethesituationsofbyfarthegreaterpartofmankind。\"
Notonlyhoweverhasprosperityoradversitygreatinfluenceonourmoralsentiments,leadingustoseeaproprietyinacertaincourseofbehaviourintheoneconditionwhichweareapttocondemnasimproperintheother,butthepraiseorblameweattachtoanyactiondependstoagreatextentontheeffectuponitoffortuneoraccident。Althougheverybodyallowsthatthemeritordemeritofactionsisstillthesame,whatevertheirunforeseenconsequencesmaybe,yet,whenwecometoparticularcases,itisclearthatoursentimentsofmeritordemeritareverymuchaffectedbytheactualconsequenceswhichhappentoproceedfromanyaction,andthatoursenseofeitherofthemistherebyenhancedordiminished。
Everyactionconsistsofthreeparts,someoneofwhichmustconstitutethebasisofwhateverpraiseorblameweattributetoit。Thesethreepartsare:theintentionoraffectionoftheheart,fromwhichtheactionproceeds;
theexternalmovementofthebodywhichthisaffectioncauses;andthegoodorbadconsequenceswhichactuallyflowfromit。Itisevidentthatthemovementofthebody,beingoftenthesameinthemostinnocentasinthemostblameableactionsasinthecaseofshootingatabirdandshootingatamancannotbethesourceofpraiseorblame。Neithercantheaccidentalconsequencesofanaction,whichdependonfortune,notontheagent。Theonlyconsequencesforwhichthelatterisresponsiblearethoseinsomewayconnectedwithhisintention;sothatitistotheintentionoraffectionoftheheart,totheproprietyorimpropriety,tothebeneficenceorhurt-fulnessofthedesign,thatallpraiseorblame,allapprobationordisapprobationofanykind,mustultimatelybelong。
Theproblemthentobeexplainedisthefactthatoursenseofaman\'smeritordemeritisatallinfluencedbyre-suitswhichliebeyondhiscontrol,andthatwemoderateourpraiseorblameofhisconductaccordingashisgoodorbadintentionfailsornotofitsintendedbenefitorinjury。
Theexplanationisasfollows。
Thepassionsofgratitudeandresentment,onwhichdependourfeelingofthemeritordemeritofactions,areultimatelybasedonthebodilysensationofpleasureandpain。Theyareexcitedprimarilybywhateverproducespleasureorpain,evenbyinanimateobjects。\"Weareangryforamomentevenwiththestonethathurtsus。Achildbeatsit,adogbarksatit,acholericmanisapttocurseit。\"Weshouldfeelguiltyofasortofinhumanity,ifweneglectedtoavengeourfriendbythedestructionoftheinstrumentthathadaccidentlycausedhisdeath。Soitiswithgratitude。
Asailorwhomendedhisfirewiththeplankthathadsavedhimfromshipwreckwouldseemguiltyofanunnaturalact,forweshouldexpecthimtopreserveitwithcareandaffection。Soweconceivesomethinglikearealloveandaffectionforasnuff-box,orpen-knife,orastick,towhichwehavelongbeenaccustomed。\"Thehousewhichwehavelonglivedin,thetreewhoseverdureandshadewehavelongenjoyed,arebothlookeduponwithasortofrespectwhichseemsduetosuchbenefactors。Thedecayoftheone,ortheruinoftheother,affectsuswithakindofmelancholy,thoughweshouldsustainnolossbyit。\"
Neverthelesstobetheproperobjectofgratitudeandresentment,athingmustnotonlybethecauseofpleasureandpain,butitselfcapableoffeelingtheminreturn。Animalsthereforearelessimproperobjectsofgratitudeandresentmentthaninanimatethings。\"Thedogthatbites,theoxthatgores,arebothofthempunished。Iftheyhavebeenthecausesofthedeathofanyperson,neitherthepublic,northerelationsoftheslain,canbesatisfied,unlesstheyareputtodeathintheirturn。\"Andontheotherhand,animalsthathavedoneagreatservice,areregardedwithmuchgratitude;andweareshockedwiththeingratitudeoftheofficer,intheTurkishSpy,whostabbedthehorsewhichhadcarriedhimacrossanarmofthesea,lestitshouldeverdistinguishsomeotherpersonbyasimilarfeat。
Butsomethingmoreisstillnecessarytothecompletegratificationofgratitudeandresentmentthanthemerecapabilityforfeelingpleasureorpaininreturnforpainorpleasurecaused。Thelattermusthavebeencausedbydesign,andtheremustbeaconsciousnessofdesigninthereturn。
Theobjectofresentmentischieflynotsomuchtomakeourenemyfeelpaininhisturn,astomakehimconsciousthathefeelsituponaccountofhispastconduct,andtomakehimrepentofthatconduct。Andthechiefobjectofgratitudeisnotonlytomakeourbenefactorfeelpleasureinhisturn,buttomakehimconsciousthathemeetswiththatrewardonaccountofhispastconduct,andtomakehimpleasedwiththatconduct。
Hencethreedifferentqualificationsarenecessarytorenderanythingthecompleteandproperobjectofgratitudeorresentment。Itmustfirstofallbethecauseofpleasureorpain;itmustsecondlybecapableoffeelingpleasureorpain;anditmustthirdlyproducepleasureorpainfromadesign,approvedofintheonecaseordisapprovedofintheother。
Sincethentheproductivenessofpleasureorpainistheprimaryexcitingcauseofgratitudeorresentment,thoughtheintentionsofanypersonshouldbeeversoproperandbeneficent,oreversoimproperandmalevolent,yet,ifhehasfailedinproducingthegoodorevilheintended,lessgratitudeorresentmentseemsduetohim,orinotherwords,lessmeritordemeritseemstoattachtohim,becausethepleasureorpain,theexcitingcausesofgratitudeorresentment,areineithercasewanting。Andso,whereinaman\'sintentionstherehasbeennolaudablebenevolenceorblameablemalice,buthisactionshaveneverthelessdonegreatgoodorgreatevil,thensomegratitudeorresentmentwillattachtohim,becausetheirexcitingcauseshavebeenpresentineithercase。Butsincetheconsequencesofaman\'sactionsrestaltogetherwithfortune,oursentimentsofmeritordemeritdependtoagreatextentuponherinfluenceonevents,uponhercontrolofthegoodorbad,thepleasurableorpainfulresults,whichflowfromouractions。
Thustheirregularityofourmoralsentimentsconcerningthemeritordemeritofactionsdependsultimatelyontheaccidentalamountofpleasureorpaintheyproduce,sincethesearetheprimaryexcitingcausesofourgratitudeorresentment。Havingexplainedthecauseofthephenomenon,itremainstoillustratetheeffects。
Eventheimpartialspectatorfeelsin。somemeasureadifferenceofmeritinaman\'sconductaccordingashisgoodintentionshaveproducedornottheresultsintendedbyhim,althoughtheymayonlyhavebeendefeatedbyaccident。Itisindeedcommontosay,thatweareequallyobligedtothemanwhohasendeavouredtoserveus,astothemanwhoreallyhasservedus;butthissaying,\"likeallotherfinespeeches,mustbeunderstoodwithagrainofallowance。\"Whenallothercircumstancesareequal,therewillalwaysbe,eveninthebestandnoblestmind,somedifferenceofaffectioninfavourofthefriendwhocarriesouthisgoodintention,asagainstthefriendwhofailstodoso。
Andasthemeritofanunsuccessfulattempttodogoodisdiminishedbyitsmiscarriage,soisthedemeritofanun-successfulattempttodoevil。Exceptinthecaseoftreason,theconceptionofwhichisinmanycountriespunishedasseverelyasitscommission,themeredesigntocommitacrimeisscarcelyeverpunishedasheavilyasitsactualperpetration。
Inhardlyanycountryistheman,whofiresapistolathisenemybutmisseshim,punishedwithdeath,thoughthereisthesamedegreeofdepravityinthecriminaldesignasinthecriminalaction。\"Theresentmentofmankind,however,runssohighagainstthiscrime,theirterrorforthemanwhoshowshimselfcapableofcommittingitissogreat,thatthemereattempttocommititoughtinallcountriestobecapital。Theattempttocommitsmallercrimesisalmostalwayspunishedverylightly,andsometimesisnotpunishedatall。Thethief,whosehandhasbeencaughtinhisneighbour\'spocketbeforehehadtakenanythingoutofit,ispunishedwithignominyonly。Ifhehadgottimetotakeawayahandkerchief,hewouldhavebeenputtodeath。\"6Thestateofthelawonlyreflectsthenaturalfeelingsofindividuals,whofeellessresentmentwhenamanhasfailedinexecutingthemischiefheintendedthanwhenhehasactuallydonethemaninjury。
Forthesamereason,aman,whohasbeensavedpurelybyaccidentfromthecommissionofacrimeheintended,thoughheisconsciousthathisrealguilt,thatofhisheart,remainsthesame,considershimselfaslessdeservingofresentmentandpunishment;andthusallthesenseofhisguiltiseitherdiminishedordestroyedbythemerefactoffortunehavingfavouredhim。
Again,asFortuneinfluencesourmoralsentimentsbylesseningthegoodorevil,thepleasureorpain,intendedbyouractions,sodoessheincreaseoursenseoftheirmeritordemerit,beyondwhattheirmereintentionwouldjustify,whentheyhappentogiverisetoextraordinarypleasureorpain。
Evenwhenanintentiondeservesneitherpraisenorblame,weareconsciousofashadeofmeritordemerit,accordingtoitsagreeableordisagreeableeffectsonus。Wefeelatransitorygratitudetothebearerofgoodtidings,andatransitoryresentmenttotheinnocentauthorofoursorrow。AndthoughwethinkitbarbarousinTigranes,kingofArmenia,tohavestruckofftheheadofamanforbeingthefirsttoannouncetheapproachofanenemy,yetwethinkitreasonablethat,bythecustomofallcourts,。theofficerwhofirstbringsthenewsofavictoryshouldbeentitledtoconsiderablepreferments。
Whenthenegligenceofonemancausesdamagetoanother,eventhoughhisnegligenceshouldbenomorethanawantofextremecircumspection,thelawofteninsistsoncompensation。InRometherewasalawwhichcompelledanyonewho,byreasonofhishorsetakingfrightandbecomingunmanageable,rodeoveranotherman\'sslave,tocompensatetheloss。Themanhimselfwhothusunintentionallyhurtsanothershowssomesenseofhisowndemeritbyatleastofferinganapology。Yetwhyshouldhemakeanapologymorethananyoneelse?Itisbecauseheisawarethattheimpartialspectatorwillfeelsomesympathywiththenatural,butunjust,resentmentofthepersonhehasaccidentallyinjured。
Butthenegligencedisplayedinanyactionmaybesogreatastocallnotmerelyforblameandcensure,butforactualpunishment。Forwemaysofarenterintotheresentmentfeltbyonemanonaccountofanunintendedinjurydonetohimbyanother,astoapproveofhisinflictingapunishmentontheoffenderwhichwouldhaveseemedinexcessofthedemeritofhisoffencehadnounluckyconsequencesensued。Forinstance,thoughnothingwouldappearmoreshockingtoournaturalsenseofequitythantoexecuteamanmerelyforhavingcarelesslythrownastoneintothestreetwithouthurtinganybody,yet,ifthestonehappenedtokillanybody,sogreatwouldbetheeffectofthisaccidentonourmoralsentimentsthat,thoughtheman\'sfollyandinhumanitywouldnotbegreaterinonecasethanintheother,weshouldnotconsidertheseverestpunishmenttoohardforhim。
Grossnegligenceis,therefore,inlawalmostthesameasmaliciousdesign。Lataculpapropedolumest。
Butourmoralsentimentsarcconsiderablyaffected,notonlybythefactoftheprosperityoradversityofthepersonwhoseconductwejudge,andbytheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentontheresultofhisintentions,buttheyarealsogreatlymodifiedbythosetwogreatprinciplesofCustomandFashion,whichhavecausedsowideadifferenceofopinionaboutwhatisblameableorpraiseworthytoprevailindifferentagesandnations。
Forthevirtuesofthesavagestatearedifferentfromthoseofthecivilizedstate,thevirtuesofoneprofessionaredifferentfromthoseofanother,andthoseagainwhichweadmireinyoutharedifferentfromthosewelookforinoldage。
Thisfactisduetotheinfluenceofcustom,oroffashion,whichisaspeciesofcustom,asthecustomofpersonsofhighrankorcharacter。
Forboththeseaffectourmoralsentiments,albeitinalessdegree,yetinexactlythesamewaythattheyaffectourideasandfeelingsaboutbeautyinallobjectssubmittedtoourobservation。
Theinfluenceofcustomonourideasofbeautyisverygreat。Forwhenevertwoobjectshavebeenseeninfrequentconjunctiontogether,theimaginationacquiresahabitofpassingeasilyfromtheonetotheother;andthus,fromthemerehabitofexpectingtoseeonewhenweseetheother,thoughthereshouldbenorealbeautyintheirunion,weareconsciousofanimproprietywhentheychancetobeseparated。Ifevenasuitofclothesiswithoutsomeinsignificantbutusualornament,suchasabutton,weareinsomemeasuredispleasedbyitsabsence。
Thefashionofthingschangeswitharapidityproportionedtothedurablenessoftheirmaterial。Themodesoffurniturechangelessrapidlythanthoseofdress,becausefurnitureisgenerallymoredurable;butinfiveorsixyearsitgenerallyundergoesacompleterevolution,andeverymanseesitsfashionchangeinmanydifferentwayseveninhisownlifetime。Buttheproductionsofsuchartsasmusic,poetry,orarchitecture,beingmuchmorelasting,thefashionorcustom,whichprevailsnolessoverthemthanoverwhateverelseistheobjectoftaste,maycontinueunchangedforamuchlongertime。Abuildingmayendureforages,abeautifulairmaybehandeddownthroughgenerations,apoemmaylastaslongastheworld,andthustheymayallsetthefashionoftheirparticularstyleortastemuchlongerthanthedesignofaparticularmodeofdressorfurniture。
Itisonlybecauseofthegreaterpermanenceoftheirfashion,whichpreventsourhavingmuchexperienceofanychangeinthem,thatmakesitlesseasyforustorecognizethattheruleswethinkoughttobeobservedineachofthefineartsarenomorefoundedonreasonandthenatureofthingsthantheyareinthematterofourfurnitureanddress。
Inarchitecture,forinstance,noreasoncanbeassignedbeyondhabitandcustomfortheproprietyofattachingtoeachofthefiveorderstheirpeculiarornaments。Theeye,havingbeenusedtoassociateacertainornamentationwithacertainorder,wouldbeoffendedatmissingtheirconjunction;butitisinconceivablethat,priortoestablishedcustom,fivehundredotherformsshouldnothavesuitedthoseproportionsequallywell。
Itisthesameinpoetry。Theancientsthoughtthatacertainspeciesofversewasbynatureappropriatedtoaparticularspeciesofwriting,accordingtothesentimentorcharacterintendedtobedescribed。Onekindofversewasfitforgraveandanotherforgaythemes,norcouldeitherbeinterchangedwithoutthegreatestimpropriety。YetthatwhichistheverseofburlesqueinEnglishistheheroicverseinFrench,simplybecause\"customhasmadetheonenationassociatetheideasofgravity,sublimity,andseriousnesswiththatmeasurewhichtheotherhasconnectedwithwhateverisgay,flippant,andludicrous。\"
Custominfluencesourjudgmentnolesswithregardtothebeautyofnaturalobjects;andtheproportionswhichweadmireinonekindofanimalarequitedifferentfromthoseweadmireinanother。Everyclassofthingshasabeautyofitsown,distinctfromthatofeveryotherspecies。
AdamSmithstopsshort,however,ofadoptingthetheory,soablyadvocatedinthelastcenturybytheJesuitBuffier,andfollowedbySirJoshuaReynolds,thatcustomisthesoleprincipleofbeauty,andthatthebeautyofeveryobjectconsistssimplyinthatformandcolourwhichismostmoralineveryparticularclassofthings。AccordingtoBuffier,ineachspeciesofcreatures,thatformwasmostbeautifulwhichborethestrongestcharacterofthegeneralfabricofitsspecies,andhadthestrongestresemblancetothegreaternumberoftheindividualswithwhichitwasclassed。Hencethemostcustomaryformwasthemostbeautiful,andmuchpracticewasneededtojudgeofthebeautyofdistinctspeciesofthings,ortoknowwhereinthemiddleormostusualformconsisted。Hence,too,differentideasofbeautyexistedindifferentcountries,wheredifferenceofclimateproduceddifferenceoftype。AdamSmithsofaragreeswiththisdoctrineastoacknowledgethatthereisscarcelyanyexternalformsobeautifulastoplease,ifquitecontrarytocustom,noranysodeformedasnottobeagreeable,ifuniformlysupportedbyit;buthealsoarguesthat,independentlyofcustom,wearepleasedbytheappearanceoftheutilityofanyformbyitsfitnessforthepurposesforwhichitwasintended。Certaincolours,moreover,aremoreagreeablethanothers,eventhefirsttimetheyarebeheldbyus;andthoughhedoesnotlaythesamestressonsmoothnessasBurkedid,whoheldthatnothingwasbeautifulthatwasnotsmooth,healsoadmitsthatasmoothsurfaceisnaturallymoreagreeablethanaroughone。
Theinfluenceofcustomandfashionuponourideasofbeautygenerallybeingsogreatashasbeenexplained,whatistheirinfluenceuponourideasofbeautyofconduct?Tothistheansweris,thattheirinfluenceisperfectlysimilarinkind,thoughnotsogreat,orratherlesspotent,overmoralsthanitisoveranythingelse。Althoughthereisnoformofexternalobjectstowhichcustomwillnotreconcileus,norfashionrenderagreeabletous,thecharactersortheconductofaNerooraClaudiusarewhatnocustomcanevermakeagreeable,orotherthantheobjectsofourhatredorderision;forthesentimentsofmoralapprobationanddisapprobationarefoundedonthestrongestpassionsofhumannature,and,thoughtheycanbewarpt,theycanneverbeperverted。
Justascustomdiminishesoursenseoftheimproprietyof\'thingswhichweareaccustomedtoseetogether,asinthecaseofabsurdityofdress,sofamiliarityfromyouthupwardswithviolence,falsehood,andinjusticetakesawayallsenseoftheenormityofsuchconduct;and,ontheotherhand,whencustomandfashioncoincidewiththeprinciplesofrightandwrong,theyenhanceourmoralideasandincreaseourabhorrenceforeverythingevil。\"Thosewhohavebeeneducatedinwhatisreallygoodcompanynotinwhatiscommonlycalledsuchwhohavebeenaccustomedtoseenothinginthepersonswhomtheyesteemedandlivedwithbutjustice,modesty,humanityandgoodorder,aremoreshockedwithwhateverseemstobeinconsistentwiththeruleswhichthosevirtuesprescribe。\"
Customaffordsanexplanationofthedifferentideasofgoodconductprevalentindifferentdegreesofcivilization。Foreveryageandcountrylookuponthatdegreeofeachqualitywhichismostusualinthoseamongthemselveswhoaremostesteemedasthegoldenmeanofthatparticulartalentorvirtue。Theirsentimentsconcerningthedegreeofeachqualitythatdeservespraiseorblamevaryaccordingtothedegreewhichismostcommonintheirowncountryandtimes;thus,thatdegreeofpolitenesswhichmightbethoughteffeminateadulationinRussiamightberegardedasbarbarousrudenessinFrance。
Ingeneral,thestyleofmannersprevalentinanynationisthatwhichismostsuitabletoitssituation。Thatwhichismostsuitablebeing,then,thatwhichisnaturallymostcom-mon,differentstandardsarisewithregardtothegeneralproprietyofbehaviour。Asavage,incontinualdanger,orexposedtofrequentwant,acquiresahardinessofcharacter,aninsensibilitytothesufferingsofhimselforothers,whichismostsuitabletothecircumstancesofhissituation,andwhichaffordsaverydifferentstandardofself-commandthanthatwhichiseitherusualornecessaryincivilizedlife。Thegeneralsecurityandhappinesswhichprevailinagesofculture,byaffordinglittleexercisetocontemptofdanger,ortotheenduranceofpainorhunger,enablethevirtueswhicharefoundedonhumanitytobemorecultivatedthanthosewhicharefoundedonself-denial;sothattocomplainwheninpain,togrieveindistress,tobeovercomebyloveoranger,arenotregardedasweaknesses,astheywouldbeinsavagelife,norasaffectingtheessentialpartsofaman\'scharacter。
Inthedifferentprofessionsandagesoflifethesameinfluenceofcustommaybetraced。Ineachrankandprofessionweexpectadegreeofthosemannerswhichexperiencehastaughtustolookforinthem。Asineachspeciesofnaturalobjectswearepleasedwiththeconformitytothegeneraltype,soineachspeciesofmenwearepleased,\"iftheyhaveneithertoomuchnortoolittleofthecharacterwhichusuallyaccompaniestheirparticularconditionandsituation。\"Ourapprobationofacertainkindofmilitarycharacterisfoundedentirelyonhabit;forwearetaughtbycustomtoannextothemilitaryprofession\"thecharacterofgaiety,levity,andsprightlyfreedom,aswellasofsomedegreeofdissipation。\"Whateverbehaviourwehavebeenaccustomedtoseeinanyorderofmen,comestobesoassociatedwiththatorder,thatwheneverweseetheoneweexpecttoseetheother,andarepleasedordisappointedaccordingasweseeitornot。Nevertheless,theremayexistaproprietyofprofessionalbehaviour,independentofthecustomwhichleadsustoexpectit;andwefeelthat,apartfromallcustom,thereisaproprietyinthegravityofmannerswhichcustomhasallottedtotheprofessionofaclergyman。