2。Where,however,apassiontakesitsoriginfromaparticularturnoftheimagination,theimaginationofothers,nothavingacquiredthatparticularturn,cannotsympathizewiththepassion,andsofindsitinsomemeasureridiculous。Thisisparticularlythecasewiththepassionoflove。Wemaysympathizewithourfriend\'sresentment,ifhehasbeeninjured,orenterintohisgratitude,ifhehasreceivedabenefit;butifheisinlove,howeverreasonablewemaythinkit,\"thepassionappearstoeverybody,butthemanwhofeelsit,entirelydisproportionedtothevalueoftheobject;andlove,thoughitispardonedinacertainage,becauseweknowitisnatural,isalwayslaughedatbecausewecannotenterintoit。Allseriousandstrongexpressionsofitappearridiculoustoathirdperson;andthoughalovermaybegoodcompanytohismistress,heissotonobodyelse。Hehimselfissensibleofthis;and,aslongashecontinuesinhissobersenses,endeavourstotreathisownpassionwithrailleryandridicule。Itistheonlystyleinwhichwecaretohearofit,becauseitistheonlystyleinwhichweourselvesaredisposedtotalkofit。\"
Ourphilosopherhoweveradmits,thatthoughwecannotproperlyenterintotheattachmentofthelover,wereadilysympathizewithhisexpectationsofhappiness。Thoughhispassioncannotinterestus,hissituationofmingledhopeandfearinterestsus,justasinthedescriptionofaseavoyageitisnotthehungerofthecrewwhichinterestsusbutthedistresswhichitoccasionsthem。Whenloveisinterestingonthestage,itissosimplyfromthedistressitoccasions。Asceneoftwolovers,inperfectsecurity,expressingtheirmutualfondnessforoneanother,wouldexcitelaughterandnotsympathy。Suchasceneisneverenduredbutfromconcernforthedangersanddifficultiesforeseeninthesequel,orfrominterestinthesecondarypassionsfear,shame,anddespairwhichareassociatedwithloveasasituation,andwithwhichalonewecanreallysympathize。
3。Inthethirdplacecometheunsocialpassions,suchashatredandresentment,withalltheirmodifications。Theyalsoarefoundedontheimagination,buthavetobeconsider-ablymodifiedbeforetheytouchthatpointofproprietywithwhichanimpartialspectatorcansympathize。
Forthesepassionsgiverisetoadoublesympathy,orratherdivideoursympathybetweenthepersonwhofeelsthemandthepersonwhoistheobjectofthem。Thoughwemaysympathizewithhimwhohasreceivedaprovocation,wealsosympathizewithhisadversary,ifhebecomestheobjectofundueresentment。Weenterintothesituationofboth,andthefearwefeelwiththeonemoderatestheresentmentwefeelwiththeother。Henceforresentmenttoattainthemeanofpropriety,itmustbemorereducedfromitsnaturaldegreethanalmostanyotherpassion;andthegreaterrestraintamanputsonhisanger,themorewillmankind,whohaveaverystrongsenseoftheinjuriesdonetoanother,enterintoandbearwithhisresentment。
Theseunsocialpassionsare,however,necessarypartsofhumannature,andasontheonehandwecannotsympathizewithexcessiveindignation,soontheotherhandweblameanddespiseaman\"whotamelysitsstillandsubmitstoinsults,\"fromourinabilitytocomprehendhisinsensibilityandwantofspirit。Thesepassionsarethereforeusefultotheindividual,asservingtoprotecthimfrominsultandinjury;butthereisstillsomethingdisagreeableinthemwhichmakestheirappearanceinothersthenaturalobjectofouraversion。Itissoevenwhentheyaremostjustlyprovoked。
Hencetheyaretheonlypassions,themereexpressionofwhichdoesnotcommandoursympathiestillweknowthecause。Thevoiceofmisery,orthesightofgladness,atoncecommunicatestouscorrespondingsentiments;
butthetonesofhatredorresentmentinspireusnaturallywithfearandaversion。Forthatreasonthemusic,whichimitatessuchpassions,isnotthemostagreeable,itsperiodsbeing,unlikethosewhichexpressjoyorgrieforlove,\"irregular,sometimesveryshort,sometimesverylong,anddistinguishedbynoregularpauses。\"
Forallthesereasonsitisverydifficulttoadjustresentmenttothepointofproprietydemandedbythesympathyofothers。Theprovocationmustbesuchthatweshouldincurcontemptfornotresentingit;andsmalleroffencesarebetterneglected。Weshouldresentmorefromasensethatmankindexpectitofusthanfromtheimpulseofthepassionitself。Thereisnopassionconcerningwhoseindulgenceweshouldmorecarefullyconsiderthesentimentsofthecoolandimpartialspectator。Magnanimity,oraregardtomaintainourownrankanddignity,canaloneennobleitsexpression;
andweshouldshowsfromourwholemanner,thatpassionhasnotextinguishedourhumanity,andthat,ifweyieldtorevenge,wedosowithreluctanceandfromnecessity。
4。Withregardtothesocialpassions,suchasgenerosity,humanity,kindness,compassion,orfriendship,thefactsarequitedifferent。Notonlyisthemereexpressionofthesesentimentsagreeable,buttheyaremadedoublyagreeablebyadivisionofthespectator\'ssympathiesbetweenthepersonwhofeelsthemandthepersonwhoistheobjectofthem。Weenterwithpleasureintothesatisfactionofboth,intotheagreeableemotionsofthemanwhoisgenerousorcompassionate,andintotheagreeableemotionsofthemanwhoreceivesthebenefitofhisgenerosityorcompassion。
Henceinthesepassionsthepointofproprietyliesnearertotheexcessthantothedefect,justasintheoppositepassionsitlaynearertothedefect。\"Thereissomethingagreeableevenintheweaknessoffriendshipandhumanity,\"andifweblamethetootendermother,thetooindulgentfather,orthetoogenerousfriend,itisalwayswithsympathyandkindness,andwithnofeelingofhatredoraversion。
5。Betweenthesocialandtheunsocialpassionstheselfishpassionsoccupyamiddleplace。Thesearejoyandgriefforourownpersonalgoodorbadfortune。Sincenooppositesympathycaneverinterestthespectatoragainstthem,theirexcessiveexpressionisneversodisagreeableasexcessiveresentment;andforthereasonthatnodoublesympathycaneverinterestusforthem,theyareneversoagreeableasproperhumanityandbenevolence。
Weare,AdamSmiththinks,naturallydisposedtosympathizemorewithourneighbours\'smalljoysthanwiththeirgreatones,andmorewiththeirgreatsorrowsthanwiththeirsmallones。Amanraisedsuddenlytoamuchhigherpositionmaybesurethatthecongratulationsofhisbestfriendsarenotperfectlysincere。Ifhehasanyjudgment,heissensibleofthis,and,insteadofappearingelated,endeavourstosmotherhisjoy,andkeepdownhiselevationofmind。Heaffectsthesameplainnessofdress,andthesamemodestyofbehaviour,whichbecamehimbefore,andredoubleshisattentionstohisformerfriends。Sohisconductmaymeetwithourapproval,for\"weexpect,itseems,thatheshouldhavemoresympathywithourenvyandaversiontohishappinessthanwehavewithhishappiness。\"
Withthesmallerjoysoflifeitisdifferent。Theabilityofthespectatorstosympathizewiththeseplacesthepointofproprietyintheirindulgencemuchhigher。Wereadilysympathizewithhabitualcheerfulness,whichspreadsitself\',asitwere,byinfection。Henceitishardlypossibletoexpresstoomuchsatisfactioninthelittleoccurrencesof\'commonlife,inthecompanyofyesterdayevening,intheentertainmentgenerally,inwhatwassaidordone,\"andinallthosefrivolousnothingswhichfillupthevoidofhumanlife。\"
Itisotherwisewithgrief,forwhilesmallvexationsexcitenosympathy,deepafflictioncallsforthegreatest。Amanwillmeetwithlittlesympathy,whoishurtifhiscookorbutlerhavefailedintheleastarticleoftheirduty;whoisvexedifhisbrotherhummedatuneallthetimehewastellingastory;whoisputoutofhumourbythebadnessoftheweatherwheninthecountry,bythebadnessoftheroadswhenuponajourney,orbywantofcompanyanddulnesswhenintown。Griefispainfultoourselvesortoothers,andweshouldendeavoureithernottoconceiveitatallabouttrifles,ortoshakeitoffifwedo。Thereisacertain\"maliceinmankindwhichnotonlypreventsallsympathywithlittleuneasinesses,butrenderstheminsomemeasurediverting。\"
Butthoughwealltakedelightinraillery,andinthesmallvexationswhichoccurtoourcompanions,oursympathywiththemincaseofdeepdistressisverystrongandverysincere。\"Ifyoulabourunderanysignalcalamity;
ifbysomeextraordinarymisfortuneyouarefallenintopoverty,intodiseases,intodisgraceanddisappointment……youmaygenerallydependuponthesincerestsympathyofallyourfriends,and,asfarasinterestandhonourwillpermit,upontheirkindestassistancetoo。Butifyourmisfortuneisnotofthisdreadfulkind,ifyouhaveonlybeenalittlebaulkedinyourambition,ifyouhaveonlybeenjiltedbyyourmistress,orareonlyhenpeckedbyyourwife,layyouraccountwiththerailleryofallyouracquaintance。\"
CHAPTERIV。THEFEELINGOFMERITANDDEMERIT。
Thesenseoftheproprietyorimproprietyofamoralactionorsentimentis,accordingtoAdamSmith,onlyonesideofthefactofmoralapprobation,asenseoftheirmeritordemeritconstitutingtheotherside。Anactionorsentimentisproperorimproperinrelationtoitscause,orthemotivewhichexcitesit,whilstitismeritoriousorthecontraryinrelationtoitseffect,orinaccordancewithitsbeneficialorhurtfultendency。
Itisimportanttonoticethisdistinction,foritisaprotest,asAdamSmithhimselfdeclares,againstthetheoriesofDr。HutchesonandHume,who,hecomplains,hadconsideredtoomuchthetendencyofaffections,theirgoodorbadresults,whilstneglectingtherelationinwhichtheystoodtotheircauses。Thiswastooverlookthefactsofcommonlife,sinceaperson\'sconductandsentimentsaregenerallyregardedunderboththeseaspects,amanreceivingblameforexcessoflove,orgrief,orresentment,notonlybyreasonoftheruinouseffectstheytendtoproduce,butalsoonaccountofthelittleoccasionthatwasgivenforthem。Itisthewantofproportionbetweenapassionanditscause,aswellasthesenseofitsdisastrouseffects,whichmakeupthewholecharacterofmoraldisapprobation。
Whilstpraiseorblameareattachedtothefirstaspectofanactionorsentiment,astrongerfeelingofsympathyorantipathyattachesitselftoeitherinconnexionwiththeireffects,afeelingthattheydeserverewardorpunishment,afeelinginotherwordsoftheirmeritordemerit。
Asgratitudeisthefeelingwhichmostdirectlypromptsustorewardanotherman,andresentmentthatwhichmostdirectlypromptsustopunishhim,anactionwillcallforrewardorpunishmentaccordingasitistheobjectofeitherofthesefeelings。Themeasure,therefore,ofthemeritordemeritofanyactionwillbethefeelingofgratitudeorresentmentitexcites。
Buthereagaintheprincipleofsympathymustcomeintoplay,todecideontherightfulnessofthegratitudeorresentment。Anactioncanonlyseemmeritoriousorthecontrary,asdeservingofrewardorpunishment,ifitistheproperandrightobjectofgratitudeorresentment;andonlythatgratitudeorresentmentcanbeproperwhichcommandsthesympathyoftheimpartialspectator。Thatman\'sactiondeservesrewardasmeritoriouswhotosomebodyistheobjectofagratitudewhicheveryhumanheartisdisposedtobeattimeto,whilsthisactionseemstodeservepunishmentasbadwhotosomebodyistheobjectofaresentmentwhicheveryreasonablemancansympathizewithandadopt。Accordingaseverybodywhohearsofanyactionwouldwishtoseeitrewardedorpunishedmayitfairlybeaccountedmeritoriousorthereverse。
Inregarding,then,thebeneficialorhurtfultendencyofactions,oursenseoftheirmeritordemerit,duetosympathywiththegratitudeortheresentmenttheyrespectivelyexcitesappearstoariseinthefollowingway。
Sympathizingaswedowiththejoyofothersinprosperity,wealsojointheminthesatisfactionwithwhichtheyregardthecauseoftheirgoodfortune。Ifthecausehasbeenaman,thisismoreespeciallythecase。Weregardhiminthesameengaginglightinwhichweimaginehemustappeartotheobjectofhisbounty,whilstoursympathywiththejoyofthelatterinspiresusalsowithareflectionofthesamegratitudehefeels。
Inthesamemannerwesympathizenotonlywiththedistressorsorrowofanother,butwiththeaversionhefeelstowardsthecauseofit。Whenweseeonemanoppressedorinjuredbyanother,oursympathywiththesuffereronlyanimatesourfellow-feelingwithhisresentmentagainsthisoppressor。
Soweevenenterintotheimaginaryresentmentoftheslain,andbyanillusivesympathywiththatresentmentwhichweknowhewouldfeel,werehealive,exactvengeancefromthecriminalwhomurderedhim。
Butalthoughoursympathywiththebeneficialresultsofanactmaythusleadustojoininthegratitudeitoccasions,andsotoregarditasmeritoriousordeservingofreward,thisisonly,ashasbeensaid,onesideoraspectofcompletemoralapprobation。Toconstitutethelatter,asenseoftheproprietyofanactionmustbejoinedtoasenseofitsmerit。;andanactionisonlythenreallygoodwhenwecansympathizewiththemotivesoftheagentaswellaswiththegratitudehisconductproduces。
Whereverwecannotenterintotheaffectionsoftheagent,whereverwecannotrecognizeanyproprietyinthemotiveswhichinfluencedhim,wefailtosympathizewiththegratitudeofthepersonhehasbefriended。
Where,forinstance,thegreatestbenefitshavebeenconferredfromthemosttrivialmotives,aswhereamangivesanestatetoanothersimplybecausehisnameorhissurnamehappentobethesameashisown,littlegratitudeseemsdue;andcon-sequentlytheaction,thoughbeneficialinitstendency,sinceitfailstocommandourcompletesympathy,failstocommandourcompleteapprobation。
Soontheotherhand,howeverhurtfulintheirtendencyaman\'sactionsorintentionsmaybe,ifwesympathizewithhismotives,thatis,ifwelookuponhimasintheright,wecanfeelnosympathywiththeresentmentofthepersoninjuriouslyaffectedbyhim。Ifhesuffersnomorethanourownsympatheticindignationwouldhavepromptedustoinflictuponhim,wehavenofellow-feelingwithhissuffering,andconsequentlynosenseofthedemeritoftheactionheregardswithresentment。Itwouldbeimpossible,forinstance,tosympathizewiththeresentmentexpressedbyamurdereragainsthisjudge。Sothattoconstitutethesentimentofcompletemoraldisapprobation,theremustbeimproprietyofmotiveonthepartoftheagentaswellasahurtfulresulttosomeoneelse;or,inotherwords,foranactiontobepronouncedbyoursympatheticimaginationcompletelybad,itmustbebothimproperinitsmotiveandinjuriousinitsresult。
Itisnotenoughforittobesimplyinjurious。
Itresultsthereforefromthisanalysis,thatacompletesenseofthemeritofanaction,orthefeelingofperfectmoralapprobation,isreally\"acompoundedsentiment,\"madeupoftwodistinctsympatheticemotions,namely,ofadirectsympathywiththesentimentsoftheagent,andanindirectsympathywiththegratitudeofthosewhoreceivethebenefitofhisactions。
TakeoursenseofthegooddesertofaparticularcharacterinhistoryScipio,Timoleon,orAristides。Inimaginationwebecomethoseverypersons,and,byadirectsympathywiththem,enterintotheirdesigns,andfeelthesamegeneroussentimentsthattheyfelt。Butwealsobyanindirectsympathyfeelthebenefitoftheirgreatactions,andenterintothegratitudeofthosewhoexperiencedthem。Thesympatheticemotionsofgratitudeandlove,whichwethusfeelwhenwebringhometoourownbreastthesituationofthoseoriginallyconcerned,accountforourwholesenseofthemeritofsuchactions,andforourdesireoftheirmeetingwithafittingrecompence。
Inthesamewayacompletesenseofthedemeritofanactionisacompoundedsentimentmadeupoftwodistinctemotions;ofadirectantipathytothesentimentsoftheagent,andanindirectsympathywiththeresentmentofthesufferer。WefeeladirectantipathytothedetestablesentimentswhichactuatedaBorgiaoraNero,whilewesympathizeindirectlywiththeresentmentofthosetheyafflicted。Oursenseoftheatrocityoftheirconduct,andourdelightinhearingofitspunishmentinshort,ourwholefeelingofilldesert,andofthejusticeofinflictingevilonthepersonwhoisguiltyofit,andofmakinghimgrieveinhisturnarisesfromthesympatheticindignationwhichboilsupinourbreastwheneverwethoroughlybringhometoourselvesthecaseofthesufferer。
Norisitanydegradationofoursenseofthedemeritofactionstoascribeittooursympathywiththeresentmentofanother。Resentmentisineveryrespectthecounterpartofgratitude,andifoursenseofmeritarisesfromoursympathywiththeone,oursenseofdemeritmaywellarisefromoursympathywiththeother。Resentment,too,asaprincipleofhumannature,isonlyevilwhenitappearsinexcessasrevenge;andasitisexcessiveahundredtimesforoncethatitismoderate,weareapttoconsideritaltogetherdetestable,becauseinitsordinarymanifestationitisso。
Butitisnotdisapprovedofwhenproperlyhumbled,andentirelybroughtdowntothelevelofthesympatheticindignationofthespectator。Whenweasbystandersentertainananimositycorrespondingtothatofthesufferer,whenhisresentmentinnorespectexceedsourown,whennowordnorgestureescapeshimthatdenotesanemotionmoreviolentthanwecanshare,andwhenheneveraimsatinflictingapunishmentsevererthanthatweshouldrejoicetoseeinflictedorwouldinflictourselves,itisimpossiblethatweshouldnotentirelyapproveofhissentiments。
ItappearstheninAdamSmith\'stheory,thattheelementofmoralityinactionsonlyreallyarisesfromreferencetotheirtendency。Thesentimentoraffectionoftheheartfromwhichallactionresultsmayinrelationtoitscauseormotiveberegardedasunsuitableordisproportionate,accordingasitexceedsorfallsshortofthatmeanpointwithwhichthegeneralobservercansympathize。Itmaybethusapprovedordisapprovedasproperorimproper,butitisnotapplaudedorcondemnedasmoralorimmoral。
Anangerwhichisoutofproportiontothecauseofitsprovocation,astateofjoyorsorrowoutofkeepingwiththeirorigin,agenerosityorbenevolencethatseemexcessive,areblamednotasimmoral,butasoutofharmonywiththefeelingsofaspectator。Sowithreferencetothebodilypassions,itistheofficeoftemperancetoconfinethemwithinthoselimits\"whichgrace,whichpropriety,whichdelicacy,andmodestyrequire,\"notwithinthosewhichmoralityrequire。Itisonlywhenregardispaidtotheeffectswhichflowfromdifferentactions,thatastrongerfeelingappears,afeelingnotmerelyofproprietyorim-propriety,butoftheirmeritordemerit,orinotherwords,oftheirmoralworthorthecontrary。
Itisonlyactionsofabeneficenttendency,whichproceedfrompropermotives,thatarethusmeritorious,forsuchactionsaloneseemtodeserveareward,fromthegratitudetheycommandfromaspectatorthroughsympathy。Anditisonlyactionsofahurtfultendency,whichproceedfromimpropermotives,thatseemreallywicked,fortheyaloneseemtodeserveapunishment,fromtheresentmenttheyinspireaspectatorwithbysympathy。
AdamSmithillustrateshistheorythatthewrongfulnessordemeritofactionsdependsonoursenseoftheirdeservingtobepunishedbythetwovirtuesofbeneficenceandjustice。Themerewantofbeneficence,theneglecttodothegoodexpectedofone,maygiverisetofeelingsofdislikeanddis-approbation,butasitdoesnorealpositiveevil,itprovokesnofeelingofsympatheticresentment。Takeacaseoftheblackestingratitude,whereamanfailstorecompensehisbenefactor,whenthelatterstandsingreatneedofhisassistance。Everyimpartialspectatorrejectsallfellow-feelingwiththeselfishnessofhismotives,andheistheproperobjectofthehighestdisapprobation。Stillsincehedoesnopositivehurt,butonlyneglectstodothegoodhemight,heistheobjectofhatred,notofresentment,twopassionswhichdifferinthisrespect,thatwhilsttheformeriscalledforthbyimproprietyofsentimentandbehaviour,thelatterisonlyprovokedbyactionswhichtendtodorealandpositivehurttosomeparticularpersons。Ingratitudethereforecannotbepunished。
Itisimproper,andmeetswiththedisapprobationofthespectator,butitisnotwrongorimmoral,in。thesenseinwhichitwouldbe,ifitwentastepfurther,andraisedafeelingofresentmentbyactualhurtfulnessoftendencyagainstsomebody。
Theproperdegreeofbeneficence,moreover,asthatwhichordinaryexperienceleadsustoexpect,andalsomakesthemeasureofourpraiseorblame,isinitselfneitherpraiseworthynorblameable。Asitisonlythedefectofordinarybeneficencewhichincursourblame,soitisonlytheexcessofitwhichdeservesourpraise。Afather,orson,orbrother,whobehavestothecorrespondentrelationneitherbetternorworsethantheaverageofmankinddo,seemstodeserveneitherpraisenorblame。Hisconduct,thoughitmayattainthatpointatwhichwerecognizeitsproprietyandsocommandourapprobation,commandsnothingmore。Itisonlywhenwearesurprisedbyunexpected,thoughproperkindness,orbyunexpectedandimproperunkindness,thatitattainsthepointofbeingpraiseworthyorthereverse。
Beneficence,whenitthusattainsahighdegree,whenitbecomesproductiveofthegreatestgood,atoncebecomestheobjectoftheliveliestgratitude,appearstobedeservingofthehighestreward,andconsequentlyappearsasmeritoriousandpraiseworthy。
Thevirtueofjusticediffersfromthatofbeneficenceinthattheviolationofit,bydoingrealandpositivehurttosomeparticularpersons,frommotivesthataredisapprovedof,isthenaturalobjectofresentment,andcallsinconsequenceforpunishment。Resentmentwasgiventous\"bynaturefordefence,andfordefenceonly。Itisthesafeguardofjusticeandthesecurityofinnocence。Itpromptsustobeatoffthemischiefwhichisattemptedtobedonetous,andtoretaliatethatwhichisalreadydone,thattheoffendermaybemadetorepentofhisinjustice,andthatothers,throughfearofthelikepunishment,maybeterrifiedfrombeingguiltyofthelikeoffence。\"Asmankindgenerallyapproveoftheviolenceemployedtoavengethehurtwhichis,donebyinjustice,sotheymuchmoreapproveofthatwhichisemployedtopre-ventandbeatofftheinjury,andtorestraintheoffenderfromhurtinghisneighbour。Eventhepersonguiltyofintendinginjusticefeelsthatforcemaybeusedagainsthim,bothbythepersonheisabouttoinjure,orbyothers,eithertoobstructtheexecutionofhiscrime,ortopunishhimwhenhehasexecutedit。
Thisfactaccountsforthegreatdistinctionbetweenjusticeandalltheothersocialvirtues,thatwefeelahigherobligationtoactaccordingtojusticethanaccordingtofriendship,charity,orgenerosity;andthat,whilethepracticeofthelattervirtuesseemstobeleftinsomemeasuretoourownchoice,wefeelourselvestobe\"inapeculiarmannertied,bound,andobligedtotheobservationofjustice。\"Forwefeelthatforcemay,withtheutmostpropriety,andwiththeapprobationofmankind,bemadeuseoftocompelustoobservetherulesoftheone,butnottofollowthepreceptsoftheothers。
Itisthisfeeling,then,ofthelegitimateuseofforceandpunishmentwhichmakesusviewwithsomuchstrongerasenseofdisapprobationactionswhichareunjustthatis,injurioustoothersthanactionswhicharemerelybreachesofthatproprietywhichweliketoseeobservedinthevariousrelationshipsthatconnectmentogether。Afatherwhofailsintheordinarydegreeofparentalaffectiontoason,orasonwhoiswantinginfilialrespectforhisfather,oramanwhoshutsuphisheartagainstcompassion,incur,indeed,blame;butnotthatsuperiordegreeofblamewhichrelatestoactionsofapositivelyhurtfultendency。
Butthoughthissuperiorformofdisapprobationattachesitselftoactsofinjustice,justasasuperiorformofapprobationattachesitselftoactnsofgreatbeneficence,thereisnomoremeritintheobservanceofjusticethanthereisdemeritintheneglectofbeneficence。\"Thereis,nodoubt,aproprietyinthepracticeofjustice,anditmeritsuponthataccountalltheapprobationwhichisduetopropriety。Butasitdoesnorealpositivegood,itisentitledtoverylittlegratitude。Merejusticeis,uponmostoccasions,butanegativevirtue,andonlyhindersusfromhurtingourneighbour。Themanwhobarelyabstainsfromviolatingeitherthepersonortheestateorthereputationofhisneighbours,hassurelyverylittlepositivemerit……Wemayoftenfulfilalltherulesofjusticebysittingstillanddoingnothing。\"Asbeforeexplained,thesenseofthemeritofanactionisdifferentfromthesenseofitspropriety,andunlessanactionhasboththesecharacteristics,itdoesnotreallysatisfytheconditionsofmorality。
Inproportion,therefore,totheresentmentnaturallyfeltbyasuffererfrominjusticeisthesympatheticindignationofthespectator,andthesenseofguiltintheagent。Buttheresentmentitself,beingproportionedtotheevildonebyanact,thedemeritofanactmaybemeasuredbytheevilitcauses。Deathbeingthegreatestevilonemancandotoanother,andconsequentlyincurringthehighestindignationfromthoseconnectedwiththeslainman,takesrankastheworstofallcrimes。Injuriestoaman\'spropertyandpossessionsbeinglesshurtfultohimthananinjurytohislifeorperson,theftandrobberyranknexttomurderinatrocity。
Andasitisasmallereviltobedisappointedofwhatwehaveonlyinexpectationthantobedeprivedofwhatwehaveinpossession,breachofcontractisalessheinouscrimethanonewhichattacksaman\'sactualproperty。
CHAPTERV。INFLUENCEOFPROSPERITYORADVERSITY,CHANCE,AND