Inthesamewaydifferentmannersareassignedtothedifferentperiodswhichmarkhumanlife。Inyouthwelookforthatsensibility,gaiety,andvivacitywhichexperienceteachesustoexpectatthatage;andattheextremeoflife,acertaingravityandsedatenessisthecharacterwhichcustomteachesusisbothmostnaturalandmostrespectable。
Butneverthelessitisnecessarynottoexaggeratetheeffectsofcustomandfashiononourmoralsentiments;foritismoreconcerningtheproprietyorimproprietyofparticularusagesthanaboutthingsofthegreatestimportancethattheirin-fluenceismostapttocauseperversionofjudgment。\"Weexpecttruthandjusticefromanoldmanaswellasfromayoung,fromaclergymanaswellasfromanofficer;anditisinmattersofsmallmomentonlythatwelookforthedistinguishingmarksoftheirrespectivecharacters。\"
Nosocietycouldsubsistamomentifcustomcouldexercisesuchperversionoverourmoralsentiments,withregardtothegeneralstyleofconductandbehaviour,asitexerciseswithregardtotheproprietyofparticularusages。UninterruptedcustompreventedthephilosophersofAthensrecognizingtheevilofinfanticide;andtosaythatathingiscommonlydoneisdailyofferedasanapologyforwhatinitselfisthemostunjustandunreasonableconduct。
CHAPTERVI。THEORYOFCONSCIENCEANDDUTY。
ThetheoryofHutcheson,thatthereexistsinmankindaninwardmoralsenseconcernedwiththedirectperceptionofmoralqualitiesinactionsjustasthesenseofhearingorseeingisconcernedwiththedirectperceptionofsoundsorobjects,orthetheoryofShaftesburythatwhatwecallconscienceisaprimaryprincipleofhumannatureirresolubleintootherfacts,isverydifferentfromthetheoryofAdamSmith,whorefersourmoralperceptivitytotheworkingsoftheinstinctofsympathy。
Havingaccountedforourmoraljudgmentsoftheactionsofothersbybringingthemtothetestofourpowertosympathizewiththem,heproceedstoexplainourmoraljudgmentsconcerningourownactsbyasortofreflexapplicationofthesameprincipleofsympathy。Oursenseofduty,ourfeelingofconscience,arisessimplyfromtheapplicationtoourownconductofthejudgmentswehavelearnedtopassuponothers。Sothattherereallyexistsnomoralfacultywhichisnotoriginallyborrowedfromwithout。
Inthesamemannerasweapproveordisapproveofanotherman\'sconduct,accordingaswefeelthat,whenwebringhiscasehometoourselves,wecansympathizeornotwithhismotives;soweapproveordisapproveofourownconductaccordingaswefeelthat,bymakingourcaseinimaginationanotherman\'s,hecansympathizeornotwithourmotives。Theonlywaybywhichwecanformanyjudgmentaboutourownsentimentsandmotivesisbyremovingourselvesfromourownnaturalstation,andbyviewingthematacertaindistancefromus;aproceedingonlypossiblebyendeavouringtoviewthemwiththeeyesofotherpeople,orastheyarelikelytoviewthem。Allourjudgment,therefore,concerningourselvesmustbearsomesecretreferenceeithertowhatareortowhatwethinkoughttobethejudgmentofothers。Weimagineourselvestheimpartialspectatorofourownconduct,andaccordingaswe,fromthatsituation,enterornotintothemotiveswhichinfluencedus,doweapproveorcondemnourselves。
Wedonotthereforestartwithamoralconsciousnessbywhichwelearntojudgeofothers,butfromourjudgmentsaboutotherswecometohaveamoralconsciousnessofour-selves。Ourfirstmoralcriticismsareexerciseduponthecharactersandconductofotherpeople,andbyobservingthatthesecommandeitherourpraiseorblame,andthatweour-selvesaffecttheminthesameway,webecomeanxiousinturntoreceivetheirpraiseandtoavoidtheircensure。Soweimaginewhateffectourownconductwouldhaveuponus,wereweourownimpartialspectators,suchamethodbeingtheonlylooking-glassbywhichwecanscrutinize,withtheeyesofotherpeople,theproprietyofourownconduct。
Accordinglyoursenseofpersonalmoralityisexactlyanalogoustooursenseofpersonalbeauty。Ourfirstideasofbeautyanduglinessarederivedfromtheappearanceofothers,notfromourown。Butasweareawarethatotherpeopleexerciseuponusthesamecriticismweexerciseuponthem,webecomedesiroustoknowhowfarourfiguredeservestheirblameorapprobation。
Soweendeavourbythehelpofalooking-glasstoviewourselvesatthedistanceandwiththeeyesofotherpeople,andarepleasedordispleasedwiththeresult,accordingaswefeeltheywillbeaffectedbyourappearance。
Butitisevidentthatweareonlyanxiousaboutourownbeautyoruglinessonaccountofitseffectuponothers;andthat,badwenoconnexionwithsociety,weshouldbealtogetherindifferentabouteither。Soitiswithmorality。Ifahumancreaturecouldgrowuptomanhoodinsomesolitaryplace,withoutanycommunicationwithhisownkind,\"hecouldnomorethinkofhisowncharacter,oftheproprietyordemeritofhisownsentiments,ofthebeautyordeformityofhisownmind,thanofthebeautyordeformityofhisownface。\"Societyisthemirrorbywhichheisenabledtoseeallthesequalitiesinhimself。Inthecountenanceandbehaviourofthoseheliveswith,whichalwaysmarkwhentheyenterintoordisapproveofhissentiments,hefirstviewstheproprietyorimproprietyofhisownpassions,andthebeautyordepravityofhisownmind。
Theconsciousnessofmerit,thefeelingofself-approbation,admitsthereforeofeasyexplanation。Virtueisamiableandmeritorious,byreferencetothesentimentsofothermen,byreasonofitsexcitingcertainsentimentsinthem;andtheconsciousnessthatitistheobjectoftheirfavourableregardsisthesourceofthatinwardtranquillityandself-satisfactionwhichattendsit,justasthesenseofincurringoppositesentimentsisthesourceofthetormentsofvice。Ifwehavedoneagenerousactionfrompropermotives,andsurveyitinthelightinwhichtheindifferentspectatorwillsurveyit,weapplaudourselvesbysympathywiththeapprobationofthissupposedimpartialjudge,whilst,byareflexsympathywiththegratitudepaidtoourselves,weareconsciousofhavingbehavedmeritoriously,ofhavingmadeourselvesworthyofthemostfavourableregardsofourfellow-men。
Remorse,ontheotherhand,arisesfromtheoppositesentiments;andshameisduetothereflectionofthesentimentsourconductwillraiseinothermen。Weagainregardour-selvesfromtheirpointofview,andsobysympathizingwiththehatredwhichtheymustentertainforourconduct,webecometheobjectofourownblameandhatred。Weenterintotheresentmentnaturallyexcitedbyourownacts,andanticipatewithfearthepunishmentbywhichsuchresentmentmayexpressitself。Thisremorseis,ofallthesentimentswhichcanenterthehumanbreast,themostdreadful;\"itismadeupofshamefromthesenseoftheimproprietyofpastconduct;ofgrieffortheeffectsofit;ofpityforthosewhosufferbyit;andofthedreadandterrorofpunishmentfromtheconsciousnessofthejustlyprovokedresentmentofallrationalcreatures。\"
Inthisconsciousnessoftheaccordanceordiscordanceofourconductwiththefeelingsofothersconsiststhenallthepleasureofagoodconscienceorofself-approbation,orallthepainofremorseorself-condemnation。
Theoneisbasedonourloveofpraise,whichthecomparisonofourownconductwiththatofothersnaturallyevolvesinus,andtheotheronouraversiontoblame,whicharisesinthesameway。
Butifagoodorbadconscienceconsistedsimplyinknowingourselvestobetheobjectsofpraiseorblame,wemightapproveorcondemnourselvesirrespectiveofthecorrespondenceofexternalopinionwithourrealmeritordemerit。Itisnot,therefore,merepraiseorblamethatwedesireordread,butpraise-worthinessorblame-worthiness;thatistosay,tothethatthing,which,thoughitshouldbepraisedorblamedbynobody,istheproperobjectofthosementalstates。Wedesirethepraisenotmerelyofthespectator,butoftheimpartialandwell-informedspectator。
AdamSmithdevotesconsiderableargumenttotheoriginandexplanationofthisprincipleofourmoralnature,seekinginthiswaytoraisetheaccounthegivesofconsciencetoahigherlevelthanitcouldattainasamerereflexfromthesympathiesofothersaboutourselves。Asfromtheloveoradmirationweentertainforthecharactersofothers,wecometodesiretohavesimilarsentimentsentertainedaboutourselves,weshouldhavenomoresatisfactionfromaloveoradmirationbestowedonusundeservedlythanawomanwhopaintsherfacewouldderiveanyvanityfromcomplimentspaidtohercomplexion。Praisesbestowedonuseitherforactionswehavenotperformedorformotiveswhichhavenotinfluencedus,arepraisesbestowedinrealityonanotherperson,notonourselves,andconsequentlygiveusnosortofsatisfaction。
Butforthesamereasonthatgroundlesspraisecangiveusnosolidjoy,themereabsenceofpraisedeductsnothingfromthepleasureofpraise-worthiness。
Thoughnoapprobationshouldeverreachus,wearepleasedtohaverenderedourselvestheproperobjectsofapprobation;andinthesamewaywearemortifiedatjustlyincurringblame,thoughnoblameshouldeveractuallybeattachedtous。Weviewourconductnotalwaysasthespectatoractuallydoesviewit,butashewouldviewitifheknewallthecircumstances。
Wefeelself-approbationorthereverse,bysympathywithsentimentswhichdonotindeedactuallytakeplace,butwhichonlytheignoranceofthepublicpreventsfromtakingplace,whichweknowarethenaturaleffectsofourconduct,whichourimaginationstronglyconnectswithit,andwhichweconceivethereforeasproperlybelongingtoit。Thesatisfactionwefeelwiththeapprobationwhichweshouldreceiveandenjoy,wereeverythingknown,resemblesverymuchthesatisfactionwhichmenfeelwhosacrificetheirlivestoanticipateinimaginationthepraisethatwillonlybebestowedonthemwhendead,thepraisewhichtheywouldreceiveandenjoy,weretheythemselvestolivetobeconsciousofit。
Henceself-approbation,thoughoriginallyfoundedontheimaginaryapprobationofothermen,becomesatlastindependentofsuchconfirmation,andthesenseoftheperfectproprietyofourownconductcomestoneednoexternaltestimonytoassureusofit。Buttheloveofself-approbation,whichisinfactthesameastheloveofvirtue,isstillfoundedonanimpliedreferencetotheverdictofpersonsexternaltoourselves,andthusthe\"stillsmallvoice\"ofconscienceresolvesitselfintotheacclamationsofmankind。
AdamSmith,inaccordancewithaleadingprincipleofhissystem,theimportanceofwhichwillbenoticedinasubsequentchapter,tracesinthisdesireonourpartforpraise-worthinessasapartfromourdesireofpraise,anintentionofNatureforthegoodofsociety。Forthoughinformingmanforsociety,sheendowedhimwithanoriginaldesiretopleaseandanoriginalaversiontooffendhisfellows,and,bymakinghimtofeelpleasureintheirfavourable,andpainintheirunfavourableregards,taughthimtolovetheirapprobation,andtodisliketheirdisapproval,sheyetsawthatthismereloveoftheone,ordislikeoftheother,wouldnotalonehaverenderedhimfitforsociety。Sincethemeredesireforapprobationcouldonlyhavemadehimwishtoappeartobefitforsociety,couldonlyhavepromptedhimtotheaffectationofvirtue,andtotheconcealmentofvice;sheendowedhimnotonlywiththedesireofbeingapprovedof,butwiththedesireofbeingwhatoughttobeapprovedof,orofbeingwhathehimselfapprovesofinothermen。Soshemadehimanxioustobereallyfitforsociety,andsoshesoughttoinspirehimwiththerealloveofvirtueandarealabhorrenceofvice。
Inthesamewaythatwearethustaughttowishtobetheobjectsofloveandadmirationarewetaughttowishnottobetheobjectsofhatredandcontempt。Wedreadblame-worthiness,orbeingreallyblameworthy,irrespectiveofallactualblamethatmayaccruetous。Themostperfectassurancethatnoeyehasseenouraction,doesnotpreventusfromviewingitastheimpartialspectatorwouldhaveregardedit,couldhehavebeenpresent。Wefeeltheshameweshouldbeexposedtoifouractionsbecamegenerallyknown;andourimaginationanticipatesthecontemptandderisionfromwhichweareonlysavedbytheignoranceofourfellows。Butifwehavecommittednotmerelyanimpropriety,whichisanobjectofsimpledisapprobation,butaheinouscrime,whichexcitesstrongresentment,then,thoughwemightbeassuredthatnomanwouldeverknowit,andthoughwemightbelievethattherewasnoGodwhowouldeverpunishit,weshouldstillfeelenoughagonyandremorse,asthenaturalobjectsofhumanhatredandpunishment,tohavethewholeofourlivesembittered。Sogreat,indeed,arethesepangsofconscience,thatevenmenoftheworstcharacters,whointheircrimeshaveavoidedeventhesuspicionofguilt,havebeendriven,bydisclosingwhatcouldneverhavebeendetected,toreconcilethemselvestothenaturalsentimentsofmankind。Socompletely,eveninper-sonsofnosensibility,doesthehorrorofblame-worthinessexceedthedreadofactualblame。
Thefact,AdamSmiththinks,callsforexplanation,thatwhilemostmenofordinarycapacitydespiseunmeritedpraise,evenmenofthesoundestjudgmentaremortifiedbyun-meritedreproach。For,howeverconsciousamanmaybeofhisowninnocence,theimputationseemsoften,eveninhisownimagination,tothrowashadowofdisgraceoverhischaracter,andifheisbroughttosuffertheextremepunishmentofhumanresentment,religionalonecanaffordhimanyeffectualcomfort,byteachinghimofanapprobation,higherandmoreimportantthanthatofhumanity。Why,then,isunjustcensuresomuchlessindifferentthanunmeritedpraise?Theansweris,thatthepainoftheoneissomuchmorepungentthanthepleasureoftheother。Amanofsensibilityismorehumiliatedbyjustcensurethanheiselevatedbyjustapplause。Anditismucheasiertoridoneselfbydenial,oftheslightpleasureofunmeritedpraise,thanofthepainofunjustreproach。Thoughnobodydoubtsanyone\'sveracitywhenhedisclaimssomemeritascribedtohim,itisatoncedoubtedifhedeniessomecrimewhichrumourlaystohischarge。
Whenweareperfectlysatisfiedwitheverypartofourownconduct,thejudgmentofothersisoflessimportancetousthanwhenweareinanydoubtoftheproprietyofouractions;andtheopinionofothers,theirapprobationorthecontrary,isamostseriousmattertous,whenweareuneasyastothejusticeofourresentmentortheproprietyofanyotherpassion。And,asarule,theagreementordisagreementofthejudgmentsofotherpeoplewithourownvariesinimportanceforusexactlyinproportiontotheuncertaintywefeeloftheproprietyoraccuracyofourownsentimentsorjudgments。Henceitisthatpoetsandauthorsaresomuchmoreanxiousaboutpublicopinionthanmathematiciansormenofscience。Thediscoveriesofthelatter,admittingbynatureofnearlyperfectproof,rendertheopinionofthepublicamatterofindifference;butinthefinearts,whereexcellencecanonlybedeterminedbyacertainnicetyoftaste,andthedecisionismoreuncertain,thefavourablejudgmentsoffriendsandthepublicareasdelightfulastheirunfavourablejudgmentsaremortifying。
Thesensibilityofpoetsespeciallyisduetothiscause;andwemayinstancethesensibilityofRacine,whousedtotellhissonthatthemostpaltrycriticismshadalwaysgivenhimmorepainthanthehighesteulogyhadevergivenhimpleasure:orthatofGray,whowassomuchhurtbyafoolishparodyoftwoofhisfinestodes,thatheneverafterwardsattemptedanythingconsiderable。
Itmayhappenthatthetwoprinciplesofdesiringpraiseanddesiringpraiseworthinessareblendedtogether,anditmustoftenremainunknowntoamanhimself,andalwaystootherpeople,howfarhedidapraiseworthyactionforitsownsake,orfortheloveofpraise;howfarhedesiredtodeserve,oronlytoobtain,theapprobationofothers。Thereareveryfewmenwhoaresatisfiedwiththeirownconsciousnessofhavingattainedthosequalities,orperformedthoseactions,whichtheythinkpraiseworthyinothers,andwhodonotwishtheirconsciousnessofpraiseworthinesstobecorroboratedbytheactualpraiseofothermen。Somemencaremorefortheactualpraise,othersfortherealpraiseworthiness。Itisthereforeneedlesstoagreewiththose\"spleneticphilosophers\"Mandevilleisintended
whoimputetotheloveofpraise,orwhattheycallvanity,everyactionwhichmaybeascribedtoadesireofpraiseworthiness。
Fromthisdistinctionbetweenourdesireforpraiseandourdesireforpraiseworthiness,AdamSmitharrivesattheresult,thatthereare,sotospeak,twodistincttribunalsofmorality。Theapprobationordisapprobationofmankindisthefirstsourceofpersonalself-approbationorthecontrary。
Butthoughmanhasbeenthusconstitutedtheimmediatejudgeofmankind,hehasbeenmadesoonlyinthefirstinstance:\"andanappealliesfromhissentencetoamuchhighertribunal,tothetribunaloftheirownconsciences,tothatofthesupposedimpartialandwell-informedspectator,tothatofthemanwithinthebreast,thegreatjudgeandarbiteroftheirconduct。\"
Twosortsofapprobationarethussupposed,thatoftheordinaryspectator,andthatofthewell-informedone;or,asitmaybeotherwiseput,ofthemanwithoutandthemanwithinthebreast。Whilstthejurisdictionoftheformerisfoundedaltogetherinthedesireofactualpraise,andtheaversiontoactualblame,thatofthelatterisfoundedaltogetherinthedesireofreallypossessingthosequalities,orperformingthoseactionswhichweloveandadmireinotherpeople,andinavoidingthosequalitiesandthoseactionswhich,inotherpeople,arouseourhatredorcon-tempt。
IfConscience,then,whichmaybedefinedas\"thetestimonyofthesupposedimpartialspectatorofthebreast:,\"originatesinthewaydescribed,whencehasitthatverygreatinfluenceandauthoritywhichbelongtoit?andhowdoesithappenthatitisonlybyconsultingitthatwecanseewhatrelatestoourselvesinitstruelight,ormakeanypropercomparisonbetweenourowninterestsandthoseofotherpeople?
Theansweris,Byourpowerofassuminginimaginationanothersituation。
Itiswiththeeyeofthemindaswiththeeyeofthebody。Justasalargelandscapeseemssmallerthanthewindowwhichlooksoutonit,andweonlylearnbyhabitandexperiencetojudgeoftherelativemagnitudeofobjectsbytransportingourselvesinimaginationtoadifferentstation,fromwhencewecanjudgeoftheirrealproportions,soitisnecessaryforthemindtochangeitspositionbeforewecaneverregardourownselfishinterestsintheirduerelationtotheinterestsofothers。Wehavetoviewourinterestsandanother\'s,\"neitherfromourownplacenorfromhis,neitherwithourowneyesnoryetwithhis,butfromtheplaceandwiththeeyesofathirdperson,whohasnoparticularconnexionwitheither,andwhojudgeswithimpartialitybetweenus。\"Byhabitandexperiencewecometodothissoeasily,thatthementalprocessisscarcelyperceptibletous,byWhichwecorrectthenaturalinequalityofoursentiments。Welearnboththemorallesson,andthelessoninvision,sothoroughly,asnolongertobesensiblethatithasbeenalessonatall。
\"Itisreason,principle,conscience,theinhabitantofthebreast,themanwithin,thegreatjudgeandarbiterofourconduct,\"whoalonecancorrectthenaturalmisrepresentationsofself-love,whoshowsustheproprietyofgenerosityandthedeformityofinjustice,theproprietyofresigningourowngreatestinterestsfortheyetgreaterinterestsofothers,andthedeformityofdoingthesmallestinjurytoanotherinordertoobtainthegreatestbenefittoourselves。Butforthiscorrectionofself-lovebyconscience,thedestructionoftheempireofChinabyanearthquakewou1ddisturbaman\'ssleeplessthanthelossofhisownlittlefinger,andtopreventsopaltryamisfortunetohimselfhewouldbewillingtosacrificethelivesofahundredmillionsofhisbrethren,pro-videdhehadneverseenthem。Itisnottheloveofourneighbour,stilllesstheloveofmankind,whichwouldeverpromptustoself-sacrifice。Itisastrongerlove,amorepowerfulaffection,\"theloveofwhatishonourableandnoble,ofthegrandeur,anddignity,andsuperiorityofourowncharacters。\"
Thesenseofdutyinitsvariousformsistheresultofthecommandsofconscience,whichthusexistswithinusasthereflectionofexternalapprobation。Whenthehappinessormiseryofothersdependsonourconduct,conscience,or\"themanwithin,\"immediatelycallstousthatifwepreferour-selvestothem,ortheinterestofonetotheinterestofmany,werenderourselvestheproperobjectofthecontemptandresentmentofourfellows。
Thecontrolofourpassivefeelings,ofournaturalpreferenceforourowninterestsandournaturalindifferencetothoseofothers,canonlybeacquiredbyaregardtothesentimentsoftherealorsupposedspectatorofourconduct。Thisisthedisciplineordainedbynaturefortheacquisitionofthevirtueofself-commandaswellasofallothervirtues。Thewholeoflifeisaneducationintheacquisitionofself-command。Achild,assoonasitmixeswithitsequalsatschool,wishesnaturallytogaintheirfavourandavoidtheircontempt;anditistaughtbyaregardtoitsownsafetytomoderateitsangerandotherpassionstothedegreewithwhichitsplay-fellowsarelikelytobepleased。Fromthattimeforth,theexerciseofdisciplineoveritsfeelingsbecomesthepracticeofitslife。
Onlythemanwhohasbeenthoroughlybredinthegreatschoolofself-command,thebustleandbusinessoftheworld,maintainsperfectcontroloverhispassivefeelingsuponalloccasions。Hehasneverdaredtoforgetforonemomentthejudgmentlikelytobepassedbytheimpartialspectatoruponhissentimentsandconduct,norsufferedthemanwithinthebreasttobeabsentforonemomentfromhisattention。Withtheeyesofthisgreatinmatehehasbeenaccustomedtoregardallthatrelatestohimself。Fromhishavingbeenundertheconstantnecessityofmoulding,ortryingtomould,hisconductandfeelingsinaccordancewiththoseofthisspectator,thehabithasbecomeperfectlyfamiliartohim;andhealmostidentifieshimselfwith,healmostbecomeshimselfthatimpartialspectator;hehardlyeverfeelsbutasthatgreatarbiterofhisconductdirects。
Butwithmostmenconscience,whichisfoundedontheapprobationofanimaginaryspectator,requiresoftentobearousedbycontactwitharealone。\"Themanwithinthebreast,theabstractandidealspectatorofoursentimentsandconduct,requiresoftentobeawakenedandputinmindofhisdutybythepresenceoftherealspectator。\"Inotherwords,consciencerequirestobekeptfreshbycontactwiththeworld;solitudeleadsustooverratethegoodactionswemayhavedoneortheinjurieswemayhavesuffered,andcausesustobetoomuchdejectedinadversityaswellastoomuchelatedinprosperity。
Neverthelessiftheactualspectatorisnotimpartiallikethedistantoneofimaginationorreality,therectitudeofourjudgmentsconcerningourownconductisliabletobemuchperverted;andthisfactaccountsformanyanomaliesofourmoralsentiments。
Take,forinstance,theconductoftwodifferentnationstooneanother。
Neutralnations,theonlyindifferentandimpartialspectatorsoftheirconduct,aresofaroffastobealmostoutofsight。Thecitizenofeithernationpayslittleregardtothesentimentsofforeigncountries,butonlyseekstoobtaintheapprobationofhisownfellow-citizens,whichhecanneverdobetterthanbyenragingandoffendingtheenemiestheyhaveincommon。Thusthepartialspectatorisathand,theimpartialoneatadistance。
Hencethetotaldisregardinthelifeofnationsoftherulesofmoralityinforceinprivatelife。\"Inwarandnegotiationthelawsofjusticeareveryseldomobserved。Truthandfairdealingarealmosttotallydisregarded。
Treatiesareviolated;andtheviolation,ifsomeadvantageisgainedbyit,shedsscarceanydishonourupontheviolator。Theambassadorwhodupestheministerofaforeignnationisadmiredandapplauded。\"Thesameconductwhichinprivatetransactionswouldmakeamanbelovedandesteemed,inpublictransactionswouldloadhimwithcontemptanddetestation。Notonlyarethelawsofnationsviolatedwithoutdishonour,buttheyarethemselveslaiddownwithverylittleregardtotheplainestrulesofjustice。Itisinthemostperfectconformitywithwhatarecalledthelawsofnationsthatthegoodsofpeaceablecitizensshouldbeliabletoseizureonlandandsea,thattheirlandsshouldbelaidwaste,theirhomesburnt,andtheythemselveseithermurderedortakenintocaptivity。
Noristheconductofhostileparties,civilorecclesiastical,morerestrainedbythepowerofconsciencethanthatofhostilenationstooneanother。Thelawsoffactionpayevenlessregardtotherulesofjusticethanthelawsofnationsdo。Thoughithasneverbeendoubtedwhetherfaithoughttobekeptwithpublicenemies,ithasoftenbeenfuriouslydebatedwhetherfaithoughttobekeptwithrebelsandheretics。Yetrebelsandhereticsareonlythosewho,whenthingshavecometoacertaindegreeofviolence,havethemisfortunetobelongtotheweakerparty。Theimpartialspectatorisneveratagreaterdistancethanamidsttherageandviolenceofcontendingparties。Forthemitmaybesaidthat\"suchaspectatorscarceexistsanywhereintheuniverse。Eventothegreatjudgeoftheuniversetheyimputealltheirownprejudices,andoftenviewthatDivineBeingasanimatedbyalltheirownvindictiveandimplacablepassions。\"Thosewhomightactastherealcontrollersofsuchpassionsaretoofewtohaveanyinfluence,beingexcludedbytheirowncandourfromtheconfidenceofeitherparty,andonthataccountcondemnedtobetheweakest,thoughtheymaybethewisestmenoftheircommunity。For\"atruepartymanhatesanddespisescandour;andinrealitythereisnovicewhichcouldsoeffectuallydisqualifyhimforthetradeofapartymanasthatsinglevirtue。\"
Butevenwhentherealandimpartialspectatorisnotatagreatdistance,butcloseathand,ourownselfishpassionsmaybesostrongasentirelytodistortthejudgmentofthe\"manwithinthebreast。\"Weendeavourtoviewourownconductinthelightinwhichtheimpartialspectatorwouldviewit,bothwhenweareabouttoactandwhenwehaveacted。Onbothoccasionsourviewsareapttobepartial,buttheyaremoreespeciallypartialwhenitismostimportantthattheyshouldbeotherwise。