RRBook2Chapter1TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterISALARY———HOWAREWARDTherearemanyspeciesofservice，andevenservicesofapositivenature，ofwhichgovernmentsstandinconstantanduninterruptedneed：suchforthemostpartarethedutiesofthosewhoareemployedinthedifferentdepartmentsofeverygovernment。Thepoliticalstateorcondition，onaccountofwhichindividualspossessingitareconsideredliabletorendertheseservices，iscalledaplace，anoffice，oranemployment。
Totheseplacesitisbothnaturalandcustomarytoattach，underthetitleofemolument，certainportionsofthematterofwealth。Ifsuchemolumentbedeterminateinamount，andpaidatregularlyrecurringperiods，itiscalledasalary。
Itisthenatureofarewardtooperateasamotive，andinthatcapacitytogivebirthtoactswhich，bythepersonbywhomtherewardishelduptoview，areesteemedservices：thegreaterthereward，thegreateristhemotiveitconstftutes；thegreaterthemotive，themorestrenuoustheexertionithasatendencytoproduce：andifthevalueoftheservicebesusceptibleofanindefinitedegreeofperfection，themorestrenuoustheexertiontoperformit，thegreater，asfarasdependsuponthewilloftheparty，willbethevalueoftheservice。Henceitfollows，thatifsalarybereward，asfarasfundscanbefound，salariescannotbetoolarge。Howdifferentthestateofthingspresentedtouswhenweconsultexperience。Weseesmallsalaries，andtheserviceadmirablywellperformed：largesalaries，andnothingdoneforthem。Incertainlines，weseetheserviceregularlyworseandworseperformed，inproportiontothelargenessofthesalary。Wherethenliestheerror？Inexperiencetherecanbenone：intheargumentthereisnone。Theerrorliesinitsnotbeingproperlyunderstood：andthatingeneralithasnotbeenproperlyunderstood，thebadmanagementandweakmeasuressofrequentinthislinearebuttoopregnantproofs。Tounderstandtheargumentaright，twopointsmustbeobserved；Theoneis，toconsider，forillustration’ssake，thatjustinthesamemanneraspunishment，———andinnoothermanner，thoughwithlesscertaintyofeffect，———isrewardcapableofactingasamotive：theotherpointis，toconsiderwhatisreallytheserviceforwhichasalaryisareward。
What，then，istheservice，withrespecttowhichasalaryoperatesasamotive？Theanswerwhichwouldbegenerallygiventothisquestionis，thecontinuedservicebelongingtotheofficetowhichthesalaryisannexed。Obviousasthisanswermayseem，itisnotthetrueone。Theservice，andtheonlyservice，withrespecttowhichasalarycanoperateasamotive，iseitherthesimpleinstantaneousserviceoftakingupononetheoffice，orthepermanentserviceofcontinuingtostandinvestedwithit。Ifthedutiesoftheoffice———theservicesintheexpectationofwhichthesalaryannexedtotheofficeisbestowed，happentobeperformed，itcannotbeowingmerelyandimmediatelytothesalary：
itMustbeowingtosomeothermotive。Iftherewerenoothermotive，theservicewouldnotberendered。Nothingisdonewithoutamotive———what，then，isthisothermotive？Itmustbeeitherofthenatureofrewardorpunishment。Itmaybypossibilitybeofthenatureofreward；butifitbeso，Oneorotheroftheserewardswouldseemsuperfluous：incommon，itisprincipallyofthenatureOfpunishment。Inasfarasthisisthecase，theserviceforwhichthesalary，consideredasareward，isgiven，istheserviceoftakingupononetheobligationconstitutedbythepunishment———theobligationofperformingtheservicesexpectedfromhimwhopossessestheoffice。
Thatthezealdisplayedindischargingthedutiesofanofficeshouldnotbeinproportiontothesalary，willnownolongerappearstrange。Experienceisreconciledtotheory。Thissubjectwillreceiveelucidation，ifwesubstitutepunishmentforreward，andconiderwhattendencysuchamotivewouldhavetogivebirthtoanyservice，ifconnectedwithitinthesamemannerasasalaryisanexedtoanoffice。
Supposeascbool—master，intendingtoconnetthebusinessofhisschoolwithregularity，weretomakeitarule，onacertainday，atbebeginningofeveryquarter，tocallallhisscholarsbeforehim，andtogiveeachtenlashes，committingtheirbehaviourduringtherestofthequarteraltogethertotheirdiscretion：———thepolicyofthismasterwouldbetheexactcounterpartofthefounderoftheschooltowardsthemaster，ifbehassoughttoattachhimtothedutiesofhisofticebybestowinguponhimasalary。SupposetheMaster，findingthatunderthisdisciplinetheprogressofhisscholarsdidnotequalhisexpectations，shouldresolvetoincreasehisexertions，andaccordinglyshoulddoublethedoseofstripes：———hispolicyinthiscasewouldbetheexactcounterpartofthefounder，whobythesingleoperationofincreasingthemaster’ssalary，shouldthinktoincreasehisdiligence。
Asalaryisnotarewardforanyindividualserviceofthenumberofthosewhichareradderedinconsequenceofaman’sacceptanceoftheofficetowhichthesalaryisannexed。Fortherenderingofanyoneoftbeseservices，thesalarypresentshimnotwithanymotivewbichcancomeunderthebeadofreward：themotiveswbirhitgiveshimbelongentirelytotheheadofpunishment。Itisbyfearonly，andnotbyhope，thatbeisimpelledtothedischargeofhisduty———bythefearofreceivinglessthanhewouldotherwisereceive，notbythehopeofreceivingmore。
Thoughbeworkeversomuchmoreorbetterthanamanwhoholdshisofficeisexpectedtowork，bewillreceivenothingmorethanhissalary，ifthesalarybeallthatbehastohopefor，Byworkingtoacertaindegreelessorworse，hemayindeedstandachanceofhavingthesalary，orapartofit，takenfromhim，orbemaybemadepunishableinsomeotherway：
butifbecontinuetokeepclearofthatextremedegree，insuchcaselethimworkeversolittleoreversobadly，hewillnot，asfarasartificialpunishmentisconcerned，beevertheworse。Hehasthereforenomotive，sofarasthesalaryisconcerned，forendeavouritigtopassthelineofmediocrity；andhehasamotive，themotiveofindolenceorloveofease，forstoppinEasfarshortofitasbecanwithsafety。
Suppose，forinstance，asalaryof£；4000
a—yearannexedtotheofficeofajudge：ofalltheservicesbemaycometoperforminthedischargeofhisfunction，ofwhichoneisthissalarythereward？Ofnoonewhatever。Takeanyoneofthecauseswhichwouldregularlycomebeforehimforhearing：thougheweretoattend，andtodisplayeversomuchdiligenceandeversomuchabilityinthehearingofit，hewouldreceivenomorethatyearthanhis£；4000；thoughheweretoabsenthimselfaltogether，andleavethebusinesstohiscolleagues，hewouldreceivenoless：inshort，providedhedoesnotsofarswervefromhisdutyastosubjecthimselftofineordeprivation，whetherheperformhisdutyeversowell，oreversoill———whetherhedecidemanycausesorfew—whetherhisattendancebeconstantorremiss———whetherbedisplayeversomuchoreversolittleability，———hissalaryisthe，same。
Notthatamaninthisexaltedstationisinanywantofmotivestoprompthimtoexerthimselfinthedischargeofitsduties：hehasthepleasuresofpower，tobalancethepainsofstudy———thefearofshame，tokeephimfromsinkingbelowmediocrity———thehopeofcelebrity，toelevatehimaboveit，tospurhimontothehighestpitchofexcellence。Thesemotivesarepresentedtohimbyhisstation，buttheyarenotpresentedtohimbyhissalary。
Theservices，andtheonlyservices，whichthesalarypresentsamotiveforhisperforming，are，inthefirstplace，theinstantaneousactoftakinguponhimthestation———thatis，ofsubjectinghimselftotheobligationsannexedtoit；andintheeventofhisviolatinganyofthoseobligations，tothepunishmentsannexedtosuchviolations：
inthenextplace，thedischargingofthesmallestportionofthoseobligationswhichitisnecessarybeshoulddischarge，inordertohisreceivingsuchorsuchpartofthesalary。Letit，forinstance，bepaidhimquarterly：
ifthefirstquarterbepaidhiminadvance，itwillaffordhimnomotiveofthenatureofrewardfordoinganyofthebusinessofthatquarter。
Hehasthatquarter’ssalary；norcanliefailofenjoyingit，unless，inthewayofpunishment，itbeafterwardstakenfroinhim。Ifitbenotpaidhimtilltheendofthequarter，thecasewillbestillthesame，unlessproofofhishavingrenderedcertainservices———thehavingattended，forexample，atcertaintimes———benecessarytohisreceivingit。Withthisexception，itmayequallybesaid，thatinbothcases，foranyotherthantheinstantaneousactoftakinguponhimtheburtbenofthestationforthatquarter，behasnoreward，noranymotivebutwhatoperatesinthewayofpunishment。
Thisdistinctionisofimportance；forifthesalarygivenweretheinducementofperformingtheservices，thechanceofhavingthemperformed，andwellperformed，wouldbeexactlyasthemagnitudeofthesalary。If，forexample，fiftypoundssterlinga—yearsufficedtoinsurefiftygrainsofpiety，assiduity，eloquence，andothersacerdotalvirtuesinacurate，———fivethousandofthesesamepoundsoughttoinsurefivethousandgrainsofthesesamevirtuesinabishoporarchbishop。Butwhateverybodyknowsis，thatthisproportiondoesnothold；onthecontrary，itmostfrequentlyhappensthattheproportionisin。verse：thecuratelaboursmuch，thebishoplittle，andthearchbishopless。
Thechanceofserviceisasthemagnitudeofthepunishment；andifthesalarycanbewithdrawn，itissofarindeedasthemagnitudeofthesalary：butitmaybeequallygreatwithoutanysalary———bythesubstitutionofanyotherpunishmentinsteadoflossofsalary。
Wesee，then，bowitisthatasalary，beitgreatorsmall，independentlyoftheobligationwhichitpaysamanforcontracting，hasnotinitselfthesmallestdirecttendenevtoproduceservices；whilstexperienceshows，thatinmanycases，inproportiontoitsmagnitude，ithasatendencytopreventthem。
RRBook2Chapter2TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterIIRULESASTOEMOLUMENTSBeforeweenteruponthissubjectindetail，itmaybenecessarytoremark，thattheproperapplicationofthefollowingruleswilldependuponthenatureoftheservicerequired，anditsvariouslocalcircumstances。Itisonlybyobservingthepeculiarcharacterassumedbyabuseineachoffice，thatappropriateremediesforeachparticularevilcanbeprovided。Sinceitisimpossibletomakeacompletecatalogueofallerrors，andtoanticipateeveryspeciesofabuse，theruleslaiddownmaynotconstituteaperfectsystem。Theymay，however，serveasawarningagainsterrorsandabuseswhichhavebyexperiencebeenfoundtoexist，andalsoagainstsomewhichmaybeimaginedlikelytoexist。Itisusefultoerectbeaconsuponrockswhoseexistencehasbeenmadeknownbytheshipwreckstheyhavecaused。Amongtherulesabouttobegiven，somemayappearsoself—evidentasalmosttoseemsuperfluous：butifitcanbeshownthaterrorshavearisenfromtheneglectoftheminpractice，suchrules，thoughnotentitledtobeconsideredasdiscoveries，mustatleastberegardedasnecessarywarning；theymayteachnothingnew，buttheymayservetorecallprincipleswhichitisdesirableshouldbeconstantlyandclearlyremembered。
RuleI。Emolumentsoughtinsuchmannertobeattachedtooffices，astoproducethemostintimateconnexionbetweenthedutyandtheinterestofthepersonemployed。
Thisrulemaybeappliedininsuringassiduousattendanceonthepartofthepersonsemployed。Indifferentoffices，differentservicesarerequired；butthegreaternumberofofficeshavethisonecircumstanceincommon：thattheirdutiesmaybeperformed，itisnecessarythattheindividualholdingtheofficeshouldbeatacertaintimeinacertainplace。Hence，ofallduties，assiduousattendanceisthefirst，themostsimple，andthemostuniversal。Inmanycases，toinsuretheperformanceofthisduty，istoinsuretheperformanceofeveryotherduty。Whentheclerkisathisdesk，thejudgeuponthebench，theprofessorinhisschool，———iftherebenothingparticularlyirksomeintheirduty，andtheycandonothingelse，ratherthanremainidle，itisprobabletheywillperformtheirduty。
Inthesecases，theservicerequiredbeingofthecontinualkind，andinpointofqualitynotsusceptibleofanindefinitedegreeofperfection———thepaybeingrequirednotforcertainservices，butforsuchservicesasmaycometobeperformedwithinacertainspaceoftime，———itmaywithoutimproprietybegivenintheformofasalary。Butevenhere，thepolicyofmakingrewardkeeppacewithserviceshouldbepursuedascloselyaspossible；andforthispurpose，thelongcontinuedmassofserviceshouldbebrokendownintoasmanyseparateservicesaspossible———theserviceofayearintotheserviceofdays。Inthehighestoffices，anindividual，ifpaidbyhistime，should，liketheday—labourer，andforthesamereason，bepaidratherbythedaythanbytheyear。Inthiswayheiskepttohisdutywithmorethantheeffect，andatthesametimewithoutanyoftheodium，ofpunishment。
Inthestationofajudge，itisnotcommontoexactattendancebytheforceofpunishment———atleastnotbytheforceofpunishmenttobeappliedineachinstanceoffailure。Butifitwere，theinflictionofthatpunishmentfortrivialtransgressions———thatis，foroneorafewinstancesofnon—performance———wouldbethoughtharshandrigorous，norwouldanybodycarefortheodiumofstandingforthtoenforceit。Excuseswouldbelightlymade，andreadilyaccepted。Punishmentinsuchcasesbeingtothelastdegreeuncertain，wouldbeinagreatmeasureineffectual。Itmightpreventcontinual，butitwouldneverpreventoccasional，orevenfrequent，delinquency。Butwhatcannotbeeffectedbypunishmentalone，maybeeffectedbypunishmentandrewardtogether。Whentheofficerispaidseparatelyforeachday’sattendance，eachparticleofservicehasitsreward：thereisforeachparticleofserviceaninducementtoperformit。Therewillbenowantonexcuses，wheninconvenienceadheresinseparablytodelinquencywithouttheparadeofpunishment。
ThemembersoftheFrenchAcademy，andtheAcademyofScience，notwithstandingalltheirdignity，arepaidtheirsalariesbytheday，andnotbytheyear。Andwhoaretheindividuals，howloworhowhighsoever，whocannot，andwhooughtnot，tobepaidinthismanner？
Ifpridehavealegitimatescruple，itisthatwhichrefusestoreceivetherewardforlabourwhichithasnotperformed；whilst，astotheobjectionwhichmightarisefromtheminuteapportionmentofthesalary，itiseasilyremovedbycountersgivenfromdaytoday，andconvertedintomoneyatfixedperiods。
Intheactofparliamentforestablishingpenitentiaryhouses，amongothergoodregulations，thismethodofinsuringassiduityofattendancehasbeenadopted。Thethreesuperintendentsreceive，asthewholeoftheiremoluments，eachashareofthesumoffiveguineas，whichisdirectedtobedistributedeachdayoftheirattendanceequallyamongthosewhoarepresent。
AmoreancientexampleofthispolicymaybefoundintheincorporatedsocietyinLondonfortheassuranceoflives。Thedirectorsofthisestablishmentreceivetheirtriflingemolumentsinthismanner；
andthusapplied，theseemolumentssuffice。Thisplanhasalsobeenadoptedinthecaseofcommissionersofbankrupts，andbydifferentassociations。
Theseexamplesoughtnottobelost；andyet，fromnothavingbeenreferredtogeneralprinciples，theyhavenotpossessedtheinfluencetheyoughttohave。Howoftenhaveregulationsbeenheapeduponregulationswithoutsuccess！HowmanyuselessdecreesweremadeinFrancetoinsuretheresidenceofthebishopsandbeneficedclergy！
InEngland，wehavenotinthisrespectbeenmoresuccessful；thatistosay，moreskillful。Lawshavebeenenactedagainstthenon—residenceoftheclergy———lawsbadlycontrived，andconsequentlyuseless。Punishmentbasbeendenounced，andafineimposed，whichbeinginvariableinamount，hassometimesbeengreaterandsometimeslessthantheadvantagetobederivedfromtheoffence。Forwantofapublicprosecutorinthis，asinsomanyothercases，ithasbeennecessarytorelyuponsuchcasualinformersasmaybealluredbyaportionofthefine。Theloveofgainhasseldomprovedamotivesufficientlystrongtoinduceanendeavourtoobtainthisreward；whosevalue，nottomentiontheexpensesofpursuit，isdestroyedbyinfamy。Tillthismotivebereinforcedbypersonalanimosity，whichburststhebondsofinfamy，theselawsarepowerless。
Suchcases，whichmayoccuronceortwiceinthecourseoftenyearsthroughoutthewholekingdom，areneithersufficientlyfrequent，norwellknown，tooperateasexamples。Theoffenceremainsundiminished：
theuselesspunishmentconstitutesonlyanadditionalevil；whilstsuchlawsandsuchmethods，powerlessamongfriends，serveonlytobringenemiesintocontact。Wheneveritisdesirablethataclergymanshouldliveinthemidstofhisparishioners———thatistosay，whentheyareamicable———thelawisadeadletter：itspowerisexertedonlywhentheyareirreconcilableenemies；thatis，intheonlycaseswhereinitsutilityisproblematical，anditweretobewishedthatitsexecutionwouldadmitofanexception。
Hisreturnintohisparishisatriumphforhisenemies，andahumiliationforhimself。
Hadthesalariespaidtotheprofessorsintheuniversitiesbeeninterwovenwiththeirservices，itmighthavebeenthecustomforsomeofthesepretendedlabourerstohavelabouredfortheirhire；andtobeaprofessor，mighthavemeantsomethingmorethanhavingatitle，asalary，andnothingtoteach。
Asalarypaiddaybydayhasanadvantagebeyondthatofinsuringassiduityofattendance；———itevenrendersaserviceagreeable，whichwithanannualsalarywillberegardedaspurelyburthensome。Whenreward，insteadofbeingbestowedinalump，followseachsuccessiveportionoflabour，theideaoflabourbecomesassociatedwithpleasureinsteadofpain。InEngland，husbandmen，likeotherlabourers，arepaidinhardmoneybytheweek，andtheirlabourischeerfullyandwellperformed。insomepartsofthecontinent，husbandmenarestillpaidastheywereformerlyinEngland，byhousesandpiecesoflandgivenonceforall；andthelabourissaidtobeperformedwithalltheslovenlinessandreluctanceofslavery。
RuleII。Emolumentsoughtinsuchmannertobeattachedtooffice，astoproducethegreatestpossibledegreeofexcellenceintheservicerendered。
Thusfarthesubjecthasonlybeenconsideredasapplicabletoinsuringattendanceincaseswhereassiduityofattendanceappearstosufficeforinsuringtheperformanceofallotherduties。Therefollowsomecases，inwhichitappearspossibletoapplythesameprincipleeitherinthepreventionofabuse，orininsuringanextraordinarydegreeofperfectionintheemploymentofthepowerswhichbelongtocertainstations。
Insteadofappointingafixedsalary，invariablyofthesameamountastheemolumentofthesuperintendentorsuperintendentsofaprison，apoor—house，anasylumfororphans，oranykindofhospitalwhoseinhabitantsdependuponthecareofoneorasmallnumberofindividuals，whatevermaybethedifferenceinthedegreeofattentiondisplayed，orthedegreeofperfectionwithwhichtheserviceisperformed，———itwouldbewelltomaketheemolumentofsuchpersonsinsomemeasuredependuponthecarewithwhichtheirdutieshavebeenperformed，asevidencedbytheirsuccess。Inapenitentiary，orotherprison，thattheprisonersmightbeinsuredfromallnegligenceorill—treatment，tendingdirectlyorindirectlytoshortentheirlives，makeacalculationoftheaveragenumberofdeathsamongtheprisonersintheparticularprison，comparedwiththenumberofpersonsconfinedthere。Allowthesuperintendenteachyearacertainsumforeachper。sonofthisnumber，uponcondition，thatforeveryprisonerwhodies，anequalsumistobewithheldfromtheamountofhisemoluments。Itisclear，thathavinganetprofituponthelivesofallwhombepreserves，thereisscarcelyanynecessityforanyotherprecautionagainstill—treatment，ornegligencetendingtoshortenlife。
Inthenavalservice，thelawsofEnglandallowacertainsumforeachvesseltakenordestroyed，andsomuchforeveryindividualcaptured。Whyisnotthismethodofencouragementextendedtothemilitaryservice？
Isthecommanderofanarmyemployedindefendingaprovince，———allowhimapensionwhichshallbediminishedinproportiontotheterritoryheloses。Isthegovernorofanimportantplacebesieged，———allowhimsomuchforeverydaythathecontinuesthedefence。Istheconquestofaprovincedesirable，———promisetothegeneralemployed，besidesthehonoursheshallreceive，asumofmoneywhichshallincreaseinproportiontotheterritoryheacquires，besidesgivinghimapension，asabove，forpreservingitwhenacquired。
Totheprincipaldutyoftakinganddestroyingthosewhoareopposedtohim，mightbeaddedthesubordinatedutyofpreservingthelivingmachineswhoseexertionsarenecessaryforitsaccomplishment。
Themethodproposedforthepreservationofprisoners，———whyshoulditnotbeemployedforthepreservationofsoldiers？Itmustbeacknowledged，thatnorewardexclusivelyattachedtothissubordinatedutycould，inthemindofaprudentcommander，addanythingtotheweightofthoseargumentswhichariseoutoftheprincipalobject。Asoldierwhenheisill，isworthlessthannothing：arecruitmaynotarriveatthemoment———maynotarriveatall，andwhenhehasarrived，heisnotlikeaveteran。Iftherefore，itbepropertostrengthenmotivesthuspalpable，byaseparateandparticularreward，itoughtatleasttobekeptinasubordinationsufficientlymarkedwithrespecttotheprincipalobject。
Thusmuchastoatimeofwar。Intimeofpeace，theproprietyofthismethodismuchlessdoubtful。
Itisthenthattheattentionofageneralshouldbemoreparticularlydirectedtothepreservationofhissoldiers。Makehimtheinsureroftheirlives，andhewillbecometherivalofEsculapiusinmedicalscience，andofHowardinphilanthropy。Hewillnolongerbeindifferent，whethertheyencampuponahillorinamorass。Hisvigilancewillbeexerciseduponthequalityofhissuppliesandthearrangementofhishospitals；hisdisciplinewillberenderedperfectagainstthosevicesofarmies，whicharesometimesnolessdestructivethantheswordoftheenemy。[2]
Thesamesystemmightbeextendedtoshipsofwar，inwhichnegligenceissofatal，andinwhichgeneralrulesaresoeasilyenforced。Theadmiral，orcaptain，wouldthushaveanimmediateinterestinthepreservationofeachsailor。TheadmirableexampleofCaptainCook，Whocircumnavigatedtheworld，andtraversedsomanydifferentclimatesandunknownseas，withoutthelossofasinglesailor，wouldnolongerbeunfruitful。Hisinstructionsrespectingdiet，changeofair，andcleanliness，wouldnotbeneglected。TheBritishnavy，itistrue，ismuchImprovedintheserespects：butwhocantellhowmuchgreaterperfectionmightbeattained，iftothealreadyexistingmotiveswereaddedtheinfluenceofaconstantlyactinginterest，which，withoutinjuringanyvirtue，mightsupplytheplaceofall，iftheywerewanting？
Intheapplicationofthesesuggestions，theremaybedifficulties：aretheyinsurmountable？Itisforthosewhohavehadexperiencetoreply。
InthetreatymadebytheLandgraveofHesseCassel，relativetothetroopswhichtheBritishgovernmenthiredofhimtoserveinAmerica，onestipulationwas，thatforeverymannotreturnedtohiscountry，heshouldreceivethirtypounds。Iknownotwhethersuchastipulationwerecustomaryornot：butwhetheritwereornot，nothingcouldbemorehappilyimagined，eitherforthefiscalinterestofthesovereignlender，ortheinterestoftheindividualslent。Thespiritofpartyfoundinthisstipulationathemefordeclamation，asifitsonlyeffectweretogivetotheprinceaninterestintheslaughterofhissubjects；whilst，ifanythingcouldcounterbalancethemischievouseffectsofthetreaty，itwasthispecuniarycondition。Itgavetothesestrangersasecurityagainstthenegligenceorindifferenceoftheborrowers，onaccountofwhichtheymightmorewillinglyhavebeenexposedtodangerthannativesubjects。
Thepriceattachedtotheirlosswouldactasaninsurancethatcareshouldbetakentopreservethem。
Ithasbeensaid，thatinsomecountriestheemolumentsofthecommandersofregimentsincreaseinproportiontothenumberofnon—effectives；thatistosay，thattheyreceivealwaysthesameamountforthepayoftheircorps，thoughtheyhavenotalwaysthesamenumberofmentopay。Suchanarrangementispreciselytheoppositeofwhatisrecommendedabove。Thenumberofnoneffectivesincreasingbydeathordesertion，thecommandergainsinmoneywhathelosesinmen。Everypennywhichheisthuspermittedtoacquireisarewardoffered，ifnotformurder，atleastfornegligence。{Note}
RRBook2Chapter3TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterIIIFEESANDPERQUISITES—NONE。Anotherexpedientisoftenemployedinthepaymentofpublicofficers：Irefertothefeeswhichtheyaresometimesauthorizedtoreceiveontheirownaccount，fromthosewhorequiretheirservices。
Thisarrangementisattendedwithaspeciousadvantage，andarealdanger。Theadvantageis，thattherewardseemstobeexactlyanddirectlyinproportiontothelabourperformed：thedangerliesinthetemptationgiventosuchofficerstoincreasetheiremoluments，byincreasingthedifficultiesofthosewhoneedtheirservices。Theabuseiseasilyintroduced。Itisverynatural，forexample，thatanindividualwhohasbeenservedwithanextraordinaryexpedition，shouldaddsomethingtotheaccustomedfee。Butthisreward，bestowedonaccountofsuperiorexpeditioninthefirstinstance，infalliblybecomesacauseofdelayinallwhichfollow。Theregulatedhoursofbusinessareemployedindoingnothing，orindoingtheleastpossible，thatextraordinarypaymaybereceivedforwhatisdoneoutofoffice—hours。Theindustryofallthepersonsemployedwillbedirectedtoincreasingtheprofitoftheirplaces，byoneanothermutualassistance；andtheheadsofdepartmentswillconniveatthedisorder，eitherfortheirshareofthebenefit，oroutofkindnesstotheirinferiors，orforfearofrenderingthemdiscontented。
Theinconvenienceswillbeyetgreater，iftheyrelatetoaservicecoveredwithamysteriousveil，whichthepubliccannotraise。Suchistheveilofthelaw。Theuselessandoppressivedelaysinlegalprocedurearisefromverycomplicatedcauses；butitcannotbedoubted，thatoneofthemostconsiderableofthesecausesisthesinisterinterestwhichlawyershaveinmultiplyingprocessesandquestions，thattheymaymultiplytheoccasionsforreceivingfees。
Integrityismoreeasilypreservedinpublicofficesinwhichtherearenofees，thaninthosewheretheyareallowed。Alawfulrightoftenservesasapretextforextortion。Thedistinctionbetweenwhatispermittedandwhatisprohibited，inmanycases，isexceedinglyminute；andbowmanytemptationsmayoccurofprofitingbytheignoranceofstrangers，whencircumstanceswillinsureimpunity！Aneasymethodofdetectingoffencesisagreatrestraint。Wheneverthereforefeesareallowed，alistofthemshouldbepubliclyfixedupintheofficeitself：thiswilloperateasaprotectiontothepersonsemployedagainstsuspicion，andtothepublicagainstvexation。
Thismodeofrewardingservices，supposesthattheindividualswhostandinneedofthemshouldbeartheexpensesoftheestablishment。Thisistrueonlyincasethebenefitissolelyforthoseindividuals：inallothercases，feesconstituteanunequalandveryunjustlyassessedtax。Weshallhaveoccasiontorecurtothissubjectshortly。
RRBook2Chapter4TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterIMINIMIZEEMOLUMENT。RuleIII。Theamountofthesalary，orotheremoluments，attachedtoeveryoffice，oughttobetheleastthattheindividualsqualifiedtoexecuteitsdutiesarewillingtoacceptfortheirperformance。
Thefairandproperpriceofanyvendiblecommodityistheleastthatanybodywilltakeforit：sothattheexpectationoflikepaymentshallbeasufficientinducementtothelabourrequisitetoproduceotherlikearticlesinfuture。Thefairandproperpriceofanyserviceistheleastthatanybodywilldoitfor：sothatifmoreweregiven，itwouldbedoneeithernotatallthebetter，ornotsomuchthebetterasthatthedifferenceofqualityshouldbeequivalenttothedifferenceofexpense。Inthisproperandnecessarypriceisincluded，ofcourse，everythingnecessarytoenabletheindividualtoperform，andtocontinuetoperform，theservice；andalsowhateverisnecessaryonaccountofthedisadvantagesattendingtheservice，andonaccountofthechancewhichmaybegivenupoftheadvantagesthatmightbeexpectedfromotherservices。
Atthefirstestablishmentofanoffice，itmaybedifficultaccuratelytodeterminewhatoughttobetheamountofitsemoluments：inthis，asisthecasewitheverycommoditywhencarriedtomarketforthefirsttime，wecanonlybeguidedbychance。Thenumberandcharacterofthecandidateswill，however，soondeterminewhethertheamountofferedbetoolargeortoosmall。
Accordingtothisrule，thesalariespaidtothejudgesinEngland，whichappearsoconsiderable，arescarcelyenough；since，aswehavealreadyseen，theyarenotsufficienttoinducethosewhoarebestqualifiedtodischargetheduty，toundertaketheoffice。
InFrance，beforetheRevolution，scarcelyanysalarieswerepaidto。thejudges：theywerenotdraftedfromtheclassofadvocates，andnosacrificewasrequiredofthemwhentheyenteredupontheirduties；itwasnotnecessarythattheyshouldbepossessedofmuchexperience，andtheirrewardconsistedprincipallyinthehonourandrespectattachedtotheirstation。InEngland，thenumberofjudgesissosmall，thatthereisnoplaceforcyphers：itisnecessarythateachjudgeshouldpossess，fromthefirstdaybeentersuponhisoffice，thatskillwhich，inthepresentstateofimmensityandobscurityinwhichthelawisfound，canonlybethefruitoflongstudy。InFrance，amongtheenormousmultitudeofherjudges，therewasalwaysasufficientnumberendowedwiththerequisiteskill；andthenovicemight，solongashechose，preserveaPythagoreansilence。
Amethodofascertainingtheproperamountofemolumentsforanyoffice，simpleasitisefficacious，isaffordedbyallowingthepersonsemployedtodischargetheirdutybydeputy。Ifnooneemployadeputy，theemolumentscannotbemuchtoogreat：ifmanyindividualsemploydeputies，itwillbeonlynecessarytoobservewhatispaidtothedeputies：
thesalaryofthedeputyisthepropersalaryfortheplace。
Ifthisrulebeappliedtotheemolumentsoftheclergy，anditbeaskedwhatistheproperpricefortheirservices，theanswerisnotdifficult。Itis，primafacie，thepricegivenbyoneclassoftheclergy，andreceivedbytheother；itisthecurrentpriceofcuracies。
Isayalwaysprimafacie；for，inreality，thecurrentpriceissomewhatgreater；partofthepricebeingmadeupinhope。Forinsuringthedueperformanceofallthedutiesoftheiroffice，thispriceisfoundtobesufficient。Thepossessionofanygreateremolumentisnotonlyuselessbutpernicious，inasmuchasitenablesthemtoengageinoccupationsincompatiblewiththedueperformanceoftheirfunction，andasittendstogivethemadistasteforthedutiesofthatfunction。
Theinequalityobservableintheemolumentsoftheestablishedclergyisalsodisadvantageousinrespecttothegreaternumberofecclesiastics。Thecomparisonwhichtheymakebetweentheircondition，andthatoftherichincumbents，diminishesstillfurther，intheireyes，thevalueofwhattheyreceive。Arewardsounequal，forequalservices，degradesthosewhoreceiveonlytheirproperportion。Thewholepresentstheappearanceofalottery———offavourandinjustice，illaccordingwiththemoralcharacteroftheirvocation。
Itisagoodruleofeconomytoemployonlyreallabourers，whodonotthinkthemselvessuperiortotheworktheyhavetoperform。Dutchfloristsoughtnottobeemployedinthecultivationofpotatoes。
Itiswellalsofullytooccupythetimeoftheindividualsemployed。Thedutiesofmanypublicofficesrequireonlythreeorfourhoursattendancedaily。Aftertheoffice—hoursarepassed，suchindividualsseldomareableprofitablytoemploytheirtime。Theleisuretheypossessincreasestheirwants。Ennui，thescourgeoflife，isnolesstheenemyofeconomy。Itisamongthisclass，thatthosewhoaremostdiscontentedwiththeirsalaries，aregenerallyfound。
RRBook2Chapter5TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterVNOMORENOMINALTHANREAL。RuleIV。Thenominalandrealamountofsalariesoughttocorrespond。
Inotherwords，nodeductionoughttobemadefromtherealvalueofasalary，withoutreducingitsnominalamount。ThepracticewhichhasfrequentlybeenadoptedinEngland，ofreducingtherealvalueofsalariesandpensionsbytaxesandotherdeductions，whilethenominalamountofthesalarieshasremainedunaltered，hasgivenrisetothisrule。
Insomeinstances，thedeductionsthusmadehaveamountedtoone—thirdofthenominalsalary。
Noadvantagearisesfromthisarrangement，butitsinconveniencesarenumerous。Inthefirstplace，itisanevil。Insofarasitspreadsanexaggeratedideaofthesacrificesmadebythepublic，andtheexpenseincurredundertheheadofsalaries。
Withrespecttothepublicfunctionaries，itisaneviltopossessanincomegreaterinappearancethanreality。Theerroneousconceptionshenceentertainedoftheirwealth，imposesuponthem，indeferencetopublicopinion，thenecessityofkeepingupacorrespondentestablishment：underthepenaltyofbeingconsideredniggardly，theyarecompelledtobeextravagant。Itistrue，thepublicareawareingeneral，thatsalariesandpensionsaresubjecttodeductions；buttheyareoftentimesonlyacquaintedwithapartofthedeductions，andtheyseldominsuchcasesenterintominutecalculations。[1]
Inthismanner，thedifferencebetweenthenominalandrealvalueofasalarytendstoproduceanincreaseinthewantsoftheindividualemployed。Calltheamountofhissalarywhatitreallyis，andbewillbeatease，buteverynominaladditionwillproveacostlyornament。Iftheopportunityofillicitprofitbepresentedtohim，suchnominaladditionwillbeanincentivetocorruption；andshouldhenotbedishonest，itwillproveacauseofdistress。
Theremedyissimpleasefficacious：thechangeneedonlybeinwords。
RRBook2Chapter6TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterVICOUPLEBURTHENWITHBENEFIT。RuleV。Theexpensesofanofficeoughttobedefrayedbythosewhoenjoythebenefitoftheservicesrenderedbytheoffice。
TheauthoroftheWealthofNations，ininvestigatingthemannerinwhichtheexpenseofservicesoughttobedivided，hasshownthatinsomecasesitoughttobedefrayedbythepublic———inothers，exclusivelybythosewhoimmediatelyreapthebenefitoftheservice。Hehasalsoshownthatthere———isaclassofmixedcases，inwhichtheexpenseoughttobedefrayedpartlybythepublic，andpartlybytheindividualswhoderivetheimmediatebenefit。Tothisclassbelongspubliceducation。
Therulejustlaiddownseemsscarcelytostandinneedofproof。Itmay，however，beusefultomentionthemodesinwhichitmaybeviolated；as———1。When，foraservicerenderedtoonepersonorsetofpersons，theobligationofpaymentisimposeduponanother。Thisispartlythecaseofdissenterswhosupporttheirownclergy，insofarastheyareobligedtopayforthesupportoftheclergyofthatestablishedsectfromwhichtheydissent。2。When，foraservicerenderedtoacertainnumberofindividuals，theobligationofpaymentisimposeduponthepublic：
forexample，theexpensesofatheatre，whollyorinpartpaidoutofthepublicpurse。3。When，forservicerenderedtothepublic，theobligationofpaymentisimposeduponanindividual。
Withrespecttothisthirdcase，theexamplesarebuttooabundant。
I。Themostremarkableexamplewillbefoundintheadministrationofjustice。Atfirstsight，itmaybethoughtthathewhoobtainsaverdictinhisfavourreapstheprincipal，oreventheonlyadvantagetobeobtained；andthereforethatitisreasonableheshouldbeartheexpenseincurred———thatheshouldpaytheofficersofjusticeforthetimetheyhavebeenemployed。ItisinthismannerthatthesubjectappearedeventoAdamSmith。（B。v。sec。2。）Uponacloserexamination，weshalldiscoveranimportanterror。Theindividualinwhosefavouraverdictisgiven，ispreciselytheindividualwhohasreceivedleastbenefit：settingasidetherewardspaidtotheofficersofjustice，bowmanyotherexpenses，whichthenatureOfthingsrenderinevitable，remain！Itisbewho，atthepriceofhistime，hiscare，andhismoney，haspurchasedthatprotectionwhichothersreceivefornothing。
Supposethatamongamillionpersonstherehavebeen，forexample，athousandlawsuitsinayear：withouttheselawsuits———withoutthejudgmentswhichterminatethem，injusticewouldhavehadnothingtoholditincheckbutthedefensiveenergyofindividuals。Amillionactsofinjusticewouldhavebeenperpetratedinthesametime。Butsince，bymeansofthesethousandjudgments，amillionactsofinjusticehavebeenprevented，itisthesamethingasifeachcomplainanthadhimselfpreventedathousand。Becausehehasrenderedsoimportantaservice———becausehehasexposedhimselftosomanymishaps，tosomuchtroubleandexpense，doeshedeservetobetaxed？Itisasthoughthemilitiawhodefendthefrontiersshouldbeselectedtobeartheexpensesofthecampaign。
``Whogoethawarfareanytimeathisowncharges？’’
saithSt。Paul。Itisthepoorlitigantwhomakeswaruponinjustice，whopursuesitbeforethetribunalsathisownrisk，andwhoismadetopayfortheservicewhichisrenderedbyhim。
Whensuchexpensesarethrownuponadefendant，unjustlydraggedintothelitigiouscontention，thecaseisyetworse：
insteadofanythinghavingbeendoneforhisadvantage，hehasbeentormented，andheismadetopayforhavingbeentormented。
Iftheexpensesarealtogetherthrownuponthepartywhoisfoundtohavedonewrong（althoughitoftenhappens，owingtotheuncertaintyeitherofthefactsorofthelaw，thattherehasbeennowilfulwrongoneitherside，）thiscannotbedoneatfirst：thispartycanonlybeknownattheterminationofthesuit。Butthensuchajudgmentwouldbeapunishment；andthereisachancethatsuchapunishmentmaynotbedeserved；anotherchance，thattheindividualmaynotbeina。conditiontosupportit；anotherchance，thatitwillbeeithertoogreatortoolittle。[1]
II。Asanotherviolationofthisrule，maybecitedthepracticeoftakingfees，ascarriedoninmostcustom—houses，andwhichconstitutedagreatabuseinthoseofEngland，previouslytothereformintroducedbyMr。Pitt。Manyoftheofficers，notreceivingsalariessufficientfortheirmaintenance，wereallowedtomakeupthedeficiencybyfeesreceivedfortheirownadvantage。Thiscustomhadanappearanceofreason。``Wepassyourmerchandisethroughthecustom—house’’，theymighthavesaid；
``andyououghttopayforthisservice。’’Butthisreasonisdeceptive。
``Withoutthiscustom—house’’，themerchantsmighthavereplied，``ourmerchandisewouldhavegonestraightforward。Itisnotforouradvantagethatthiscostlydepotisestablished———itisforthegeneralwantsoftheState；theState，therefore，whichyouserve，oughttopayyou，andnotus，whomyoutormentwithyourservices，whichweshouldbeveryhappytodowithout。’’Butitmaybesaid，thisexpensemustbebornebysomebody：
whyshoulditnotbebornebythesemerchantsaswellasanybodyelse？
Becauseitisapartialandunequaltax。Taxesuponmerchandisearegenerallyinproportiontothevalueofthegoods；thisabusivetaxseldomisso。
Arichmerchantdoesnotfeelit；heisreimbursedbythesaleofhisgoods：
apoorindividualisoppressedbythissecondcontribution，whichhefindsisnecessarytopaytotheclerkafterhehaspaidwhatisduetotheExchequer；
anditwithreasonappearstohimthemoreodious，becauseitisoftentimesarbitrary。
III。Inconclusion，asalastexampleoftheviolationofthisrule，wementiontheemolumentsoftheclergy，insofarastheyconsistoftithes。Iftheservicesoftheclergycontributetothemaintenanceofpublicmorality，andobediencetothelaws，eventhosetowhomtheseservicesarenotpersonallydirectedarebenefitedbythem———theyareusefultothewholestate：theirexpense，whateveroughttobeitsamount，oughttobebornebythewholecommunity。
Distributedasthisexpenseisatpresent，underthesystemoftithes，insuchmannerthateveryoneknowsbowmuchandtowhombepaysit，noadvantageisderivedfromthisknowledge；whilsttheinconveniencesarebuttoomanifest，inthathatredwhichsofrequentlysubsistsbetweentheparishionersandtheirminister，theshepherdandhisflock；bymeansofwhichhislabours，solongasthisenmitysubsists，arerenderedworsethanuseless。Werethisexpensetobedefrayedfromthegeneralsourceofthepublictreasure，thesescandalousdissensionswouldbeavoided；
andwhethertherevenuesweremoreorlessample，itwouldbepossibletopreserveamorejustproportionbetweenthemandthedifferentdegreesoflabour，insteadoffloatingasatpresentbetween£；20and£；20，000
perannum，underthedirectionofchance。[2]
RRBook2Chapter7TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterVIIBYEMOLUMENTSEXCLUDECORRUPTION。RuleV。Inemploymentswhichexposethepublicfunctionarytopeculiartemptations，theemolumentsoughttobesufficienttopreservehimfromcorruption。
Settingasideallconsiderationsofthehappinessoftheindividual，theinterestofthepublicrequires，thatinallemploymentswhichaffordthemeansofillicitgain，theindividualsemployedshouldbeplacedabovewant。Ifthisimportantconsiderationbeneglected，weoughtnottobesurprisedthatmenurgedonbyperpetuallyrecurringwantsshouldabusethepowerstheypossess。Undersuchcircumstances，iftheyarefoundguiltyofextortionandpeculation，theyarelessdeservingofblamethanthatgovernmentwhichhasspreadthesnareintowhichitwasscarcelypossiblethattheirprobityshouldnotfall。Placedbetweenthenecessityofprovidingthemeansofsubsistence，andtheimpossibilityofprovidingthemhonestly，theywillnaturallybeledtoregardpeculationandextortionasalawfulsupplement，tacitlyauthorizedbythegovernment。
Theexamplesofthismischievouseconomy，andoftheinconveniencesresultingfromit，aremorefrequentinRussiathanunderanyotherEuropeangovernment。
``M。deLaunay（Farmer—generalunderFrederickII。）representedtothekingthatthesalariesofthecustom—houseofficersweretoosmallfortheirsubsistence，andthatitwouldbebutjusticetoaugmentthem；beadded，thathecouldinsuretohisMajestythateveryonewouldthendischargehisdutybetter，andthattheaggregatereceiptsinalltheofficeswouldbelargerattheendoftheyear。’’———``Youdonotknowmysubjects’’，saidFrederick；``theyareallrogueswheremyinterestsareinquestion。Ihavethoroughlystudiedthem，andIamsuretheywouldrobmeatthealtar。Bypayingthembetter，youwoulddiminishmyrevenues，andtheywouldnotrobmeless’’。———``Sire’’，repliedM。deLaunay，``howcantheydootherwisethansteal？Theirsalariesarenotenoughtobuythemshoesandstockings！apairofbootscoststhemamonth’spayatthesametime，manyofthemaremarried。Andwherecantheyobtainfoodfortheirwivesandfamilies，ifitisnotbyconnivingatthesmugglers？
Thereis，Sire，amostimportantmaxim，whichinmattersofgovernmentistoofrequentlyneglected。Itis，thatmeningeneraldesiretobehonest；
butitisalwaysnecessarytoleavethemtheabilityofbeingso。IfyourMajestywillconsenttomakethetrialIpropose，Iwillengagethatyourrevenueswillbeaugmentedmorethanafourth，’’Themaximinmorals，thusbroughtforwardbyM。deLaunay，appearedtotheking，———beautifulandjustasitreallyisinitself，———somuchthemoreexcellentfrombeinginthemouthofafinancier；sincemenofthisclassarenotingeneralreputedtoknowmanysuch。Heauthorizedtheexperiment；heincreasedthesalariesoftheofficersbyahalf，andhisrevenueswereincreasedathirdwithoutanynewtaxes。[1]
Asalaryproportionatetothewantsofthefunctionaryoperatesasakindofmoralantiseptic，orpreservative。Itfortifiesaman’sprobityagainsttheinfluenceofsinisterandseductivemotives。
Thefearoflosingitwillingeneralbemorethanequivalenttotheordinarytemptationsheldoutbyillicitgains。
Butintheestimationofaman’swants，itisnotmerelytowhatisabsolutelynecessarythatourcalculationoughttobeconfined；———FabriciusandCincinnatusarenottheproperstandardstobeselected；theactualstateofsocietyoughttobeconsidered；theaveragemeasureofprobitymustbeourrule。Publicopinionassignstoeverypublicfunctionaryacertainrelativerank；and，whetherreasonablyornot，expectsfromhimanexpenditurenearlyequaltothatofpersonsinasimilarrank，Ifhebecompelledtoactindefianceofpublicopinion，hedegradesandexposeshimselftocontempt———apunishmentsomuchthemoreafflictive，inproportionashisrankiselevated。Wantskeeppacewithdignity。Destituteofthelawfulmeansofsupportinghisrank，hisdignitypresentsamotiveformalversation，andhispowerfurnishesthemeans。Historyaboundswithcrimes，theresultofthisill—judgedpolicy。
Ifajustificationberequiredfortheextraordinarilyhighsalaries，whichitiscustomarytopaytothesuprememagistrateswhoarecalledKings，itwillbefoundintheprinciplesabovelaiddown。TheAmericans，bydenominatingtheirchiefmagistrateaPresident，havetherebymadeasmallsalary，comparedwithwhatispaidinEnglandtothesovereign，answereverypurposeofalargeone。Why？BecausethedignityOfthepresidentiscomparedwiththatoftheotherofficersoftherepublic，whilstinEuropethedignityofthesovereignismeasuredbyasortofcomparisonwiththatofotherkings。Ifhewereunabletomaintainacertainpompamidsttheopulenceofhiscourtiers，hewouldfeelhimselfdegraded。CharlesIl。，torelievehimselffromtherestrictionsimposeduponhimbytheeconomyofparliament，soldhimselftoaforeignpotentate，whoofferedtosupplyhisprofusion。Thehopeofescaping，fromtheembarrassmentsintowhichhehadplungedhimself，drovehim，likeaninsolventindividual，tocriminalresources。Thismistakeneconomyoccasionedtheexpenseoftwosuccessivewars，terminatinginapeacemore。disastrous，perhaps，thaneitherofthewars。Ourstrengthwaswastedinoppressinganecessaryally，insteadofbeingemployedincheckingtheambitionofarival，withwhomwehadafterwardstocontendwithdiminishedresources。
ThustheestablishmentoftheCivilList，thoughitsamountmayappearlarge，maybeconsideredasameasureofgeneralsecurity，Itistrue，thatthesumnecessarytopreventCharlesII。fromsellinghimself，or，inotherwords，theamountwhichinthisinstancewouldhaveoperatedasamoralantiseptic，orpreservative，couldnothavebeenveryaccuratelycalculated。Agreaterorlessportionofthisantisepticmustbeemployed，inproportionasthereexistsagreaterorlessproclivitytowardscorruption，Experienceisthetouchstoneofallcalculationsinthisrespect。Providedtheseabusesareguardedagainst，alowscaleofsalariescanneverbeanevil；itmustbeagood。Ifthesalarybenotasufficientrewardfortheservicetobeperformed，theofficewillnotbeaccepted：ifitbesufficient，everythingwhichisaddedtoitsamount，issomuchlavishedinpurewaste。
RRBook2Chapter8TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterVIIIGIVEPENSIONSOFRETREAT。RuleVII。Pensionsofretreatoughttobeprovided，especiallywhentheemolumentsallowedarenotmorethansufficienttomeettheabsolutewantsofthefunctionary。[1]
Pensionsofretreatarerecommendedbyconsiderationsofhumanity，justice，andgoodeconomy：theymoreovertendtoinsuretheproperdischargeofduty，andconstituteasourceofresponsibilityonthepartoftheindividualsemployed。
1。Therearemanycasesinwhichitisnotdesirablethatapublicfunctionaryshouldcontinuetobeemployedafterhisactivityandcapacityhavebecomeimpaired。Butsincetheinfirmitiesofagetendtoincreasehiswants，thisisnotthetimeinwhichhewillbeabletoretrenchhisexpenditure；andhewillbeinducedbythisconsideration，inhisoldageandimpotency，tocontinuetoendeavourtoperform，withpain，andevenwithdisgrace，thedutiesofastationwhichinhismaturityhehadfilledwithpleasureandreputation。Towaittillhevoluntarilyresigns，istoexpectaspeciesofsuicide；todismisshimwithoutapensionofretreat，is，inthesupposedstateofhisfaculties，aspeciesofhomicide。
Apensionofretreatremovesallthesedifficulties：itisadebtofhumanity，paidbythepublictoitsservants。
2。Bymeansofthesepensions，thescaleofallsalariesmaybelowerthanotherwise，withoutproducinganyilleffectuponthequalityoftheservicesrendered：theywillconstituteaniteminthecalculationwhicheveryindividualmakes。Inthemeantime，governmentwillobtainfromall，atalowprice，services，theulteriorcompensationforwhich，onaccountofthecasualtiesofhumanlife，willonlybereceivedbyafew。Itisalotteryinwhichtherearenoblanks。
3。Inallemploymentsfromwhichtheindividualsareremovableatpleasure，thepensionofretreat，inconsequenceoftheapproachoftheperiodatwhichitwillbecomenecessaryordue，willaddanincreasingvaluetothesalary，andaugmenttheresponsibilityoftheindividualemployed。Shouldbebetemptedtomalversation，itwillbenecessarythattheprofitderivablefromhismalversationshouldcompensatewithcertainty，notonlyforthelossofhisannualsalary，butalsoforthevalueofhisfuturepensionofretreat：hisfidelityisthussecuredtothelastmomentofhiscontinuinginoffice。
4。Weoughtnottoforgetthehappinessinsuredtothepersonsemployed，resultingfromthesecuritygiventothembytheprovisionthusmadeagainstthatperiodoflifewhichismostmenacedwithweaknessandneglect。Henceanhabitualdispositiontoperformthedutiesoftheirofficewithalacritywillarise；theywillconsiderthemselvesaspermanentlyprovidedfor，andfixedinasituationinwhichalltheirfacultiesmaybeappliedtothedischargeofitsduties，withoutbeingturnedasidebyvagueapprehensionsoffuturedistress，andthedesireofimprovingtheircondition，whichsooftenleadsindividualssuccessivelytotrydifferentstations。Anotheradvantagetothegovernment：insteadofbeingbadlyservedbynovices，itwillpossessabodyofexperiencedfunctionaries，expertandworthyofitsconfidence。
Theamountofthesepensionsoughttoberegulatedbyfixedrules，otherwisetheywillbecomeasourceofabuse：officeswillbebestowedforthesakeofthepension，insteadofthepensionbeingbestowedforthesakeoftheoffice。Theyoughtalsotoincreaseaccordingtothelengthofservice，leavingatalltimesaninducementtocontinuedexertion；
withoutwhichprecaution，theservicesofexperiencedindividuals，whichitmightbedesirabletoretain，wouldfrequentlybelost。RRBook2Chapter9TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterIXOFTHESALEOFOFFICES。Ifitbedesirablethatthepublicservantsshouldbecontentedwithsmallsalaries，itismoredesirablethattheyshouldbewillingtoservegratuitously，andmostdesirablethattheyshouldbewillingtopayforthelibertyofserving，insteadofbeingpaidfortheirservices。Suchisthesimplebutconclusivetrainofargumentinfavourofthevenalityofoffices，abstractlyconsidered。
Suchanarrangementisattendedwithanotheradvantage。
Asumlaidoutinthepurchaseofanofficerendersthepurchaserresponsibleinahigherdegreethanhewouldbe，werehetoreceiveasalaryequalto，orevenexceedinginamount，theinterestofthemoneyhehaspaid。
Thelossofasalarypaidbythepublic，ismerelythecessationofsomuchgain；thelossofanofficewhichhasbeenpurchased，isthepositivelossofsomuchcapitalwhichtheindividualhasactuallypossessed。Theimpressionproduceduponthemindbythesetwospeciesoflossiswidelydifferent。Thecessationofagainisgenerallymuchlessseverelyfelt，thanalosstoacorrespondingamount。Thegainwhichdependsuponexternalcircumstancesisalwaysprecarious———itcannotbereckoneduponwithcertainty；
ontheotherband，ifanindividualhavepurchasedanofficewithhisowncapital，helooksuponitasabsolutelyhisown；itcomestoberegardedasacertain，fixed，andpermanentsourceofrevenue，andasidentifiedwithhisoriginalproperty，uponwhichbehasalwaysreckoned。
Whenamanpurchasesanoffice，itmaybefairlypresumedthathepossessesappropriateaptitudeforthedischargeofitsduties。Aretherepecuniaryemolumentsattachedtoanoffice，———theofficemaybeacceptedforthesakeoftheseemoluments。Aretherenopecuniaryemoluments，———theofficecanbedesiredonlyonaccountofitsduties，orofthenaturalrewardsofhonourandpowerwhichareinseparablefromit。Such，atleast，istheordinarystateofthings。itis，however，possiblethatsuchanofficemightbedesiredasameansofobtainingsomehiddenprofitprejudicialtothepublic：butthiswouldbeaparticularcase，whoseexistenceoughttobeestablishedbyproof。
Itisnotbynamesalonethatwecandeterminewhetheritbemostadvantageousforthepublic，thatofficesshouldwithoutemolumentsbegivenaway，orwhenwithemolumentsshouldbesold：thisquestioncanonlybedeterminedbyanaccurateaccount，exhibitingthebalanceofthesumspaidandreceived。If，however，therebeanyofficeswithoutemoluments，forwhichpurchaserscanbefound，———wereitpossibletosellpurelyhonoraryappointments，officesconnectedwithpublicpompandshow，itwouldbeentirelyconsistentwithgoodeconomy：itwouldbetoconvertataxuponhonour，unfeltbyanyone，butestablishedinfavourofthepurchasers，intohardcash。Ataxwouldthusbelevieduponvanity。
Thegainwouldbereal，thoughthebargain，likethatoftheLaplandsorcerers，wereonlyforbagsofwind。