Thehonourwhichcementstheirconspiraciesisthepestofsociety。Whyshouldwenotseekinspirethemwiththehighestdegreeofdistrusttowardeachother？———whyshouldwenotarmthemagainsteachother，andmakethemfearlesttheyshouldfindaninformerineveryaccomplice？Whereforeshouldwenotseektofillthemwithadesiretoinformagainstandmutuallytodestroyeachother；sothateachone，uneasyandtremblinginthemidstofhisfellows，shouldfearhiscompanionsasmuchashisjudges，norbeabletohopeforsecuritybutintherenunciationofhiscrimes。Thisisexactlywhattheconsiderationofthepublicwelfarewouldleadustowish；
andifwearetobeturnedasidefromthecareofthisobjectbyregardtothefidelityofthievesandmurdererstotheirengagements，forastillstrongerreason，fromhumanity，oughtwetoabstainfrompunishingtheircrimes。
Beccaria，uponjustground，condemnsthesovereignsandjudges，whoafterhavingenticedanoffendertobecomeaninformer，afterwardsviolatetheirpromise，andrenderitillusory。Inthiscaseweneednotfeartogiveventtothefeelingsofhorrorandindignationwhichsomischievousaproceedinginspires。Itismischievousinthehighestpossibledegree，Itdestroysallfutureconfidenceinsimilaroffers，andrenderspowerlessthismostnecessaryinstrument。Itcements，insteadofweakening，theunionofcriminalsamongthemselves，andcausesgovernmentitselftoappearastheguardianoftheirsociety，byaddingmockerytotherigourofthelaw，bypunishingtheindividualwhohasconfidedinitspromises。
``But’’，saysBeccaria，``societyauthorizestreason，detestedevenbycriminalsamongthethemselves。’’Wehavealreadyseenwhatistobeunderstoodbythistreason。Itisnaturaltocriminalstodetestit———itistheirruin：itoughttobeapprovedbyhonestmen——itistheirsafeguard。Itwillintroducecrimesofcowardiceandbaseness。No：itwillintroduceactsofprudence，ofpenitence，andofpublicutilityitwilloperateasanantidotetoallcrimes。Thesepretendedcrimesofcowardicearemoreinjurioustoanationthanthecrimesofcourage。Thetruthisexactlythereverse：whichproducemostalarminsociety，privatelystealingandswindlingontheonesideorhighwayrobberyandmurderontheother？Thetribunalwhichemploysthisexpedient，discoversitsuncertainty。Itdiscoversthatitcanknownothingwithouthavinglearntit。Bywhatmeanscanajudgeattaintocertaintywithoutwitnesses？Inwhatcountryisitcustomaryforcriminalstomakethejudgestheconfidantsoftheirmisdeedsandtheirplans？Thelawexhibitsitsfeebleness，inimploringtheassistanceevenofhimwhohasbrokenit。
Thelawseekstheoffenderwhofliesfromit：ifthemeansemployedforhisdiscoveryareeffectual，itonlyexhibitsitswisdom。
ButifrewardsaretobebestoweduponcriminalswhodenouncetheiraccomplicesBeccariadesiresthatitmaybeinvirtueof``agenerallaw，whichshouldpromiseimpunitytoeveryaccomplicewhodiscoversacrime，ratherthanbyaparticulardeclarationineachparticularcase。’’Thereasonheassignsis，that``suchalawwouldpreventthecombinationofmalefactors，byinspiringeachofthemwiththefearofexposinghimselfalone，todanger，andthatitwouldnotservetogivethatboldnesstothewicked，whoseethattherearesomecasesinwhichtheirservicesarerequired。’’Butwehavealreadyobserved，thattheparticulardeclarationequallyservestopreventthiscombination，andthatitisthegenerallawwhichtendstogiveboldnesstothewicked，andevencreatesthebeliefthatjusticecannotbeexecutedwithoutthem。
``Alawofthisnature’’，addsBeccaria，``oughttojointoimpunitythebanishmentoftheinformer。’’
Aconditionofthisnaturecouldonlyservetorenderthelawinefficaciousinavarietyofcases，andalsocontainsacontradictioninterms。Alawjoiningbanishmenttoimpunity！Isnotbanishmentapunishment？{Note}
RRBook1Chapter15TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXVCOMPETITIONASTOREWARDS。Whenapotionofthematterofrewardisallottedforthepurchaseofservices，oughtthelibertyofcompetitiontobesubmitted？———inany，andwhatcases？———whatisthegeneralrule，andwhataretheexceptions？———inthecaseofthatspeciesofservice？———forwhatspeciesofreward？
Ifpopularopinionbeallowedtodetermine，thequestionconcerningthegeneralruleisalreadyanswered。Inallcasesinwhichnoparticularreasoncanbegiventothecontrarythelibertyofcompetitionoughttobeadmitteduponthelargestscale。Yettothindecisionofthepublic，thepracticeofnationthatis，ofthosewhobeartheswayinnationsisbynomeansuniformlyconformable：thereareprivilegesandthereareexclusions———pursuitsopentooneset，closedtoanothersetofmen：allgovernmentshavebeenmoreorlessinfectedwiththatintermeddlingdisposition，whichbelievesitcangiveperfectiontoparticularspeciesofservice，byappropriatingitsexerciseexclusivelytoparticularindividuals。
Thattheremaybecasesfittobeexceptedoutoftheabovegeneralrule，isallowed：hutbeforewecometotheconsiderationoftheexceptions，letusseehowthematterstandsuponprinciple———whetherthepeoplearemostright，ortheirrulers。
Andinthefirstplace，bywayofillustration，letusstopamomenttoexaminetheconnexionthereisuponthisoccasionbetweenrewardandpunishment。Letussuppose，apprehensionsareentertainedoftheprevalenceofmurderandincendiarism。Againstaparticularpersonthesuspicionsarestrongerthanagainstanyoneelse。Thereisasyetnolawagainsteitherofthoseoffences。Thesovereign，intendingtodohisutmosttoguardthestateagainstthosecalamitiessendsforthesuspectedperson，andprohibitshimfromcommittinganysuchcrimes，undersuchpenaltiesashethinksproper：forthesuspectedperson，observe，andforhimonly；
therebeingasyetnogenerallawprohibitingsuchenormitiesandeverybodyelsebeingleftatperfectliberty。Ifitwerepossiblethatanysuchincidentcouldhavehappenedwithintimeofhistory，shouldnotwepronounceatoncethateitherthenationcouldnotyethaveemergedfromastateoftheprofoundestbarbarism，orelsethatthesovereignsoactingwouldnothavebeeninhisrightmind。Such，however，istheexactcounterpartofthepolicyofhim，whowantingaservicetobeperformedofsuchanatureasthat，foraughthecanbecertain，thereareseveralcompetenttoperformit———somebetterthanothers，andeachman，accordingtothemotivesthataregivenhim，betterthanhimself———commitsthebusinesstooneinexclusionoftherest。
Ifpenallawsmustbeapplicabletoall，thattheremaybeachanceofpreventingalloffences，theofferofrewardoughttobegeneral，thattheremaybeachanceofobtainingservices，andofobtainingthebest。
Ifweinquireindetailforthereasonswhycompetitionforreward，andforeverythingelsewhichcanbebestowedinthewayofproducingservice，shouldbeasopenandasfreeaspossible，thequestionmaybeconsideredintwopointsofview———first，asitconcernstheinterestsofthoseforwhosesaketheservicewantedistobeperformed；secondly，asitconcernstheinterestofthosebywhomtheservicemightcometobeperformed。
Withregardtotheformersetofinterests，ithasalreadybeenobserved，asareasonfortheemploymentofrewardasafitterinstrumentthanpunishmentforattainingagivendegreeofexcellence，theideaofwhichhasalreadybeenconceivedbythepersonwhowishesittobeattained，thatthechanceisgreaterwhenrewardisemployedastheincitementthanwhenuseismadeofpunishmentbecausepunishmentcanonlyoperateuponfewselectedindividuals，andshouldtheybeunequaltothetask，wouldbealtogetheremployedinruin。Whatevernumberyouselect，youforegoallthechancewhichyoumighthaveoftheservicebeingperformedbyanyoneelse。Thecaseisequallythesamewhenrewardsareofferedtoaselectedfew。Allowingthelibertyofcompetition，youmayproposerewardstoanynumberwithoutexpense———youpayitbuttoone：youdonotpayittilltheserviceisperformed；andthechanceofitsbeingperformedisinproportiontothenumberofpersonstowhomitisproposed。
Anotheradvantagewhichrewardhasoverpunishment，aswehaveseen，is，thatbymeansoftheformer，thevalueoftheservicemaybebroughttoanindefinitelyhighdegreeofperfection。Butthiscanonlybeeffectedbymeansofafreecompetition。Inthisway，andthisonly，canindividualsbeledtoexerttheirfaculties。Weretherewardproposedtooneonly，havingrenderedthedegreeofservicesufficienttoentitlehimtotherewardbewouldstopthere：tomaketheexertionsnecessarytocarryittoanyhigherdegreeofperfection，wouldbetotroublehimselftonopurpose。Butletrewardbeofferedtothatoneoftwocompetitors，forexample，whobestperformstheservice：unlesseitherofthemknowexactlythedegreeofskillpossessedbytheother，andknowsittobeclearlyinferiortohisown，eachwillexerthimselftohisutmost，sincethemoreperfecthemakeshiswork，thebetterchancehasheofgainingthereward。Thematterissoordered，thatforeverypartofthegreatestdegreeofservicehecanpossiblyfindmeanstorender，therewillbeamotivetoinducehimtorenderit。Thesamereasoningmaybeappliedtoanyothernumberofcompetitors；andthechanceofperfectionwillbeincreased，ifthefacultiesofthecompetitorsareequalinproportiontotheirnumber。
Shouldhewhohasthedisposaloftherewardassert———``I
amacquaintedwithanindividualmorecompetentthananyothertoperformtheserviceinquestion，andwithwhomnoonecanbeplacedincompetition’’———hisassertionisexposedtothisdilemma：uponafairtrialofskill，eitherthispersonwillstandfirst，orhewillnot：ifhestandfirst，thecompetitionisnottohisprejudice，butredoundstohishonour；ifanotherexcelhim，theadvantageofafreecompetitionisproved。Partialityiseithermischievousorunnecessary。
Wenextconsiderthequestionasitaffectstheinterestofthosewhomightbeadmittedascompetitors。
Rewardinitsownnatureisagood：allcompetitorsthinkso，andthatabalanceofgoodremainsevenafterdeductingtheevilofthatlabour，whateveritbe，whichisexpendedintheperformanceoftheservice，ortheywouldnotbecompetitors。Hewhohasthedisposaloftherewardthinksso，orhewouldneitherofferit，norbesoanxiousashesometimesistosecureitforthosetowhomhewishestogiveapreference。
Butwhenthereisnospecialreasontothecontrary，whyshouldnotallthemembersofastatehaveachanceofobtainingthegoodstobedistributedinthatstate？Toexcludeanymanfromanychancebemighthaveofbetteringhimself，isatbestahardship：ifnospecialreasoncanbegivenforit，itisinjustice，andoneofthosespeciesofinjusticewhich，ifadministeredonpretenceofdelinquency，wouldopenlybearthenameofpunishment。
Itmaybeobjected，thatifafreecompetitionwereallowed，``thenumberofcompetitorswouldbeverygreat，whiletherewardbeingconfinedtoone，ortoaverysmallnumber，oneonlywillbepaidforhislabour；thelotoftherestwouldbelostlabouranddisappointment：
thatthepublicwouldbelosersbytheirlaboursbeingdivertedfromserviceofgreaterutility，andthattheservicewould，withoutthiscompetition，beperformedinasufficientdegreeofperfection，orifperformedinanyhigherdegree，wouldbeofnofurtheruse。’’
Thefollowingconsiderationsmayserveasareplytotheseobjections。Wherethereisnothingmorethanthemerelossoflabourtothosewhocanaffordtoloseit，orofanythingelsetothosewhocanaffordtopartwithit，thepossibleamountofmischief，beitwhatitmay，canaffordnosufficientreasonfornarrowingcompetition。
Iftherebethepainofdisappointmentaftertrial，therehasbeenthepleasureofexpectationbeforetrial；andthelatter，thereisreasontobelieve，isuponanaveragemuchgreaterthantheformer。Thepleasureisoflongercontinuance；itfillsalargerspaceinthemind；andthelarger，thelongeritcontinues。Thepainofdisappointmentcomesoninamoment，andgivesplacetothefirstdawningofanewhope，orisdrivenoutbyothercares。Ifitbetrue，thattheprincipalpartofhappinessconsistsinhope，andthatbutfewofourhopesarecompletelyrealized，itwouldbenecessary，thatmenmightbesparedfromdisappointment，toshutthemoutfromjoy。
Itmayfurtherbeobserved，thatthelibertyofcompetitionseldomincludessomanyas，ifconsideredwithregardtotheparticularnatureoftheservice，itwouldseemtoinclude。Whereitisnotrestrainedbyinstitution，itisoftenrestrainedbynature，andthatsometimeswithinverynarrowbounds。Servicesdependingonopportunity，areconfinedtothosetowhomfortuneshallhavegiventheopportunity；———servicesdependingonscienceoronart，areconfinedtothosewhomeducationandpracticehavefamiliarizedwiththescienceortheart，———servicesdependingonstation，areconfinedtoone，ortothefew，iftherebemorethanone，whoatthetimeinquestionareinvestedwiththatstation。Thustheobjectionderivedfromthetoogreatnumberofcompetitorsisalmostalwayswithoutfoundation。
Italsooftenhappens，that，independentlyoftherewardgiventothesuccessfulcandidate，theserviceevenoftheunsuccessfulpaysitself。Thisismoreparticularlyapttobethecasewithregardtoservicesofindefiniteeminencewhichdependonskill。Somedevelopstheirtalents———othersobtainnotoriety；onediscourseobtainsthereward———twentycandidateshaveimprovedtheirmindsinendeavouringtoobtainit。Theathleticexercises，whichonsuchavastvarietyofoccasionswerecelebratedthroughoutancientGreece，seemtohavebeenopentoallcomers：itwasbutoneateachgamethatcouldobtaintheprize，buteventheunsuccessfulcombatantsfoundasortofsubordinateadvantageinthereputationofhavingcontended，andintheadvancesmadebytheminthoseenergies，whichatthattimeofdaygaveadistinguishedlustretoeveryonewhoexcelledinthem。
Itmayevenhappen，thattheserviceofthesuccessfulshallbenoobject，andthattheserviceslookedtoonthepartofhimwhoinstitutestherewardshallbethosewhichareperformedbytheunsuccessful。
TheGreciangamesjustmentioned，maybetakenasanexample。Thestrengthofthesuccessfulcombatantwasnosensibleadvantagetothecountry：theobjectaimedatwastheencouragementofpersonalprowessandskill。Inthiscountry，theprizesgivenathorse—raceshaveasimilarsortofobject。
Fromthefewhorseswhowin，thepublicmayreapnoparticularadvantage；
butthehorseswhicharebeaten，ornevercontendfortheprize，areimprovedbytheemulationtowhichithasgivenbirth。
BytheEnglishGovernment，veryamplerewardsareofferedtohimwhoshalldiscoverthemostperfectandpracticablemodeofascertainingashipslongitudeatsea。Oneeffectofthisrewardistodivertfromtheiremploymentsamultitudeofartistsandstudentsinvariousbranchesofphysicalscience，ofwhomafewonlycanberecompensedfortheirexpenseandlabour。Topayallthatwouldtry，mightprobablybeimpracticable；butthebenefitoftheserviceappearstocounterbalancethisinconvenience；andinpointoffact，thepersonswhocansupposethemselvesqualifiedtocontendinsucharacearesofew，thatthisinconveniencecanscarcelybeveryconsiderable。Werethesamerewardtobegivenforrunning，boxing，orwrestling，thecommonbusinessesoflifewouldbedeserted，andalltheworldwouldbecomerunners，boxers，andwrestlers。
AmongsttheAthenians，rewardsnotvastlyinferior，consideringthedifferenceinthevalueofmoneyandthecommonrateofliving，wereactuallygiventosuchathleticexercises。ButtheAthenianswereasmuchintherightsotodo，asweshouldbeinthewrongtoimitatethem。Inthosedays，whensuccessinwardependedalmostentirelyuponbodilyaddressandvigour，encouragingtheperformanceoftheseexerciseswasdisciplininganarmy，andthenationalwealthcouldsufferlittle，sincethelaboursofagriculturewerechieflycarriedonbyslaves。
Theadvantagesresultingfromthemostunlimitedfreedomofcompetitionthereforeare———1。Chanceofsuccessincreasedaccordingtothenumberofcompetitors；2。Chanceofthehighestsuccessincreasedbyinvigoratingtheincreasedeffortofeachcompetitor；3。Equalityestablished；
4。Numberofworksmultiplied；5。Latenttalentsdeveloped。
Thecasestowhichthisprinciplemaybeappliedaremuchmoreextensivethanmightatfirstviewbeimagined：itcoversagreatpartofthefieldoflegislation；itmaybeappliedtoecclesiastical，tofiscal，toadministrative，andtoconstitutionallaws。ThisruleisindirectoppositiontothefundamentalprincipleofHindoolegislation。
Inthatcountry，everymanbelongstoacastefromwhichhecannotseparatehimself。Toeachcastebelongstheexerciseofcertainprofessions：thereisacasteoflearnedmen，acasteofwarriors，andacasteoflabourers。
Emulationisthusreducedwithinthenarrowestbounds，andtheenergiesofthepeoplearestifled。
Thisprincipleisopposedtothoseecclesiasticalregulations，bywhichallwhorefusetosigncertainarticlesofbelief，orrefusetopronounceacertainnumberofwordsconcerningtheologicalsubjects，areexcludedfromcertainprofessions。Thegreaterthenumberofindividualsthusexcluded。thegreaterthelosssustainedbythediminutionofcompetitionintheperformanceofthoseservices。
Thisprincipleisindirectcontradictiontoamultitudeoffiscalandadministrativelaws，establishingexclusiveprivilegesinfavourofcertainbranchesofcommerceandtrade；fixingthepriceofcommodities，andtheplacesatwhichtheyaretobeboughtandsold；prohibitingtheentryortheexitofvariousproductionsofagricultureorofmanufactures。
Thesearesomanyexpedientslimitingcompetition，andareinjurioustothenationalwealth。
Thefatherofpoliticaleconomyhasfromthisprincipleinamannercreatedanewscience：theapplicationhehasmadeofittothelawsrelatingtotrade，hasnearlyexhaustedthesubject（WealthofNations）。
Bytwooppositecompetitions，pricesarefixed。
Competitionamongthepurchaserssecurestotheproducersasufficientcompensationfortheoutlayoftheircapitalandlabour：competitionamongthesellers，servingasacounterpoisetotheother，producesacheapmarket，andreducesthepricesofcommoditiestothelowestsumforwhichitisworthwhiletoproducethem。Thedifferencebetweenalowpriceandahighpriceisarewardofferedtothepurchaserbyonesellerfortheservicehewillrendertohim，bygrantingwhatremainstobegained，tohiminsteadoftohiscompetitorwhorequiresmore。
Inalltrades，andinallarts，competitionsecurestothepublic，notonlythelowestpricebutthebestwork。Whateverdegreeofsuperiorityispossessedbyonecommodityoveranotherofthesamedescription，meetswithitsrewardeitherinthequantitysold，orinthepriceatwhichitissold。
Astostoresofeverydescriptionofwhichthepublicstandsinneed，whyisnotthecompetitionleftopentoallwhomaychoosetoundertakethesupply？Itisnotdifficulttofindthedeterminingreason：itismoreconvenienttoserveafriend，adependent，orapartizan，thanapersonunknown，orperhapsanenemy。Butthisisnotanavowablereason：forthepublic，someothermustbesought。Opencompetitionwould，itissaid，produceamultitudeofrashcontractors。
Thetermsinappearancemostadvantageoustogovernmentswouldcommonlybeofferedbysomerashadventurerwho，intheendwouldbefoundunabletofulfilhisengagements。Whenthetimecamefortheperformancehispartofthecontract，thestoresinquestionwouldnotbeprovided，andtheservicewouldsufferirreparableinjury。Itisimportantthatthemenwithwhomwedealshouldbewellknown。Insomecasesthesereasonsmaynotbewithoutfoundationbuttheyaremostfrequentlyillusory。
Theverynatureoftherewardmaysometimesrenderitnecessarytodepartfromthesystemofcompetition。Itisnoteveryofficethatcanbeofferedtoeveryonedisposedtoundertakeit。Oughttheeducationofaprincetobeofferedtohimwhowritesthebesttreatiseuponthateducation？No：suchanofficerequiresqualitiesandvirtues，andparticularlyaknowledgeoftheworldwhichmightnotbepossessedbythephilosopherwhohadresolvedtheproblem。
Oughttheofficeofmasteroftheminttobeofferedtoanyonewhoproducesthebestdie？No：thisimportantdutyrequiresaprobity，anexactness，ahabitofregularity，whichhasnoconnexionwithmanualskill。Thisisareason，andtheonlyreason，fornotofferingsuchofficestoalltheworld；butitisnoreasonfornotattachingtothisserviceanotherreward，towhichalltheworldmightaspire。
Someservices，whicharenotdirectlysusceptibleofopencompetition，aresoindirectly；thatis，bymakingthecompetitionconsistintheperformanceofsomepreliminaryservice，theexecutionofwhichmayserveasatestofaman’sabilitytoperformtheprincipalservice。Thisiswhatisdoneinthecaseofextensivearchitecturalworks，whenartistsareinvitedtogiveintheirplansandtheirmodels：
thisisallthatthenatureoftheserviceallowsof。[2]
When，someyearsago，itwasdesignedtoerectintheneighbourhoodofLondon，atthepublicexpense，aPenitentiaryHouse，themodeofunlimitedcompetitionwasadopted，inordertoobtainplansforit。Thesuperintendentsreceivedsixty—fiveplans，fromamongwhichtheyhadtheopportunityofmakingaselection，insteadoftheonewhichtheywouldhavereceived，hadthesystemoffavouritismbeenpursued。If，withoutreward，aplansuperiortothebestofthosethusobtainedhassincebeendevised，itmustbeattributedtothesharewhichchancehasineverynewinvention：theofferofarewardmayacceleratethedevelopmentofnewideas，withoutenablinganindividualtocompletethearrangementofhisplansatagivenmoment。
WhentheBritishparliamentofferedarewardof£；20，000forthediscoveryofamodeoffindingthelongitude，theywerenotguiltyoftheabsurdityofconfiningthecompetitiontotheprofessorsofnaturalphilosophyandastronomyatOxfordandCambridge。Toresolvetheproblemofthebestsystemoflegislation，ismoreimportantandmoredifficult。Why，inmixedgovernments，hasitbeenhithertoconfinedtothemembersofthelegislativebody，andinmonarchies，tothechancellor？
Thedeterminingreasonisabundantlyclear：Thosewhowereinpossessionofthepower———thosetowhomitbelongstoproposethisproblem，areashamedtomakeapublicavowaloftheirownincapacitytosolveit；theycarefullyavoidallacknowledgmentsoftheirownincapacityorindolence；theyarewillingthattheirlaboursshouldberenderedaslittleburdensomeaspossible，byfollowingtheordinaryroutine，andnotthattheyshouldbeincreasedbytheexhibitionofthenecessityofreform。Inaword，theydesirenottobeadvised，buttobeobeyed。Whilesubjecttotheinfluenceofsuchcircumstances，itcanbeconsiderednomatterofsurprisethattheyshould，asfaraspossiblehavemadethescienceoflegislationanexclusivemonopoly。
Theinterestsofhumannaturecryaloudagainstthiscontemptiblejealousy。
Theproblemofthebestsystemoflawsoughttobeproposedtothewholeworld：itbelongstothewholeworldtosolveit。
FrederictheGreattwiceattemptedtomakeageneralreforminthelawsofhiskingdom：bothtimesheappliedtoasinglechancellor。Thefirstofthem，toocontentedwithhimselftosuspecthecouldstandinneedofassistancefromothers，producedaworkthemostinsignificantofanywhichhadappeared。Thesecond，M。VonCarmer，afterhavingcompletedhislabours，actedverydifferently，andmuchbetter：
beforeitreceivedtheauthorityofalaw，hepresentedittothepublic，withaninvitationtolearnedmentocommunicatetohimtheirobservationsuponit；secondinghisinvitationsbytheofferofrewards。ItiswithregretthatIamconstrainedtoaskwhydidnothe，whohadinthisrespectthusfarsurpassedallhispredecessors，actstillmorenobly？Whyonlyaskforcriticismuponagivenwork？———whynotaskfortheworkitself？
WhylimittheinvitationtoGermansalone，asthoughtherewerenogeniusoutofGermany？———whylimittherewardtoasumbelowthepriceofthosesnuff—boxeswhicharepresentedtoaforeignminister，fortheserviceheperformsindepartingwhenheisrecalled。Therichestdiamondinbismaster’scrownwouldnothavebeentoogreatarewardforhimwhoshouldthushavegiventoalltheothersanewandbefore—unknownsplendour。
Ondifferentoccasions，publicspiritedindividualsandsocietieshaveendeavouredtosupply，fromtheirslenderresources，theneglectofgovernments，andhaveofferedlargerrewardsthanthechancelloroftheGreatFrederic。Thatwhichtheycouldnotofferandwhichitdidnotdependuponthemtooffer，wastherewardwhichthemindsbestadaptedfortheaccomplishmentofsuchanundertakingwouldesteemaboveeveryother———Imean，theassurancethattheirlabourswouldbejudgedbythosewhocouldgivethemauthority———whocouldmakethemuseful。
Inconclusion，Idonotsay，thatwithregardtocertainservices，sufficientreasonsmaynotbefoundforaltogetherexcludingcompetition，butthatineverysuchcasethesereasonsoughttobereadytoberendered，otherwiseitoughttobelawfultoconcludethattheydonotexist。
RRBook1Chapter16TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXVIREWARDSFORVIRTUE。Beccariaaccusesmodernlegislatorofindifferencetothissubject。``Punishments’’，sayshe，``and，inmanyinstances，undulyseverepunishments，areprovidedforcrimes；forvirtuetherearenorewards’’。
Thesecomplaints，repeatedbyamultitudeofwriters，arematterofcommon—placedeclamation。Solongastheyareconfinedtogeneralterms，thesubjectpresentsnodifficulty；———butwhenanattemptismadetoremovethegroundofcomplaint，andtoframeacodeofremuneratorylawsforvirtue，howgreatisthedifferencebetweenwhathasbeenassertedtobedesirable，andwhatispossible！
Virtueissometimesconsideredasanact，sometimesasadisposition：whenitisexhibitedbyapositiveact，itconfersaservice；whenitisconsideredasadisposition，itisachanceofservices。
Apartfromthisnotionofservice，itisimpossibletotellwhereinvirtueconsists。Toformclearideasconcerningit，itmustaltogetherbereferredtotheprincipleofutility：utilityisitsobject，aswellasitsmotive。
Afterhavingthusfarspokenofservicestoberewarded———thatis，ofmanifestandpublicactswhichfallnotwithinthelineofordinaryactions———itremainstobeshown，inrelationtovirtue，———1。Whatcannotbeaccomplishedbygeneralrewards———2。Whatitispossibletoaccomplish，eitherbyparticularinstitution，oroccasionalreward。[1]
1。Wemayobserve，inthefirstplace，thatthosecivilvirtues，whicharemostimportanttothewelfareofsociety，andtothepreservationofthehumanrace，donotconsistinstrikingexploits，whichcarrytheirownproofwiththem，butinatrainofdailyactions，inanuniformandsteadycourseofconduct，resultingfromthehabitualdispositionofthemind。Henceitispreciselybecausethesevirtuesareconnectedwiththewholecourseofourexistence，thattheyareincapableofbeingmadetheobjectsoftherewardsofinstitution。Itisimpossibletoknowwhatparticularfacttoselect，atwhatperiodtorequiretheproof，towhatparticularcircumstancetoattachthedistinctionofreward。
2。Addtothesedifficulties，thatoffindingasuitablerewardwhichshallbeagreeabletothoseforwhomitisdesigned。
Themodestyanddelicacyofvirtuewouldbewoundedbytheformalitiesnecessarytothepublicproofofitsexistence。Itisfosteredby，andperhapsdependsuponesteem：butthisisasecretwhichitseekstohidefromitself，andthoseprizesforvirtuewhichseemtoopposethatconscienceisbankrupt，wouldnotbeacceptedbytherich，norevensoughtafterbythemostworthyamongthepoor。
3。Everyvirtueproducesadvantageswhicharepeculiartoitself：probityinspiresconfidenceinalltherelationsoflife；industryleadsontoindependenceandwealth；benevolenceisthesourceofkindlyaffections；———andthoughtheseadvantagesarenotalwaysreaped，theygenerallyfollowinthenaturalcourseofevents。Theireffectismuchmoresteadyandcertainthanthatoffactitiousreward；whichisnecessarilysubjecttomanyimperfections。
InthereignofLouisXIV。
atreatisewaspublished———``OntheFalsityofHumanVirtues’’。
Whatissingular，andwhattheauthorprobablyneversuspectedis，thatbysomeslightalterationsitwouldbeeasytoconvertthisworkintoatreatiseontheirreality。Theauthorappearstohaveconsideredthemasfalse，becausetheywerefoundeduponreciprocalinterest———becausetheirobjectishappiness，esteem，security，andthepeaceableenjoymentoflife———becausemenintheirmutualintercoursesettlewitheachotherfortheirreciprocalservices。Butwithoutthesefelicitouseffectswhatwouldvirtuebe？Inwhatconsistsitsreality？Whatwouldithavetorecommendit？Howwoulditbedistinguishedfromvice？Thisbasisofinterest，whichtothisauthorappearstohaverendereditfalse，ispreciselythatwhichgivesitatrueandsolid，andwemayadd，animmutableexistence；fornoothersourceofhappinesscanbeimagined。[2]
Butifthemostimportantclassofvirtuesarealreadyprovidedwithsufficientmotivestoleadtotheirperformance，eitherinthesufferingstheyprevent，orintheadvantagestowhichtheygivebirth，isitnotsuperfluoustoaddfactitiousmotives？Theinterferenceoflegislatorsisusefulonlyinsupplyingthedeficiencyofnaturalmotive。
4。Whatwouldbeourconditionwerethingsinadifferentstate？———wereitnecessarytoinvitementolabour，honesty，benevolence，andallthedutiesoftheirseveralconditions，bymeansoffactitiousreward？Pecuniaryrewards，itisevident，itwouldbeimpossibletobestow。Honouritistrue，remains，buthowwoulditbepracticabletocreate，intheshapeofhonour，asufficientfundofrewardforthegeneralityofhumanactions？Thevalueoftheserewardsconsistsintheirrarity：sosoonastheyarecommon，theirvalueisgone。
Inthiscase，asinsomanyothercases，thereisananalogybetweenrewardsandpunishments。Itisanimperfectioncommontoboththesesanctions，thattheyareapplicabletoactionsalone，andexerciseonlyadistantandindirectinfluenceuponthehabitsanddispositionswhichgiveacolourtothewholecourseoflife。Thus，rewardscannotbeinstitutedforparentalkindness，conjugalfidelity，adherencetopromises，veracity，gratitude，andpity：legalpunishmentscannotbeassignedtoingratitude，hardnessofheart，violationsoffriendlyconfidence，maliceorenvy———inaword，toallthoseviciousdispositionswhichproducesomuchevilbeforetheyhavebrokenoutintothosecrimeswhicharecognizablebeforelegaltribunals。Thetwosystemsarelikeimperfectscales，usefulonlyforweighingbulkycommodities；andasanindividual，whoselifehasbeenlessguiltythanthatofamanofahardandfalseheart，ispunishedforasingletheft，thereisalsooftenanecessityofrewardingacertaindistinguishedservice，performedbyamanwhoisotherwiselittleentitledtoesteem。
Thus，inregardtothemoralvirtueswhichconstitutethebasisofdailyconduct，thereisnorewardwhichcanheappliedtothembygeneralinstitution。Allthatitispossibletodoislimitedtoseizinguponthosestrikingactions，readilysusceptibleofproof，whichariseoutofextraordinarycircumstances，asopportunitiesofconferringoccasionalrewards。
Rewardsofthisnaturecannotbebestowedperiodically：
theoccasionsforperformingeminentservicesdonotregularlyrecur。Itistheaction，andnotthedateinthealmanack，whichoughttooccasionthereward。TheFrenchAcademyannuallybestowedaprizeupontheindividualwho，amongtheindigentclasses，hadperformedthemostvirtuousaction。
Thejudgeshadalwaysoneprizetobestow，andtheyhadbutone。Theymustoccasionallyhaveexperiencedregretatleavingunrewardedactionsofmeritequaltothatwhichgainedthereward，andsometimesatbeingobligedtorewardanactionofanordinarydescription。Besides，bytheperiodicalreturnofthedistribution，thisprizewouldsoonberenderedanobjectofroutine，andceasetoattractattention。
TheinstitutionofLaRosiè；redeSalencymayheproducedinanswertotheaboveobservations：butitshouldberememberedthatavillageinstitutionisofadifferentnature。Themorelimitedasociety。themorecloselymayitsregulationsbemadetoresemblethoseofdomesticgovernment；———inwhich，aswehavealreadyseen，rewardmaybeappliedtoalmosteverypurpose。Itisthusthatannualprizesmaybeestablishedforagility，skill，strength———foreveryotherqualitywhichitmaybedesirabletoencourageandofwhichtherudimentsalwayexist。
ThereisnotavillageinSwitzerlandwhichdoesnotdistributeprizesofthisnatureformilitaryexercises：itisanexpedientforconvertingthedutiesandservicesofthecitizensintofê；tes。Geneva，whilstitwasarepublic，haditsnavalking———itskingofthearquebuss———itscommanderofthebow———itskingofthecannon。Theconqueror，duringtheyearofhisreign，enjoyedcertainprivileges，littlecostlytothestate；
thepublicjoymarkedthereturnofthenationalexercises，whichplacedallthecitizensundertheeyesoftheirgratefulcountry。LaRosiè；redeSalency，designedtohonourvirtueswhichoughttobeperpetuatedandrenewedfromgenerationtogeneration，mighthaveaperiodicalreturn，liketherosesofsummer。
TheHumaneSociety，establishedinEnglandforthepurposeofaffordingassistancetopersonsindangerofdrowning，andprovidingthemeansofrestorationincasesofsuspendedanimation，distributesprizestothosewhohavesavedanyindividualfromdeath。Inthiscase，therewardisnot，asintheFrenchAcademy，confinedtotheindigentclassalone：menofthefirstrankwouldconsideritanhonourtoreceiveamedalcommemorativeofsonobleanaction。Besides，themodeofconferringtheserewardshasnotbeendramatised；theretiredhabitsofvirtuehavebeenconsulted，thereisnopublicexhibitiontowhichitisdragged，tobeconfoundedorhumiliated。Greatereclà；tmight，however，withoutaddingtothetheatricaleffect，begiventotheserewards，wereanefficientreportmadeofthemtothekingandbothhousesofparliament。
Aninstitutionofasimilarnature，fortherewardofservicesrenderedincasesoffire，shipwreck，andallotherpossibleaccidentswouldstillfurthercontributetothecultivationofbenevolence；
andthesenobleactions，broughtinthesamemannerundertheeyesofthelegislators，andinscribedintheirjournals，wouldacquireapublicityofmuchlessimportancetothehonouredindividualthantosocietyingeneralIndeed，thoughtherewardappliesonlytooneparticularaction，theprincipalobjectdesignedisthecultivationofthosedispositionswhichactionsindicate：andthiscanonlybeaccomplishedbythepublicitywhichisgiventotheexample，andthepublicesteemandhonourinwhichitisheld。
When，uponthesiteoftheprisonwhichhadbeenthesceneofanexaltedinstanceoffilialpiety，theRomanserectedatemple，theyinculcatedanoblelesson：theyproclaimedtheirrespectforoneofthefundamentalvirtuesoftheirrepublic。
Independentlyoftheseeminentlymeritoriousandalwaysrareactions，governmentsmightrenderpublicitysubservienttotheperfectionofagreatvarietyofservices，intheperformanceofwhichtheregulardischargeofdutyismoreimportantthanthedisplayofextraordinaryvirtues。Thisprojectmightberealizedbytheformationofacomparativetableofthesubordinateadministrationsofcities，parishes，orcounties。Thistablewouldrequiretoberenewedatfixedperiods，andmightbemadetoshowwhichdistrictsweremostexactinthepaymentoftaxes———inwhichthefewestcrimeshadbeencommitted———inwhichusefulestablishmentshadbeenformed———inwhichthemostliberalexertionshadbeenmadeforthereliefofcalamity———whathospitalshadbeenconductedwiththegreatesteconomy，andhadbeenmostsuccessfulinthecureofdiseases；whattribunalshaddecidedthegreatestnumberofcauses，andfromwhichthesmallestnumberofappealshadbeenmade；inwhatinstancesefficaciousprecautionshadbeenadoptedforrelievinganyparticulardistrictfromcausestendingtorenderitunhealthy，———frommendicity，fromsmuggling，fromvice，andfrommisery。
Suchofficialreports，independentlyoftheirpoliticalutilitytothegovernment，would，withoutparade，produceallthegoodeffectsofreward———ofthatrewardinhonourwhichcostsnothingtothecountry，andyetmaintainsallthemoralenergiesinfullactivity。Everydistinguishedservicemightfindaplaceintheseannals；andthepeople，alwayspronetoexaggeratethevigilanceandmeansofinformationpossessedbytheirgovernorswouldsoonbepersuadedthataperpetualinspectionwaskeptup，notonlywithrespecttotheirfaults，butalsotheirmeritoriousactions。
ThisprojectisborrowedneitherfromtheRepublicofPlato，northeUtopiaofMore。Itiseveninferiortowhathasinourtimebeencarriedintoeffect，inanempirecomposedofmorethanahundreddepartments；inwhichtables，exhibitingincolumnsalltheresultsofcivil，economical，rural，andcommercialadministration，wereformedwithgreaterfacilityandpromptitudethanwouldhavebeenexperiencedbyanyRussiannoblehadbebeendesirousofobtainingfromhissuperintendentsanaccountofthestateofhisproperty。
Ifrewardswereestablishedforvirtue，whenexhibitedbytheindigentclasses，itwouldbeimpropertoseekforstrikinginstancesofitsdisplay，ortosupposethattheyareactuatedbysentimentsofvanity，whichoperatefeeblyuponmenaccustomedtodependence，andalmostconstantlyemployedinmakingprovisionfortheirdailywants。Institutionsofthisnature，suitedtosmallcommunities，oughttobeadaptedtolocalcircumstancesandpopularhabits。Inavillageoratown，forinstance，itmightbepropertoassignadistinguishedplaceinthechurchfortheoldmen：thisdistinction，unitedtoasentimentofreligion，andgrantedwithdiscretion，needbearnoappearanceofflattery，butmightbeamarkofrespecttowardsoldage，renderedhonorablebytheblamelesslifewhichhadprecededit。ThereexistinEnglandmanycharitableinstitutionsfordecayedtradesmen，inwhichtheirsituationismuchpreferabletothatoftheinhabitantsofpoorhouses：
theyhavetheirseparatedwellings，theirgardens，andasmallpension。
Thoseonlywhoseconducthasbeengenerallyhonorablebeingadmittedtotheseasylums，themetalbadgewhichisworninsomeinstances，sofarfrombeingconsideredasadisgrace，isregardedasamarkofhonour。
Differentagriculturalsocietiesbestowrewardsuponservantswhohavelivedduringacertainnumberofyearsinthesameplace；thiscircumstancebeingwithreasonconsideredasaproofoffidelityandgoodconduct。
Someofthesesocietiesalsogiverewardstoday—labourerswhohavebroughtupacertainnumberofchildrenwithouthavingreceivedassistancefromtheirparishes。Thisisanencouragementtoeconomy，andtoallthevirtuoushabitswhichitimplies：butasameansofremedyingtheinconveniencesarisingfromthepoorlaws，itseffectisextremelyfeeble。
Inboththesecases，therewardgenerallyconsistsofmoney：butthemoneyisconnectedwithhonour，thenotorietygiventotherewardoperatesasacertificateinfavouroftheindividualinhisparticulardistrict。
ByexaminingeverythingwhichhasbeendoneinthisrespectinHolland，Switzerland，England，andelsewhere，weshouldbecomepossessedofanassortmentofremuneratoryexpedients，applicabletoalmosteveryclassinsociety。Everythingdepends，howeveruponthemodeofapplication。Forthisdutygovernmentsareentirelyunfit：itislocalinspectionalonewhichcangainaknowledgeofcircumstancesandsuperintendthedetails。
Afterall，justanddiscriminatingpublicesteem———thatistosay，publicesteemfoundedupontheprincipleofutility———isthemostpotent，themostuniversallyapplicable，ofallthespeciesofreward。
Ifvirtuebeheldinpublicestimation，virtuewillflourish：letitceasetobeheldinsuchestimation，itwilldeclineinthesameproportion。
Thecharacterofapeopleisthemoralclimatewhichkillsorvivifiestheseedsofexcellence。
Aninquiryintothecausesofthehighrespectinwhich，undercertaingovernments，particularvirtueswereheld———whythevirtuesofaCurtius，ofaFabricius，ofaScipiowerenourishedanddevelopedatRome———whyothercountriesandothertimeshaveproducedonlycourtiers，parasites，finegentlemenandwits，menwithoutenergyandwithoutpatriotism，———wouldrequireamoralandhistoricalanalysis，onlytobecompletedbymeansofaprofoundstudyofthepoliticalconstitutionsandparticularcircumstancesofeachpeople。Theresultwould，however，prove，thatthequalitiesmostsuccessfullycultivated，werethoseheldinmostgeneralesteem。
Butpublicesteem，itmaybesaid，isfree，essentiallyfree，independentoftheauthorityofgovernments。Thiscopiousfundofrewardsisthereforewithdrawnfromthehandsofthesupremeauthority。
Thishoweverisnotthecase：governmentsmayeasilyobtainthedisposalofthistreasure。Publicesteemcannotbecompelled，butitmayheconducted。
Itrequiresbutlittleskillonthepartofavirtuoussovereigntoenablehimtoapplythehighrewardofpublicesteemtoanyservicewhichhisoccasionsmayrequire。
Therealreadyexistsadegreeofrespectforriches，honour，andpower：ifthedispenserofthesegiftsbestowthemonlyuponusefulqualities———ifheunitewhatisalreadyesteemedtowhatoughttobeestimable，hissuccessiscertain。Rewardwouldserveasaproclamationofhisopinion，andwouldmarkoutaparticularlineofconductasmeritoriousinhiseyes。Itsfirsteffectwouldbethatofalessoninmorality。
Unrewarded，thesameservicewouldnotacquirethesamedegreeofnotoriety。Itwouldbelostamongthemultitudeofobjectssolicitingpublicattention；andremainundistinguishedfromthepretensions，wellorillfounded，respectingwhichpublicopinionisundecided。Furnishedwiththepatentfromthesovereign，itbecomesauthenticandmanifest：
thosewhowereignorantareinstructed，thosewhoweredoubtfulbecomedecided：theinimicalandtheenviousarerenderedlestbold：reputationisacquired，andbecomespermanent。Thesecondeffectoftherewardconsistsintheincreaseofintensityanddurationgiventopublicesteem。
Immediately，allthosewhoaregovernedbyviewsofinterest，whoaspiretohonourorfortune———thosewhoseekthepublicgoodbutwhoseekitlikeordinarymen，notasheroesormartyrs———eagerlypressintothatcareerinwhichthesovereignhasunitedprivateandpublicinterest。Inthismanner，properdispensationoffavoursdirectsthepassionsofindividualstothepromotionofthepublicwelfare，andinduceseventhosewhowereindifferenttovirtueorvice，torankthemselvesuponthatsidewhichpromisesthemthegreatestadvantage。
Suchbeingthepowerofsovereigns，hemustbeextremelyinexpertinthedistributionofhonours，whoseparatesthemfromthatpublicesteemwhichhassodecidedatendencytounitewiththem。
Nothing，however，ismorecommon。Instancesmaybefound，inmostcourts，ofsplendiddecorationsofstarsandgartersindoubleandtriplerange，whichdonotevengiveafavourableturntopublicopinion。Theyareconsideredasproofsoffavour，butnotassignsofmerit。
``Honoursinthehandsofprincesresemblethosetalismanswithwhichthefairies，accordingtothefables，werewonttopresenttheirfavourites：theylosetheirvirtuewhenevertheyareimproperlyemployed。’’（Helvetius。）
RRBook1Chapter17TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXVIIACCOMPANIMENTSTOREMUNERATION。Afterhavingexhibitedinwhatmannerthematterofwealthisapplicabletothepurposesofreward，weproceedtoshowotherusesderivablefromitforthepublicservice，whicharenotremuneratory。
Theideaofrewardwillbemuchclearerwhenitshallhavebeendistinguishedandseparatedfromtheseaccessoryuses，whichhavecertainrelationswithit：———
1。Wagesnecessaryforthesupportoflife。———Servantsmustbefedwhilsttheyareemployed，andtherearecasesinwhichitisnecessarytofeedthemevenbeforetheybegintowork。Ifthewagespaiddonotexceedwhatisnecessaryforthispurpose，asissometimesthecaseamong，thesoldiery，andespeciallyiftheenrollmentsareinvoluntary，suchwages，beingabsolutelynecessary，arenotreward。
2。Theinstructionofservants。———Certainkindsofservicerequireadvancesfromgovernmentforthisobject。Ifthisinstructionrequiremuchtime，itisnaturallybegunatanearlyage，andisthencallededucation。Thisemploymentofthematterofrewardissufficientlydistinctfromthatwhichregardssubsistence，withwhich，however，itisveryfrequentlycombinedandconfounded。Iftherebeasufficientnumberofindividualswillingtobearthisexpense，somuchthebetter；otherwise，itisnecessarythatgovernmentshouldbearitforthem。Thishasalmosteverywherebeenthoughttobethecasewithrespecttothechurch。Ithasalsogenerallybeenconsiderednecessaryinnewcountries，orcountriesbutlittleadvancedinthecareerofprosperitywithrespecttotheteachersandprofessorsinmostbranchesofscience。Inthewardepartment，thecorpsofcadetsisanurseryforyoungofficers。Thefoundationsofpublicschoolsarenurseriesforthechurch。Thegreaternumber，however，ofthesefoundations，areowingrathertothegoodintentionsofindividuals，thantothecaresofgovernments。
3。Equipment。———Thatanindividualmaybeinaconditiontorenderservice，bemustbefurnishedwiththenecessaryequipments。Thewarriorwantshisaccoutrements———theastronomerhisobservatory———thechemisthislaboratory———themechanichismachines———thenaturalisthiscollectionsofnaturalhistory———thebotanisthisgarden———theexperimentalfarmeraplotofground，andfundstoenablehimtoimproveit。
4。Indemnity。———Whenanindividualisonlyindemnified，heisnotrewarded：rewardproperlyspeaking，onlybeginswhenindemnityiscomplete。Dowewishforservices，weoughttorecollectthat，bythepersonfromwhomweseektoobtainthem，theinconveniencesofeverysortwhichcomposetheburthenoftheservicewillbeputintoonescale，theadvantageshefindsattachedtoitintotheother。Totheheadofindemnitybelongseverythingnecessarytoproduceanequilibriumbetweenthetwo；itisonlythescalewhichisthrownintothescaleofadvantagewhichstrictlybelongstotheheadofreward。
5。Theassuringresponsibility。———Insofarasthematterofrewardisemployedforthispurpose，itisemployedinlayingafoundationfortheinflictionofpunishment。Thestockofpunishmentisinitselfinexhaustible；butwhenthebodyiswithdrawnfromthehandsoftheministersofjustice，corporalpunishmentcannotbeinflictedandallotherpunishmentscanbecompensated。Ifaservantpossesspropertyofhisown，somuchthebetter：ifhepossessnone，andasalarybegiventohim，hewillalwayshavesomuchtolose；thelossofthissalarywillbeapunishmenthewillalwaysbeliabletoundergowhatevermaybecomeofhim。
Theprincipaluseofthisemploymentofthematterofreward，isinthecaseofofficeswhichplacepropertyinthehandsofthosewhofillthem。Iftherebenoothermeansofsecuringtheirprobity，itwouldnotbebadeconomytomadetheirappointmentsamountinvaluetobutlittlelessthanthehighestinteresttheycouldreapfromthelargestsumtheyeverhaveintheirhands。Thiswouldbetomakethemassureagainsttheirowndishonesty。Thedifferencebetweentheactualsalaryandtheleastsalarytheycouldbeinducedtoaccept，wouldconstitutethepremium。
Itisrarelythatadistinctsumisappropriatedtothispurpose：ontheonehand，thisendispartlyeffectedbysurety—ship；andontheother，thesumconsideredrequisiteforthepurposesofindemnityandrewardequalsorsurpasseswhatcouldbeproposedtobeallowedforit：butthisfunctionisnotthelessdistinctfromalltherest。
6。Aguaranteeagainsttemptations。———Moneylikethemostvaluablearticlesofthemedicalpharmacop&；oelig；ia，mayserveeitherasapoisonoranantidote，accordingasitisapplied。
Thisemploymentofthematterofrewardresemblesthatlastmentioned，withoutbeingconfoundedwithit。Moneyemployedforassuringresponsibilitywillproduceitseffect，thoughtheindividualbealreadycorrupted。Theuseofmoneyemployedasaguaranteeagainsttemptation，istopreventcorruption。Alesssummaysufficeinthiscasethanintheformer：inthat，itwasnecessarythattherevenuegrantedshouldpreservesomeproportiontothesumconfided；inthis，suchproportionisnotrequired：themeasuretobeobservedisonlythatofthewantsoftheindividualplacedintherankthattheofficeheoccupiesconfers。Inaword，salary，consideredasnpledge，isonlyusefulinthepreventionoftheft；moneyemployedasanantiseptic，isequallyusefulinthepreventionofpeculationinallitsforms，inthepreventionofallimproperconductwhichcanhaveforitsmotivethedesireofmoney，andforitsmeansthesituationinwhichtheindividualisplacedbyhisoffice。
7。Thesupportofdignity。———Publicopinionexacts———itmattersnotbywhatreason———fromeveryindividualpossessedofacertainrankacertainexpenditure：hiswantsarethusincreasedinproportiontohisdignity。Dignity，deprivedofthewealthnecessaryforitssupport，furnishes，inproportiontoitsextentanincentivetomalversation，andatthesametimegenerallyfurnishestheopportunity。Asanantidotetosuchtemptation，moneymaythereforesometimesbebestowedforthesupportofdignity。Thegoodoftheservicemayalsorequirethesamething。Itisincontestablytrue，thatbetweenwealthandpowertheresubsistanintimateandnaturalunion。Wealthitselfispower：itmaybeproper，therefore，thatthesupportoftherespectwhichitcommandsbenotrefusedinfavourofcertainemploymentsinwhichmuchdependsupontheplacetheyholdinpublicopinion。
8。Anotheruseofthematterofrewardconsistsintheexcitementofalacrity；Imean，theproductionofanhabitualdispositiontodowhatisrequiredwithpleasure。Thegreaterthedegreeofmentalenjoyment，thequickerandmorelivelyareonesideas，andthelargerthequantityofworkwhichcanheperformedinagiventime。Themind，inahappymood，actswithincomparablymoreeasethanwhenagitatedbygrief；oreveninitsordinarycondition，whenitismovedonlybyhabit。
Itisthesamewiththebodilypowers。Whoknowsnothowmuchthepowerofthemusclesdependsupontheenergyofthemind？Whatcomparisonistherebetweenthelabourofslavesandoffreemen？Itisuponthisthatthesuperiorityofhiredsoldiersoverunpaidandarbitraryleviesdepends。
Intheonecaseasintheother，themotivewhichleadstoexertionconsistsintheexpectationofbeingtreatedaccordingtotheirbehaviour：themotiveisnothingelsehutthefearofpain。Butinthefirstcase，thereisthegratificationofrewardtosustainthealacrity；intheotherthelabourhasnootheraccompanimentbutgrief。
Thesimpleexpectationofarewardhowlargesoeveritmaybe，willnotalwaysproducethesameeffectasarewardpreviouslybestowed。Theconditionofexpectancyinwhichtheindividualfindshimselfinsuchacase，isamixedanduncertainstate，inwhichdespairandhopemayalternatelypredominate。
Thedangertobeguardedagainstis，lestrewardspreviouslybestowedshouldproducediversionslittlefavourabletolabour，eitherbysuggestingtheideaofsomemorefavouriteoccupation，orbysupplyingthemeansofitspursuit。Theprogressofthethoughtsmaybeaccelerated，butthethoughtsexcitedmaybeofadifferentnature：thedullideasoflabourmaybesupplantedbytheenliveningconsiderationsofshowsandofpleasure。
Whetherornotitispropertobestowsuchrewards，dependsuponthecharacteroftheindividual：thatcharactermustbeknown，beforeitispossibletodeterminewhatwillbetheireffect；butineverycasetherecanbenogreaterfollythantowasteinpreviousgratificationseverythingwhichisdestinedforreward。
Inconclusion，thesedistinctionsoughtnottobeabused。Theexpenseofrewardsneednotbeincreasedonaccountofeachoftheseitems；itisnotnecessarytoappropriateadistinctsumtoeach。
Thesamesummayserveformany，andevenforall。Thatwhichsufficesforassuringresponsibility，willingeneralsufficeasaguaranteeagainsttemptations，andviceversâ；，sofarasendssouncertainmaybeeffectedbysuchmeans，———andwillineverycasesufficeforindemnification。
Thatwhichsufficesforequipment，mayserveinpartforthesupportofdignityandtheexcitementofalacritythatwhichsufficesforthemaintenanceofdignitywillbesufficientforalmostalltheotherends；andthewholeofwhateverisemployedforanyotherofthesepurposes，exceptequipment，cannotbutserveforsubsistence。