WhenM。Proudhonwantstobeaneconomist,andtoabandonforamomentthe\"evolutionofideasinserialrelationintheunderstanding\",thenhegoesanddrawseruditionfromAdamSmith,fromatimewhentheautomaticworkshopwasonlyjustcomingintoexistence。Indeed,whatadifferencebetweenthedivisionoflaborasitexistedinAdamSmith’sdayandasweseeitintheautomaticworkshop!Inordertomakethisproperlyunderstood,weneedonlyquoteafewpassagesfromDr。Ure’sThePhilosophyofManufactures。
\"WhenAdamSmithwrotehisimmortalelementsofeconomics,automaticmachinerybeinghardlyknown,hewasproperlyledtoregardthedivisionoflaborasthegrandprincipleofmanufacturingimprovement;andheshowed,intheexampleofpin—making,howeachhandicraftsman,beingtherebyenabledtoperfecthimselfbypracticeinonepoint,becameaquickerandcheaperworkman。Ineachbranchofmanufacturehesawthatsomepartswere,onthatprinciple,ofeasyexecution,likethecuttingofpinwiresintouniformlengths,andsomewerecomparativelydifficult,liketheformationandfixationoftheirheads;andthereforeheconcludedthattoeachaworkmanofappropriatevalueandcostwasnaturallyassigned。Thisappropriationformstheveryessenceofthedivisionoflabor……
\"ButwhatwasinDr。Smith’stimeatopicofusefulillus—tration,cannotnowbeusedwithoutriskofmisleadingthepublicmindastotherightprincipleofmanufacturingindustry。Infact,thedivision,orratheradaptationoflabortothedifferenttalentsofmen,islittlethoughtofinfactoryemployment。Onthecontrary,whereveraprocessrequiresapeculiardexterityandsteadinessofhand,itiswithdrawnassoonaspossiblefromthecunningworkman,whoispronetoirregularitiesofmanykinds,anditisplacedinchargeofapeculiarmechanism,soself—regulating,thatachildmaysuperintendit。
\"Theprincipleofthefactorysystemthenis,tosubstitutemechanicalscienceforhandskill,andthepartitionofaprocessintoitsessentialconstituents,forthedivisionorgradationoflaboramongartisans。Onthehandicraftplan,labormoreorlessskilled,wasusuallythemostexpensiveelementofproduction……butontheautomaticplan,skilledlaborgetsprogressivelysuperseded,andwill,eventually,bereplacedbymereoverlookersofmachines。
\"Bytheinfirmityofhumannatureithappens,thatthemoreskillfultheworkman,themoreself—willedandintractableheisapttobecome,and,ofcourse,thelessfitacompon—entofamechanicalsystem,inwhich,byoccassionalirreg—ularities,hemaydogreatdamagetothewhole。Thegrandobjectthereforeofthemodernmanufactureris,throughtheunionofcapitalandscience,toreducethetaskofhisworkpeopletotheexerciseofvigilanceanddexterity——faculties,whenconcentratedtooneprocess,speedilybroughttoperfectionintheyoung。
\"Onthegradationsystem,amanmustserveanapprenticeshipofmanyyearsbeforehishandandeyebecomeskilledenoughforcertainmechanicalfeats;butonthesystemofdecompos—ingaprocessintoitsconstituents,andembodyingeachpartinanautomaticmachine,apersonofcommoncareandcapa—citymaybeentrustedwithanyofthesaidelementarypartsafterashortprobation,andmaybetransferredfromonetoanother,onanyemergency,atthediscretionofthemaster。Suchtranslationsareutterlyatvariancewiththeoldprac—ticeofthedivisionoflabor,whichfixedonemantoshapingtheheadofapin,anothertoshapingtheheadofapin,andanothertosharpeningitspoint,withthemostirksomeandspirit—wastinguniformity,forawholelife……
\"Butontheequalizationplanofself—actingmachines,theoperativeneedstocallhisfacultiesonlyintoagreeableexercise……Ashisbusinessconsistsinendingtheworkofawell—regulatedmechanism,hecanlearnitinashortperiod;andwhenhetransfershisservices,fromonemachinetoanother,hevarieshistask,andenlargeshisviews,bythinkingonthosegeneralcombinationswhichresultfromhisandhiscompanions’labors。
Thus,thatcrampingofthefac—ulties,thatnarrowingofthemind,thatstuntingoftheframe,whichwereascribed,andnotunjustly,bymoralwriters,tothedivisionoflabor,cannot,incommoncircum—stances,occurundertheequabledistributionofindustry……
\"Itis,infact,theconstantaimandtendencyofeveryimprovementinmachinerytosupersedehumanlaboraltogether,ortodiminishitscost,bysubstitutingtheindustryofwomenandchildrenforthatofmen;ofthatofordinarylaborersfortrainedartisans……Thistendencytoemploymerelychildrenwithwatchfuleyesandnimblefingers,insteadofjourneymenoflongexperience,showshowthescholasticdogmaofthedivisionoflaborintodegreesofskillhasbeenexplodedbyourenlightenedmanufacturers。\"
(AndreUre,Philosophiedesmanufacturesoueconomieindustrielle,Vol。I,Chap。1[pp。34—35])
Whatcharacterizesthedivisionoflaborinsidemodernsocietyisthatitengendersspecializedfunctions,specialists,andwiththemcraft—idiocy。
\"Wearestruckwithadmiration,\"saysLemontey,\"whenweseeamongtheAncientsthesamepersondistinguishinghimselftoahighdegreeasphilosopher,poet,orator,historian,priest,administrator,generalofanarmy。Oursoulsareappalledatthesightofsovastadomain。Eachoneofusplantshishedgeandshutshimselfupinhisenclosure。Idonotknowwhetherbythisparcellationthefieldisenlarged,butIdoknowthatmanisbelittled。\"
Whatcharacterizesthedivisionoflaborintheautomaticworkshopisthatlaborhastherecompletelylostitsspecializedcharacter。Butthemomenteveryspecialdevelopmentstops,theneedforuniversality,thetendencytowardsanintegraldevelopmentoftheindividualbeginstobefelt。Theautomaticworkshopwipesoutspecialistsandcraft—idiocy。
M。Proudhon,nothavingunderstoodeventhisonerevolutionarysideoftheautomaticworkshop,takesastepbackwardandproposestotheworkerthathemakenotonlythe12thpartofapin,butsuccessivelyall12partsofit。Theworkerwouldthusarriveattheknowledgeandtheconsciousnessofthepin。ThisisM。Proudhon’ssyntheticlabor。Nobodywillcontestthattomakeamovementforwardandanothermovementbackwardistomakeasyntheticmovement。
Tosumup,M。Proudhonhasnotgonefurtherthanthepetty—bourgeoisideal。Andtorealizethisideal,hecanthinkofnothingbetterthantotakeusbacktothejourneymanor,atmost,tothemastercraftsmanoftheMiddleAges。Itisenough,hesayssomewhereinhisbook,tohavecreatedamasterpieceonceinone’slife,tohavefeltoneselfjustoncetobeaman。Isnotthis,informasincontent,themasterpiecedemandedbythetradeguildoftheMiddleAges?
3。
COMPETITIONANDMONOPOLY
\"CompetitionisasessentialtoGoodsideoflaborasdivision……Itiscompetitionnecessaryfortheadventofequality。\"
[I186,188]
\"TheprincipleisthenegationofBadsideofitself。Itsmostcertainresultcompetitionistoruinthosewhomitdragsinitstrain。\"
[I185]
\"ThedrawbackwhichfollowGeneralreflectioninitswake,justasthegooditprovides……bothflowlogicallyfromtheprinciple。\"
[I185—86]
\"Toseektheprincipleofaccommodation,whichmustbederivedfromalawsuperiortolibertyitself。\"
[I185]
Variant
Problemtobesolved\"Therecan,therefore,benoquestionhereofdestroyingcompetition,athingasimpos—
sibletodestroyasliberty;wehaveonlytofinditsequilibriumIwouldbereadytosayitspolice。\"
[I223]M。Proudhonbeginsbydefendingtheeternalnecessityofcompetitionagainstthosewhowishtoreplaceitbyemulation[Engels:TheFourierists]。
Thereisno\"purposelessemulation\",andas\"theobjectofeverypassionisnecessarilyanalogoustothepassionitself——awomanforthelover,powerfortheambitious,goldforthemiser,agarlandforthepoet——
theobjectofindus—trialemulationisnecessarilyprofit。Emulationisnothingbutcompetitionitself。\"
[I187]
Competitionisemulationwithaviewtoprofit。Isindustrialemulationnecessarilyemulationwithaviewtoprofit,thatis,competition??M。
Proudhonprovesitbyaffirmingit。Wehaveseenthat,forhim,toaffirmistoprove,justastosupposeistodeny。
Iftheimmediateobjectoftheloveristhewoman,theimmediateobjectofindustrialemulationistheproductandnottheprofit。
Competitionisnotindustrialemulation,itiscommercialemulation。
Inourtimeindustrialemulationexistsonlyinviewofcommerce。Thereareevenphasesintheeconomiclifeofmodernnationswheneverybodyisseizedwithasortofcrazeformakingprofitwithoutproducing。Thisspeculationcraze,whichrecursperiodically,laysbarethetruecharacterofcompetition,whichseekstoescapetheneedforindustrialemulation。
Ifyouhadtoldanartisanofthe14thcenturythattheprivilegesandthewholefeudalorganizationofindustryweregoingtobeabrogatedinfavorofindustrialemulation,calledcompetition,hewouldhaverepliedthattheprivilegesofthevariouscorporations,guildsandfraternitieswereorganizedcompetition。M。Proudhondoesnotimposeuponthiswhenheaffirmsthat\"emulationisnothingbutcompetitionitself\"。
\"DecreethatfromthefirstofJanuary1847,laborandwagesshallbeguaranteedtoeverybody:immediatelyanimmenserelaxationwillsucceedthehightensionofindustry。\"
[I189]
Insteadofasupposition,anaffirmationandanegation,wehavenowadecreethatM。Proudhonissuespurposelytoprovethenecessityofcompetition,itseternityasacategory,etc。
Ifweimaginethatdecreesareallthatisneededtogetawayfromcompetition,weshallnevergetawayfromit。Andifwegosofarastoproposetoabolishcompetitionwhileretainingwages,weshallbeproposingnonsensebyroyaldecree。Butnationsdonotproceedbyroyaldecree。Beforeframingsuchordinances,theymustatleasthavechangedfromtoptobottomtheconditionsoftheirindustrialandpoliticalexistence,andconsequentlytheirwholemannerofbeing。
M。Proudhonwillreply,withhisimperturbableassurance,thatitisthehypothesisof\"atransformationofournaturewithouthistoricalantecedents\",andthathewouldberightin\"excludingisfromthediscussion\",weknownotinvirtueofwhichordinance。
M。Proudhondoesnotknowthatallhistoryisnothingbutacontinuoustransformationofhumannature。
\"Letussticktothefacts。TheFrenchRevolutionwasmadeforindustriallibertyasmuchasforpoliticalliberty;andalthoughFrance,in1789,hadnotperceived——letussayitopenly——alltheconsequencesoftheprinciplewhosereal—izationitdemanded,itwasmistakenneitherinitswishesnorinitsexpectations。Whoeverattemptstodenythisloses,inmyview,therighttocriticisM。Iwillneverdisputewithanadversarywhoputsasprinciplethespont—aneouserrorof25millionmen……
\"Whythen,ifcompetitionhadnotbeenaprincipleofsocialeconomy,adecreeoffate,anecessityofthehumansoul,why,insteadofabolishingcorporations,guildsandbrother—hoods,didnobodythinkratherofrepairingthewhole??\"
[I191,192]
So,sincetheFrenchofthe18thcenturyabolishedcorporations,guilds,andfraternitiesinsteadofmodifyingthem,theFrenchofthe19thcenturymustmodifycompetitioninsteadofabolishingit。SincecompetitionwasestablishedinFranceinthe18thcenturyasaresultofhistoricalneeds,thiscompetitionmustnotbedestroyedinthe19thcenturybecauseofotherhistoricalneeds。M。Proudhon,notunderstandingthattheestablishmentofcompetitionwasboundupwiththeactualdevelopmentofthemenofthe18thcentury,makesofcompetitionanecessityofthehumansoul,inpartibusinfidelium[ed:literally,\"territoryoftheinfidels\";here,meaning,\"beyondtherealmofreality\"。]WhatwouldhehavemadeofthegreatColbertforthe17thcentury??
Aftertherevolutioncomesthepresentstateofaffairs。M。Proudhonequallydrawsfactsfromittoshowtheeternityofcompetition,byprovingthatallindustriesinwhichthiscategoryisnotyetsufficientlydeveloped,asinagriculture,areinastateofinferiorityanddecrepitude。
Tosaythatthereareindustrieswhichhavenotyetreachedthestageofcompetition,thatothersgainsarebelowthelevelofbourgeoisproduction,isdrivelwhichgivesnottheslightestproofoftheeternityofcompetition。
AllM。Proudhon’slogicamountstoisthis:competitionisasocialrelationinwhichwearenowdevelopingourproductiveforces。Tothistruth,hegivesnologicaldevelopment,butonlyforms,oftenverywelldeveloped,whenhesaysthatcompetitionisindustrialemulation,thepresent—daymodeoffreedom,responsibilityinlabor,constitutionofvalue,aconditionfortheadventofequality,aprincipleofsocialeconomy,adecreeoffate,anecessityofthehumansoul,aninspirationofeternaljustice,libertyindivision,divisiononliberty,aneconomiccategory。
\"Competitionandassociationsupporteachother。Farfromexcludingeachothertheyarenotevendivergent。WhoeversayscompetitionalreadysupposesacommonaiM。Competitionisthereforenotegoism,andthemostdeplorableerrorcom—mittedbysocialismistohaveregardeditastheoverthrowofsociety。\"
[I223]
Whoeversayscompetitionsayscommonaim,andthatproves,ontheonehand,thatcompetitionisassociation;ontheother,thatcompetitionisnotegoisM。Andwhoeversaysegoism,doeshenotsaycommonaim??Everyegoismoperatesinsocietyandbythefactofsociety。Henceitpresupposessociety,thatistosay,commonaims,commonneeds,commonmeansofproduction,etc。,etc。Isit,then,bemerechancethatthecompetitionandassociationwhichtheSocialiststalkaboutarenotevendivergent??
Socialistsknowwellenoughthatpresent—daysocietyisfoundedoncompetition。Howcouldtheyaccusecompetitionofoverthrowingpresent—daysocietywhichtheywanttooverthrowthemselves??Andhowcouldtheyaccusecompetitionofoverthrowingthesocietytocome,inwhichtheysee,onthecontrary,theoverthrowofcompetition??
M。Proudhonsays,lateron,thatcompetitionistheoppositeofmonopoly,andconsequentlycannotbetheoppositeofassociation。
Feudalismwas,fromitsorigins,opposedtopatriarchalmonarchy;
itwasthusnotopposedtocompetition,whichwasnotyetinexistence。
Doesitfollowthatcompetitionisnotopposedtofeudalism??
Inactualfact,society,associationaredenominationswhichcanbegiventoeverysociety,tofeudalsocietyaswellastobourgeoissocietywhichisassociationfoundedoncompetition。HowthencantherebeSocialists,who,bythesinglewordassociation,thinktheycanrefutecompetition??AndhowcanM。Proudhonhimselfwishtodefendcompetitionagainstsocialismbydescribingcompetitionbythesinglewordassociation??
AllwehavejustsaidmakesupthebeautifulsideofcompetitionasM。Proudhonseesit。Nowletuspassontotheuglyside,thatisthenegativeside,ofcompetition,itsdrawbacks,itsdestructive,subversiveelements,itsinjuriousqualities。
ThereissomethingdismalaboutthepictureM。Proudhondrawsofit。
Competitionengendersmisery,itfomentscivilwar,it\"changesnaturalzones\",mixesupnationalities,causestroubleinfamilies,corruptsthepublicconscience,\"subvertsthenotionofequity,ofjustice\",ofmorality,andwhatisworse,itdestroysfree,honesttrade,anddoesnotevengiveinexchangesyntheticvalue,fixed,honestprice。Itdisillusionseveryone,eveneconomists。Itpushesthingssofarastodestroyitsveryself。
AfteralltheillM。Proudhonsaysofit,cantherebefortherelationsofbourgeoissociety,foritsprinciplesanditsillusions,amoredisintegrating,moredestructiveelementthancompetition??
Itmustbecarefullynotedthatcompetitionalwaysbecomesthemoredestructiveforbourgeoisrelationsinproportionasiturgesonafeverishcreationofnewproductiveforces,thatis,ofthematerialconditionsofanewsociety。Inthisrespectatleast,thebadsideofcompetitionwouldhaveitsgoodpoints。
\"Competitionasaneconomicpositionorphase,consideredinitsorigin,isthenecessaryresult……ofthetheoryofthereductionofgeneralexpenses。\"
[I235]
ForM。Proudhon,thecirculationofthebloodmustbeaconsequenceofHarvey’stheory。
\"Monopolyistheinevitableendofcompetition,whichengen—dersitbyacontinualnegationofitself。Thisgenerationofmonopolyisinitselfajustificationofit……
\"Monopolyisthenaturaloppositeofcompetition……butassoonascompetitionisnecessary,itimpliestheideaofmonopoly,sincemonopolyis,asitwere,theseatofeachcompetingindividuality。\"
[I236,237]
WerejoicewithM。Proudhonthathecanforonceatleastproperlyapplyhisformulatothesisandantithesis。Everyoneknowsthatmodernmonopolyisengenderedbycompetitionitself。
Asforthecontent,M。Proudhonclingstopoeticimages。Competitionmade\"ofeverysubdivisionoflaborasortofsovereigntyinwhicheachindividualstoodwithhispowerandhisindependence\"。Monopolyis\"theseatofeverycompetingindividuality\"。Thesovereigntyisworthatleastasmuchastheseat。
M。Proudhontalksofnothingbutmodernmonopolyengenderedbycompetition。Butweallknowthatcompetitionwasengenderedbyfeudalmonopoly。Thuscompetitionwasoriginallytheoppositeofmonopolyandnotmonopolytheoppositeofcompetition。Sothatmodernmonopolyisnotasimpleantithesis,itisonthecontrarythetruesynthesis。
THESIS:Feudalmonopoly,beforecompetition。
ANTITHESIS:Competition。
SYNTHESIS:Modernmonopoly,whichisthenegationoffeudalmonopoly,insofarasitimpliesthesystemofcompetition,andthenegationofcompetitioninsofarasitismonopoly。
Thusmodernmonopoly,bourgeoismonopoly,issyntheticmonopoly,thenegationofthenegation,theunityofopposites。Itismonopolyinthepure,normal,rationalstate。
M。Proudhonisincontradictionwithhisownphilosophywhenheturnsbourgeoismonopolyintomonopolyinthecrude,primitive,contradictory,spasmodicstate。M。Rossi,whomM。Proudhonquotesseveraltimesonthesubjectofmonopoly,seemstohaveabettergraspofthesyntheticcharacterofbourgeoismonopoly。InhisCoursd’economiepolitique,hedistinguishesbetweenartificialmonopoliesandnaturalmonopolies。Feudalmonopolies,hesays,areartificial,thatis,arbitrary;bourgeoismonopoliesarenatural,thatis,rational。
Monopolyisagoodthing,reasonsM。Proudhon,sinceitisaneconomiccategory,anemanation\"fromtheimpersonalreasonofhumanity\"。
Competition,again,isagoodthingsinceitalsoisaneconomiccategory。
Butwhatisnotgoodistherealityofmonopolyandtherealityofcompetition。
Whatisstillworseisthatcompetitionandmonopolydevoureachother。
Whatistobedone??Lookforthesynthesisofthesetwoeternalthoughts,wrestitfromthebosomofGod,whereishasbeendepositedfromtimeimmemorial。
Inpracticallifewefindnotonlycompetition,monopolyandtheantagonismbetweenthem,butalsothesynthesisofthetwo,whichisnotaformula,butamovement。Monopolyproducescompetition,competitionproducesmonopoly。Monopolistsaremadefromcompetition;competitorsbecomemonopolists。
Ifthemonopolistsrestricttheirmutualcompetitionbymeansofpartialassociations,competitionincreasesamongtheworkers;andthemorethemassoftheproletariansgrowsasagainstthemonopolistsofonenation,themoredesperatecompetitionbecomesbetweenthemonopolistsofdifferentnations。Thesynthesisisofsuchacharacterthatmonopolycanonlymaintainitselfbycontinuallyenteringintothestruggleofcompetition。
Tomakethedialecticaltransitiontothetaxeswhichcomeaftermonopoly,M。Proudhontalkstousaboutthesocialgeniuswhich,afterzigzaggingintrepidlyonward,,\"afterstridingwithajauntystep,withoutrepentingandwithoutblting,reachesthecornerofmonopoly,castsbackwardamelancholyglance,and,afterprofoundreflection,assailsalltheobjectsofproductionwithtaxes,andcreatesawholeadministrativeorganization,inorderthatallemploymentsbegiventotheproletariatandpaidbythemenofmonopoly。\"
[I284,285]
Whatcanwesayofthisgenius,which,whilefasting,walksaboutinazigzag??Andwhatcanwesayofthiswalkingwhichhasnootherobjectinviewthanthatofdestroyingthebourgeoisbytaxes,whereastaxesaretheverymeansofgivingthebourgeoisthewherewithaltopreservethemselvesastherulingclass??
MerelytogiveaglimpseofthemannerinwhichM。Proudhontreatseconomicdetails,itsufficestosaythat,accordingtohim,thetaxonconsumptionwasestablishedwithaviewtoequality,andtorelievetheproletariat。
Thetaxonconsumptionhasassumeditstruedevelopmentonlysincetheriseofthebourgeoisie。Inthehandsofindustrialcapital,thatis,ofsoberandeconomicalwealth,whichmaintains,reproduces,andincreasesitselfbythedirectexploitationoflabor,thetaxonconsumptionwasameansofexploitingthefrivolous,gay,prodigalwealthofthefinelordswhodidnothingbutconsume,JamesSteuartclearlydevelopedthisoriginalpurposeofthetaxonconsumptioninhisRecherchesdesprincipesdel’economiepolitique,whichhepublished10yearsbeforeAdamSmith。
\"Underthepuremonarchy,theprinceseemsjealous,asitwere,ofgrowingwealth,andthereforeimposestaxesuponpeoplewhoaregrowingricher。Underthelimitedgovernmenttheyarecalculatedchieflytoaffectthosewhofromricharegrowingpoorer。Thusthemonarchimposesataxuponindustry,whereeveryoneisratedinproportiontothegainheissupposedtomakebyhisprofession。Thepoll—taxandtaillearelikewiseproportionedtothesupposedopulenceofeveryonelibeltothem……
Inlimitedgovernments,impositionsaremoregenerallylaiduponconsumption。\"
[II190—91]
Asforthelogicalsequenceoftaxes,ofthebalanceoftrade,ofcredit——intheunderstandingofM。Proudhon——wecouldonlyremarkthattheEnglishbourgeoisie,onattainingitspoliticalconstitutionunderWilliamofOrange,createdallatonceanewsystemoftaxes,publiccredit,andthesystemofprotectiveduties,assoonasitwasinapositionfreelytodevelopitsconditionsofexistence。
ThisbriefsummarywillsufficetogivethereaderatrueideaofM。Proudhon’slubricationsonthepoliceorontaxes,thebalanceoftrade,credit,communism,andpopulation。Wedefythemostindulgentcriticismtotreatthesechaptersseriously。
4。
PROPERTYORGROUNDRENT
Ineachhistoricalepoch,propertyhasdevelopeddifferentlyandunderasetofentirelydifferentsocialrelations。thustodefinebourgeoispropertyisnothingelsethantogiveanexpositionofallthesocialrelationsofbourgeoisproduction。
Totrytogiveadefinitionofpropertyasofanindependentrelation,acategoryapart,anabstractandeternalidea,canbenothingbutanillusionofmetaphysicsorjurisprudence。
M。Proudhon,whileseemingtospeakofpropertyingeneral,dealsonlywithlandedproperty,withgroundrent。
\"Theoriginofrent,asproperty,is,sotospeak,extra—economic:
itrestsinpsychologicalandmoralconsiderationswhichareonlyverydistantlyconnectedwiththeproductionofwealth。\"
(Vol。II,p。265)
SoM。Proudhondeclareshimselfincapableofunderstandingtheeconomicoriginofrentandofproperty。Headmitsthatthisincapacityobligeshimtoresorttopsychologicalandmoralconsiderations,which,indeed,whileonlydistantlyconnectedwiththeproductionofwealth,haveyetaverycloseconnectionwiththenarrownessofhishistoricalviews。M。
Proudhonaffirmsthatthereissomethingmysticalandmysteriousabouttheoriginofproperty。Now,toseemysteryintheoriginofproperty——thatis,tomakeamysteryoftherelationbetweenproductionitselfandthedistributionoftheinstrumentsofproduction——isnotthis,touseM。Proudhon’slanguage,arenunciationofallclaimstoeconomicscience??
M。Proudhon\"confineshimselftorecallingthatattheseventhepochofeconomicevolution——credit——whenfictionhadcausedrealitytovanish,andhumanactivitythreatenedtoloseitselfinemptyspace,ithadbecomenecessarytobindmanmorecloselytonature。Now,rentwasthepriceofthisnewcontract。\"
(Vol。II,p。269)
L’hommeauxquaranteecus[ed:\"theManofFortyEcus\"——theheroofVoltaire’sstoryofthesamename,amodest,hard—workingpeasantwithanannualincomeof40ecus;thefollowingpassageisquotedfromthestory]foresawaM。
Proudhonofthefuture:
\"Mr。Creator,byyourleave:everyoneismasterinhisownworld:butyouwillnevermakemebelievethattheoneweliveinismadeofglass。\"
Inyourworld,wherecreditwasameansoflosingoneselfinemptyspace,itisverypossiblethatpropertybecamenecessaryinordertobindmantonature。Intheworldofrealproduction,wherelandedpropertyalwaysprecedescredit,M。Proudhon’shorrorvacuicouldnotexist。
Theexistenceofrentonceadmitted,whateveritsorigin,itbecomesasubjectofmutuallyantagonisticnegotiationsbetweenthefarmerandthelandedproprietor。Whatistheultimateresultofthesenegotiations,inotherwords,whatistheaverageamountofrent??ThisiswhatM。Proudhonsays:
\"Ricardo’stheoryanswersthisquestion。Inthebeginningofsociety,whenman,newtoearth,hadbeforehimnothingbuthugeforests,whentheearthwasvastandwhenindustrywasbeginningtocometolife,rentmusthavebeennil。Land,asyetunformedbylabor,wasanobjectofutility;
itwasnotanexchangevalue,itwascommon,notsocial。Littlebylittle,themultiplicationoffamiliesandtheprogressofagriculturecausedthepriceoflandtomakeitselffelt。Laborcametogivethesoilitsworth;
fromthis,rentcameintobeing。Themorefruitafieldyieldedwiththesameamountoflabor,thehigheritwasvalued;hencethetendencyofproprietorswasalwaystoarrogatetothemselvesthewholeamountofthefruitsofthesoil,lessthewagesofthefarm——thatis,lessthecostsofproduc—
tion。Thuspropertyfollowedontheheelsoflabortotakefromitalltheproductthatexceededtheactualexpenses。Astheproprietorfulfilsamysticdutyandrepresentsthecommunityasagainstthecolonus,thatfarmeris,bythedispensationofProvidence,nomorethanaresponsiblelaborer,whomustaccounttosocietyforallhereapsabovehislegitimatewage……
\"Inessenceandbydestination,then,rentisaninstrumentofdistributivejustice,oneofthethousandmeansthatthegeniusofeconomyemploystoattaintoequality。Itisanimmediatelandvaluationwhichiscarriedoutcontradictor—ilybylandownersandfarmers,withoutanypossiblecollu—sion,inahigherinterest,andwhoseultimateresultmustbetoequalizethepossessionofthelandbetweentheex—ploitersofthesoilandtheindustrialists……
\"Itneedednolessthanthismagicofpropertytosnatchfromthecolonusthesurplusofhisproductwhichhecannothelpregardingashisownandofwhichheconsidershimselftobeexclusivelytheauthor。
Rent,orratherproperty,hasbrokendownagriculturalegoismandcreatedasolidaritythatnopower,nopartitionofthelandcouldhavebroughtintobeing……
\"Themoraleffectofpropertyhavingbeensecured,atpresentwhatremainstobedoneistodistributetherent。\"
[II270—72]
Allthistumultofwordsmaybereducedfirstlytothis:Ricardosaysthattheexcessofthepriceofagriculturalproductsovertheircostofproduction,includingtheordinaryprofitandinterestonthecapital,givesthemeasureoftherent。M。Proudhondoesbetter。Hemakesthelandownerintervene,likeaDeusexmachina,andsnatchfromthecolonusallthesurplusofhisproductionoverthecostofproduction。Hemakesuseoftheinterventionofthelandowner[proprietaire]toexplainproperty[propriete],oftheinterventionoftherent—receiver[rentier]toexplainrent[rente]。
Heanswerstheproblembyformulatingthesameproblemandaddinganextrasyllable。[Marxmakesaplayonwords:turning\"propriete\"into\"proprietaire\"
and\"rente\"into\"rentier\"。]
Letusnotealsothatindeterminingrentbythedifferenceinfertilityofthesoil,M。Proudhonassignsaneworigintoit,sinceland,beforebeingassessedaccordingtodifferentdegreesoffertility,\"wasnot\",inhisview,\"anexchangevalue,butwascommon\"。What,then,hashappenedtothefictionaboutrenthavingcomeintobeingthroughthenecessityofbringingbacktothelandmanwhowasabouttolosehimselfintheinfinityofemptyspace??
NowletusfreeRicardo’sdoctrinefromtheprovidential,allegorical,andmysticalphrasesinwhichM。Proudhonhasbeencarefultowrapit。
Rent,intheRicardiansense,ispropertyinlandinitsbourgeoisstate;thatis,feudalpropertywhichhasbecomesubjecttotheconditionsofbourgeoisproduction。
Wehaveseenthat,accordingtotheRicardiandoctrine,thepriceofallobjectsisdeterminedultimatelybythecostofproduction,includingtheindustrialprofit;inotherwords,bythelabortimeemployed。Inmanufacturingindustry,thepriceoftheproductobtainedbytheminimumoflaborregulatesthepriceofallothercommoditiesofthesamekind,seeingthatthecheapestandmostproductiveinstrumentsofproductioncanbemultipliedtoinfinityandthatcompetitionnecessarilygivesrisetoamarketprice——thatis,acommonpriceforallproductsofthesamekind。
Inagriculturalindustry,onthecontrary,itisthepriceoftheproductobtainedbythegreatestamountoflaborwhichregulatesthepriceofallproductsofthesamekind。Inthefirstplace,onecannot,asinmanufacturingindustry,multiplyatwilltheinstrumentsofproductionpossessingthesamedegreeofproductivity,thatis,plotsoflandwiththesamedegreeoffertility。Then,aspopulationincreases,landofaninferiorqualitybeginstobeexploited,ornewoutlaysofcapital,proportionatelylessproductivethanbefore,aremadeuponthesameplotofland。Inbothcasesagreateramountoflaborisexpendedtoobtainaproportionatelysmallerproduct。Theneedsofthepopulationhavingrenderednecessarythisincreaseoflabor,theproductofthelandwhoseexploitationisthemorecostlyhasascertainasaleasthatofapieceoflandwhoseexploitationischeaper。Ascompetitionlevelsthemarketprice,theproductofthebettersoilwillbepaidforasdearlyasthatoftheinferior。Itistheexcessofthepriceoftheproductsofthebettersoiloverthecostoftheirproductionthatconstitutesrent。Ifonecouldalwayshaveatone’sdisposalplotsoflandofthesamedegreeoffertility;ifonecould,asinmanufacturingindustry,haverecoursecontinuallytocheaperandmoreproductivemachines,orifthesubsequentoutlaysofcapitalproducedasmuchasthefirst,thenthepriceofagriculturalproductswouldbedeterminedbythepriceofcommoditiesproducedbythebestinstrumentsofproduction,aswehaveseenwiththepriceofmanufacturedproducts。But,fromthismomentrentwouldhavedisappearedalso。
FortheRicardiandoctrine——\"oncethepremisesgranted\"[MarxpennedthesewordsintothecopyhegaveN。Utina]——tobegenerallytrue,itismoreoveressentialthatcapitalshouldbefreelyapplicabletodifferentbranchesofindustry;thatastronglydevelopedcompetitionamongthecapitalistsshouldhavebroughtprofitstoanequallevel;thatthefarmershouldbenomorethananindustrialcapitalistclaimingfortheuseofhiscapitaloninferiorland[Marxscratchedouttheword\"inferior\"inthecopyhegaveN。Utina],aprofitequaltothatwhichhewoulddrawfromhiscapitalifitwereappliedinanykindofmanufacture;thatagriculturalexploitationshouldbesubjectedtotheregimeoflarge—scaleindustry;andfinally,thatthelandownerhimselfshouldaimatnothingbeyondthemoneyreturn。
Itmayhappen,asinIreland,thatrentdoesnotyetexist,althoughthelettingoflandhasreachedanextremedevelopmentthere。Rentbeingtheexcessnotonlyoverwages,butalsooverindustrialprofit,itcannotexistwherethelandowner’srevenueisnothingbutamerelevyonwages。
Thus,farfromconvertingtheexploiteroftheland,thefarmer,intoasimplelaborer,and\"snatchingfromthecultivatorthesurplusofhisproduct,whichhecannothelpregardingashisown\",rentconfrontsthelandowner,notwiththeslave,theserf,thepayeroftribute,thewagelaborer,butwiththeindustrialcapitalist。
Onceconstitutedasgroundrent,groundpropertyhasinitspossessiononlythesurplusoverproductioncosts,whicharedeterminednotonlybywagesbutalsobyindustrialprofit。Itisthereforefromthelandownerthatgroundrentsnatchedapartofhisincome。Thus,therewasabiglapseoftimebeforethefeudalfarmerwasreplacedbytheindustrialcapitalist。
InGermany,forexample,thistransformationbeganonlyinthelastthirdofthe18thcentury。ItisinEnglandalonethatthisrelationbetweentheindustrialcapitalistandthelandedproprietorhasbeenfullydeveloped。
SolongastherewasonlyM。Proudhon’scolonus,therewasnorent。Theremomentrentexists,thecolonusisnolongerthefarmer,buttheworker,thefarmer’scolonus。Theabasementofthelaborer,reducedtotheroleofasimpleworker,daylaborer,wage—earner,workingfortheindustrialcapitalist;theinventionoftheindustrialcapitalist,exploitingthelandlikeanyotherfactory;thetransformationofthelandedproprietorfromapettysovereignintoavulgarusurer;thesearethedifferentrelationsexpressedbyrent。
Rent,intheRicardiansense,ispatriarchalagriculturetransformedintocommercialindustry,industrialcapitalappliedtoland,thetownbourgeoisietransplantedintothecountry。Rent,insteadofbindingmantonature,hasmerelyboundtheexploitationofthelandtocompetition。
Onceestablishedasrent,landedpropertyitselfistheresultofcompetition,sincefromthattimeonwardsitdependsonthemarketvalueofagriculturalproduce。Asrent,landedpropertyismobilizedandbecomesanarticleofcommerce。Rentispossibleonlyfromthemomentwhenthedevelopmentofurbanindustry,andthesocialorganizationresultingtherefrom,forcethelandownertoaimsolelyatcashprofits,atthemonetaryrelationofhisagriculturalproducts——infacttolookuponhislandedpropertyonlyasamachineforcoiningmoney。Renthassocompletelydivorcedthelandedproprietorfromthesoil,fromnature,thathehasnoneedeventoknowhisestates,asistobeseeninEngland。Asforthefarmer,theindustrialcapitalistandtheagriculturalworker,theyarenomoreboundtothelandtheyexploitthanaretheemployerandtheworkerinthefactoriestothecottonandwooltheymanufacture;theyfeelanattachmentonlyforthepriceoftheirproduction,themonetaryproduct。Hencethejeremiadsofthereactionaryparties,whoofferupalltheirprayersforthereturnoffeudalism,ofthegoodoldpatriarchallife,ofthesimplemannersandthefinevirtuesofourforefathers。Thesubjectionofthesoiltothelawswhichdominateallotherindustriesisandalwayswillbethesubjectofinterestedcondolences。Thusitmaybesaidthatrenthasbecomethemotivepowerwhichhasintroducedidyllintothemovementofhistory。
Ricardo,afterpostulatingbourgeoisproductionasnecessaryfordeterminingrent,appliestheconceptionofrent,nevertheless,tothelandedpropertyofallagesandallcountries。Thisisanerrorcommontoalltheeconomists,whorepresentthebourgeoisrelationsofproductionaseternalcategories。
Fromtheprovidentialaimofrent——whichis,forM。Proudhon,thetransformationofthecolonusintoaresponsibleworker,hepassestotheequalizedrewardofrent。
Rent,aswehavejustseen,isconstitutedbytheequalpriceoftheproductsoflandsofunequalfertility,sothatahectolitreofcornwhichhascost10francsissoldfor20francsifthecostofproductionrisesto20francsuponsoilofinferiorquality。
Solongasnecessityforcesthepurchaseofalltheagriculturalproductsintothemarket,themarketpriceisdeterminedbythecostofthemostexpensiveproduct。Thusitisthisequalizationofprice,resultingfromcompetitionandnotfromthedifferentfertilitiesofthelands,thatsecurestotheownerofthebettersoilarentfor10francsforeveryhectolitrethathistenantsells。
Letussupposeforamomentthatthepriceofcornisdeterminedbythelabortimeneededtoproduceit,andatoncethehectolitreofcornobtainedfromthebettersoilwillsellat10francs,whilethehectolitreofcornobtainedontheinferiorsoilwillcost20francs。Thisbeingadmitted,theaveragemarketpricewillbe15francs,whereas,accordingtothelawofcompetition,itis20francs。Iftheaveragepricewere15francs,therewouldbenooccassionforanydistribution,whetherequalizedorotherwise,fortherewouldbenorent。Rentexistsonlywhenonecansellfor20francsthehectolitreofcornwhichhascosttheproducer10francs。M。Proudhonsupposesequalityofthemarketprice,withunequalcostsofproduction,inordertoarriveatanequalizedsharingoutoftheproductofinequality。
WeunderstandsucheconomistsasMill,Cherbuliez,Hilditch,andothersdemandingthatrentshouldbehandedovertothestatetoserveinplaceoftaxes。Thatisafrankexpressionofthehatredtheindustrialcapitalistbearstowardsthelandedproprietor,whoseemstohimauselessthing,anexcrescenceuponthegeneralbodyofbourgeoisproduction。
Butfirsttomakethepriceofthehectolitreofcorn20francsinorderthentomakeageneraldistributionofthe10francsoverchargeleviedontheconsumer,isindeedenoughtomakethesocialgeniuspursueitszigzagcoursemournfully——andknockitsheadagainstsomecorner。
Rentbecomes,underM。Proudhon’spen,\"animmenselandvaluation,whichiscarriedoutcontradictorilybyland—ownersandfarmers……inahigherinterest,andwhoseultimateresultmustbetoequalizethepossesionoflandbetweenexploitersofthesoilandtheindustrialists。\"
[II271]
Foranylandvaluationbaseduponrenttobeofpracticalvalue,theconditionsofpresentsocietymustnotbedepartedfrom。
Now,wehaveshownthatthefarmrentpaidbythefarmertothelandlordexpressestherentwithanyexactitudeonlyinthecountriesmostadvancedinindustryandcommerce。Andeventhisrentoftenincludesinterestpaidtothelandlordoncapitalincorporatedintheland。Thelocationoftheland,thevicinityoftowns,andmanyothercircumstancesinfluencethefarmrentandmodifythegroundrent。Theseperemptoryreasonswouldbeenoughtoprovetheinaccuracyofalandvaluationbasedonrent。
Thushistory,farfromsupplying,inrent,aready—madelandvaluation,doesnothingbutchangeandturntopsy—turvythelandvaluationsalreadymade。
Finally,fertilityisnotsonaturalaqualityasmightbethought;
itiscloselyboundupwiththesocialrelationsofthetime。Apieceoflandmaybeveryfertileforcorngrowing,andyetthemarketpricemaydecidethecultivatortoturnitintoanartificialpasturelandandthusrenderitinfertile。
M。Proudhonhasimprovisedhislandvaluation,whichhasnoteventhevalueofanordinarylandvaluation,onlytogivesubstancetotheprovidentiallyequalitarianaimofrent。
\"Rent,\"continuesM。Proudhon,\"istheinterestpaidonacapitalwhichneverperishes,namely——land。Andasthecapitaliscapableofnoincreaseinmatter,butonlyofanindefiniteimprovementinitsuse,itcomesaboutthatwhiletheinterestorprofitonaloan(mutuum)tendstodiminishcontinuallythroughabundanceofcapital,renttendsalwaystoincreasethroughtheperfectingofindustry,fromwhichresultstheimprovementintheuseoftheland……Such,initsessence,isrent。\"
(Vol。II,p。265)
Thistime,M。Proudhonseesinrentallthecharacteristicsofinterest,savethatitisderivedfromcapitalofaspecificnature。Thiscapitalisland,aneternalcapital,\"whichiscapableofnoincreaseinmatter,butonlyanindefiniteimprovementinitsuse\"。Intheprogressiveadvanceofcivilization,interesthasacontinualtendencytofall,whilstrentcontinuallytendstorise。Interestfallsbecauseoftheabundanceofcapital;
rentrisesowningtotheimprovementsbroughtaboutinindustry,whichresultsinaneverbetterutilizationofland。
Such,initsessence,istheopinionofM。Proudhon。
Letusfirstexaminehowfaritistruetosaythatrentisinterestoncapital。
Forthelandedproprietorhimself,rentrepresentstheinterestonthecapitalthatthelandhascosthim,orthathewoulddrawfromitifhesoldit。Butinbuyingorsellinglandheonlybuysorsellsrent。
Thepricehepaystomakehimselfareceiverofrentisregulatedbytherateofinterestingeneralandhasnothingtodowithwithactualnatureofrent。Theinterestoncapitalinvestedinlandisingenerallowerlowerthantheinterestoncapitalinvestedinmanufactureorcommerce。Thus,forthosewhomakenodistinctionbetweentheinterestthatthelandrepresentstotheownerandtherentitself,theinterestonlandcapitaldiminishesstillmorethandoestheinterestonothercapital。Butitisnotaquestionofthepurchaseorsalepriceofrent,ofthemarketablevalueofrent,ofcapitalizedrent,itisaquestionofrentitself。
Farmrentcanimplyagain,apartfromrentproper,theinterestonthecapitalincorporatedintheland。Inthisinstancethelandlordreceivesthispartofthefarmrent,notasalandlordbutasacapitalist;
butthisisnottherentproperthatwearetodealwith。
Land,solongasitisnotexploitedasameansofproduction,isnotcapital。Landascapitalcanbeincreasedjustasmuchasalltheotherinstrumentsofproduction。Nothingisaddedtoitsmatter,touseM。Proudhon’slanguage,butthelandswhichserveasinstrumentsofproductionaremultiplied。Theveryfactofapplyingfurtheroutlaysofcapitaltolandalreadytransformedintomeansofproductionincreaseslandascapitalwithoutaddinganythingtolandasmatter——thatis,totheextentoftheland。M。Proudhon’slandasmatteristheEarthinitslimitation。
Asfortheeternityheattributestoland,wegrantreadilyithasthisvirtueasmatter。Landascapitalisnomoreeternalthananyothercapital。
Goldandsilver,whichyieldinterest,arejustaslastingandeternalasland。Ifthepriceofgoldandsilverfalls,whilethatoflandkeepsrising,thisiscertainlynotbecauseofitsmoreorlesseternalnature。
Landascapitalisfixedcapital;butfixedcapitalgetsusedupjustasmuchascirculatingcapital。Improvementstothelandneedproductionandupkeep;theylastonlyforatime;andthistheyhaveincommonwithallotherimprovementsusedtotransformmatterintomeansofproduction。
Iflandascapitalwereeternal,somelandswouldpresentaverydifferentappearancefromwhattheydotoday,andweshouldseetheRomanCampagna,Sicily,Palestine,inallthesplendouroftheirformerprosperity。
Thereareeveninstanceswhenlandascapitalmightdisappear,eventhoughtheimprovementsremainincorporatedintheland。
Inthefirstplace,thisoccurseverytimerentproperiswipedoutbythecompetitionofnewandmorefertilesoils;secondly,theimprovementswhichmighthavebeenvaluableatonetimeceasetobeofvaluethemomenttheybecomeuniversalowingtothedevelopmentofagronomy。
Therepresentativeoflandascapitalisnotthelandlord,butthefarmer。Theproceedsyieldedbylandascapitalareinterestandindustrialprofit,notrent。Therearelandswhichyieldsuchinterestandprofitbutstillyieldnorent。
Briefly,landinsofarasityieldsinterest,islandcapital,andaslandcapitalityieldsnorent,itisnotlandedproperty。Rentresultsfromthesocialrelationsinwhichtheexploitationofthelandtakesplace。Itcannotbearesultofthemoreorlesssolid,moreorlessdurablenatureofthesoil。Rentisaproductofsocietyandnotofthesoil。
AccordingtoM。Proudhon,\"improvementintheuseoftheland\"
——aconsequence\"oftheperfectingofindustry\"——causesthecontinualriseinrent。Onthecontrary,thisimprovementcausesitsperiodicfall。
Whereinconsists,ingeneral,anyimprovement,whetherinagricultureorinmanufacture??Inproducingmorewiththesamelabor;inproducingasmuch,orevenmore,withlesslabor。Thankstotheseimprovements,thefarmerissparedfromusingagreateramountoflaborforarelativelysmallerproduct。Hehasnoneed,therefore,toresorttoinferiorsoils,andinstallmentsofcapitalappliedsuccessivelytothesamesoilremainequallyproductive。
Thus,theseimprovements,farfromcontinuallyraisingrentasM。Proudhonsays,becomeonthecontrarysomanytemporaryobstaclespreventingitsrise。
TheEnglishlandownersofthe17thcenturyweresowellawareofthistruth,thattheyopposedtheprogressofagricultureforfearofseeingtheirincomesdiminish。(SeePetty,anEnglisheconomistofthetimeofCharlesII。)
5。
STRIKESANDCOMBINATIONSOFWORKERS
\"Everyupwardmovementinwagescanhavenoothereffectthanariseinthepriceofcorn,wine,etc。,thatis,theeffectofadearth。Forwhatarewages?Theyarethecostpriceofcorn,etc。;theyaretheintegrantpriceofevery—thing。Wemaygoevenfurther:wagesaretheproportionoftheelementscomposingwealthandconsumedreproductivelyeverydaybythemassoftheworkers。Now,todoublewages……istoattributetoeachoneoftheproducersagreatersharethanhisproduct,whichiscontradictory,andiftheriseextendsonlytoasmallnumberofindustries,itbringsageneraldisturbanceinexchange;inaword,adearth……
\"Itisimpossible,Ideclare,forstrikesfollowedbyanincreaseinwagesnottoculminateinageneralriseinprices:thisisascertainasthattwoandtwomakefour。\"
(Proudhon,Vol。I,pp。110and111)
Wedenyalltheseassertions,exceptthattwoandtwomakefour。
Inthefirstplace,thereisnogeneralriseinprices。
Ifthepriceofeverythingdoublesatthesametimeaswages,thereisnochangeinprice,theonlychangeisinterms。
Thenagain,ageneralriseinwagescanneverproduceamoreorlessgeneralriseinthepriceofgoods。Actually,ifeveryindustryemployedthesamenumberofworkersinrelationtofixedcapitalortotheinstrumentsused,ageneralriseinwageswouldproduceageneralfallinprofitsandthecurrentpriceofgoodswouldundergonoalteration。
Butastherelationofmanuallabortofixedcapitalisnotthesameindifferentindustries,alltheindustrieswhichemployarelativelygreatermassofcapitalandfewerworkers,willbeforcedsoonerorlatertolowerthepriceoftheirgoods。Intheoppositecase,inwhichthepriceoftheirgoodsisnotlowered,theirprofitwillriseabovethecommonrateofprofits。Machinesarenotwage—earners。Therefore,thegeneralriseinwageswillaffectlessthoseindustries,which,comparedwiththeothers,employmoremachinesthanworkers。Butascompetitionalwaystendstoleveltherateofprofits,thoseprofitswhichriseabovetheaverageratecannotbutbetransitory。Thus,apartfromafewfluctuations,ageneralriseinwageswilllead,notasM。Proudhonsays,toageneralincreaseinprices,buttoapartialfall——thatisafallinthecurrentpriceofthegoodsthataremadechieflywiththehelpofmachines。
Theriseandfallofprofitsandwagesexpressesmerelytheproportioninwhichcapitalistsandworkersshareintheproductofaday’swork,withoutinfluencinginmostinstancesthepriceoftheproduct。Butthat\"strikesfollowedbyanincreaseinwagesculminateinageneralriseinprices,inadeartheven\"——thosearenotionswhichcanblossomonlyinthebrainofapoetwhohasnotbeenunderstood。
InEngland,strikeshaveregularlygivenrisetotheinventionandapplicationofnewmachines。Machineswere,itmaybesaid,theweaponemployedbythecapitalisttoquelltherevoltofspecializedlabor。Theself—actingmule,thegreatestinventionofmodernindustry,putoutofactionthespinnerswhowereinrevolt。Ifcombinationsandstrikeshadnoothereffectthanthatofmakingtheeffortsofmechanicalgeniusreactagainstthem,theywouldstillexerciseanimmenseinfluenceonthedevelopmentofindustry。
\"Ifind,\"continuesM。Proudhon,\"inanarticlepublishedbyM。LeonFaucher……September1845,thatforsometimetheBritishworkershavegotoutthehabitofcombination,whichisassuredlyaprogressforwhichonecannotbutcongratu—latethem:butthisimprovementinthemoraleoftheworkerscomeschieflyfromtheireconomiceducation。’Itisnotonthemanufacturers,’criesaspinning—millworkerataBoltonmeeting,’thatwagesdepend。Inperiodsofdepressionthemastersare,sotospeak,merelythewhipwithwhichneces—sityarmsitself,andwhethertheywanttoornot,theyhavetodealblows。Theregulativeprincipleistherelationofsupplyanddemand;andthemastershavenotthispower’……
\"Welldone!\"criesM。Proudhon。\"Thesearewell—trainedworkers,modelworkers,etc。,etc。,etc。SuchpovertydidnotexistinBritain;
itwillnotcrosstheChannel。\"
(Proudhon,Vol。I,pp。261and262)
OfallthetownsinEngland,Boltonistheoneinwhichtheradicalismisthemostdeveloped。TheBoltonworkersareknowntobethemostrevolutionaryofall。AtthetimeofthegreatagitationinEnglandfortheabolitionoftheCornLaws,theEnglishmanufacturersthoughtthattheycouldcopewiththelandownersonlybythrustingtheworkerstothefore。Butastheinterestsoftheworkerswerenolessopposedtothoseofthemanufacturersthantheinterestsofthemanufacturersweretothoseofthelandowners,itwasnaturalthatthemanufacturersshouldfarebadlyintheworkers’
meetings。Whatdidthemanufacturersdo?Tosaveappearancestheyorganizedmeetingscomposed,toalargeextent,offoremen,ofthesmallnumberofworkerswhoweredevotedtothem,andoftherealfriendsoftrade。
Whenlateronthegenuineworkerstried,asinBoltonandManchester,totakepartintheseshamdemonstrations,inordertoprotestagainstthem,theywereforbiddenadmittanceonthegroundthatitwasaticketmeeting——ameetingtowhichonlypersonswithentrancecardswereadmitted。Yetthepostersplacardedonthewallshadannouncedpublicmeetings。Everytimeoneofthesemeetingswasheld,themanufacturers’newspapersgaveapompousanddetailedaccountofthespeechesmade。Itgoeswithoutsayingthatitwastheforemenwhomadethesespeeches。TheLondonpapersreproducedthemwordforword。M。Proudhonhasthemisfortunetotakeforemenforordinaryworkers,andenjoinsthemnottocrosstheChannel。
Ifin1844and1845strikesdrewlessattentionthanbefore,itwasbecause1844and1845werethefirsttwoyearsofprosperitythatBritishindustryhadhadsince1837。Neverthelessnoneofthetradesunionshadbeendissolved。
NowletuslistentotheforemenofBolton。Accordingtothemmanufacturershavenocommandoverwagesbecausetheyhavenocommandoverthepriceofproducts,andtheyhavenocommandoverthepriceofproductsbecausetheyhavenocommandovertheworldmarket。Forthisreason,theywishittobeunderstoodthatcombinationsshouldnotbeformedtoextortanincreaseinwagesfromthemasters。M。Proudhon,onthecontrary,forbidscombinationsforfeartheyshouldbefollowedbyariseinwageswhichwouldbringwithitageneraldearth。WehavenoneedtosaythatononepointthereisanententecordialebetweentheforemenandM。Proudhon:
thatariseinwagesisequivalenttoariseinthepriceofproducts。
ButisthefearofadearththetruecauseofM。Proudhon’srancour?
No。Quitesimple,heisannoyedwiththeBoltonforemenbecausetheydeterminevaluebysupplyanddemandandhardlytakeanyaccountofconstitutedvalue,ofvaluewhichhaspassedintothestateofconstitution,oftheconstitutionofvalue,includingpermanentexchangeabilityandalltheotherproportionalitiesofrelationsandrelationsofproportionality,withProvidenceattheirside。
\"Aworkers’strikesisillegal,anditisnotonlythePenalCodethatsaysso,itistheeconomicsystem,thenecessityoftheestablishedorder……
\"Thateachworkerindividuallyshoulddisposefreelyoverhispersonandhishands,thiscanbetolerated,butthatworkersshouldundertakebycombinationtodoviolencetomonopoly,issomethingsocietycannotpermit。\"
(Vol。I,pp。334and335)
M。ProudhonwantstopassoffanarticleofthePenalCodeasanecessaryandgeneralresultofbourgeoisrelationsofproduction。
InEngland,combinationisauthorizedbyanActofParliament,anditistheeconomicsystemwhichhasforcedParliamenttograntthislegalauthorization。In1825,when,undertheMinisterHuskisson,Parliamenthadtomodifythelawinordertobringitmoreandmoreintolinewiththeconditionsresultingfromfreecompetition,ithadofnecessitytoabolishalllawsforbiddingcombinationsofworkers。Themoremodernindustryandcompetitiondevelop,themoreelementstherearewhichcallforthandstrengthcombination,andassoonascombinationbecomesaneconomicfact,dailygaininginsolidity,itisboundbeforelongtobecomealegalfact。
ThusthearticleofthePenalCodeprovesatthemostthatmodernindustryandcompetitionwerenotyetwelldevelopedundertheConstituentAssemblyandundertheEmpire。[Note:ThelawsinoperationatthattimeinFrance——theso—calledLeChapelierlawadoptedin1791duringthebourgeoisrevolutionbytheConstituentAssemblyandthecriminalcodeelaboratedundertheNapoleonicEmpire——forbadetheworkerstoformlaborunionsoftogoonstrikeonpainofseverepunishment。TheprohibitionoftradeunionswasabolishedinFranceaslateas1884。]
EconomistsandSocialists[thatis,theSocialistsofthattime:
theFourieristsinFrance,theOwenitesinEngland——Engels,1885]areinagreementononepoint:thecondemnationofcombination。Onlytheyhavedifferentmotivesfortheiractofcondemnation。
Theeconomistssaytoworkers:
Donotcombine。Bycombinationyouhindertheregularprogressofindustry,youpreventmanufacturersfromcarryingouttheirorders,youdisturbtradeandyouprecipitatetheinvasionofmachineswhich,byrenderingyourlaborinpartuseless,forceyoutoacceptastilllowerwage。Besides,whateveryoudo,yourwageswillalwaysbedeterminedbytherelationofhandsdemandedtohandssupplied,anditisaneffortasridiculousasitisdangerousforyoutorevoltagainsttheeternallawsofpoliticaleconomy。
TheSocialistssaytotheworkers:
Donotcombine,becausewhatwillyougainbyitanyway?Ariseinwages?Theeconomistswillprovetoyouquiteclearlythatthefewha’penceyoumaygainbyitforafewmomentsifyousucceedwillbefollowedbyapermanentfall。Skilledcalculatorswillprovetoyouthatitwouldtakeyouyearsmerelytorecover,throughtheincreaseinyourwages,theexpensesincurredfortheorganizationandupkeepofthecombinations。
Andwe,asSocialists,tellyouthat,apartfromthemoneyquestion,youwillcontinuenonethelesstobeworkers,andthemasterswillstillcontinuetobethemasters,justasbefore。Sonocombination!Nopolitics!
Forisnotenteringintocombinationengaginginpolitics?
Theeconomistswanttheworkerstoremaininsocietyasitisconstitutedandasithasbeensignedandsealedbythemintheirmanuals。
TheSocialistswanttheworkerstoleavetheoldsocietyalone,thebettertobeabletoenterthenewsocietywhichtheyhavepreparedforthemwithsomuchforesight。
Inspiteofbothofthem,inspiteofmanualsandutopias,combinationhasnotyetceasedforaninstanttogoforwardandgrowwiththedevelopmentandgrowthofmodernindustry。Ithasnowreachedsuchastage,thatthedegreetowhichcombinationhasdevelopedinanycountryclearlymarkstherankitoccupiesinthehierarchyoftheworldmarket。England,whoseindustryhasattainedthehighestdegreeofdevelopment,hasthebiggestandbestorganizedcombinations。
InEngland,theyhavenotstoppedatpartialcombinationswhichhavenootherobjectivethanapassingstrike,andwhichdisappearwithit。Permanentcombinationshavebeenformed,tradesunions,whichserveasrampartsfortheworkersintheirstruggleswiththeemployers。
AndatthepresenttimealltheselocaltradesunionsfindarallyingpointintheNationalAssociationofUnitedTrades,thecentralcommitteeofwhichisinLondon,andwhichalreadynumbers80,000members。[NAUT——
AtradeunionorganizationestablishedinEnglandin1845。Itsactivitiesdidnotextendbeyondthescopeofeconomicstruggleforbetterconditionsofsaleoflaborpower,forbetterlaborlaws。TheAssociationexisteduntiltheearly’60s,butafter1851,itdidnotplayanimportantpartinthetradeunionmovement。——ed。]theorganizationofthesestrikes,combinations,andtradesunionswentonsimultaneouslywiththepoliticalstrugglesoftheworkers,whonowconstitutealargepoliticalparty,underthenameofChartists。
Thefirstattemptofworkerstoassociateamongthemselvesalwaystakesplaceintheformofcombinations。
Large—scaleindustryconcentratesinoneplaceacrowdofpeopleunknowntooneanother。Competitiondividestheirinterests。Butthemaintenanceofwages,thiscommoninterestwhichtheyhaveagainsttheirboss,unitestheminacommonthoughtofresistance——combination。Thuscombinationalwayshasadoubleaim,thatofstoppingcompetitionamongtheworkers,sothattheycancarryongeneralcompetitionwiththecapitalist。Ifthefirstaimofresistancewasmerelythemaintenanceofwages,combinations,atfirstisolated,constitutethemselvesintogroupsasthecapitalistsintheirturnuniteforthepurposeofrepression,andinthefaceofalwaysunitedcapital,themaintenanceoftheassociationbecomesmorenecessarytothemthanthatofwages。ThisissotruethatEnglisheconomistsareamazedtoseetheworkerssacrificeagoodpartoftheirwagesinfavorofassociations,which,intheeyesoftheseeconomists,areestablishedsolelyinfavorofwages。Inthisstruggle——averitablecivilwar——
alltheelementsnecessaryforacomingbattleuniteanddevelop。Onceithasreachedthispoint,associationtakesonapoliticalcharacter。
Economicconditionshadfirsttransformedthemassofthepeopleofthecountryintoworker。Thecombinationofcapitalhascreatedforthismassacommonsituation,commoninterests。Thismassisthusalreadyaclassasagainstcapital,butnotyetforitself。Inthestruggle,ofwhichwehavenotedonlyafewphases,thismassbecomesunited,andconstitutesitselfasaclassforitself。Theinterestsitdefendsbecomesclassinterests。
Butthestruggleofclassagainstclassisapoliticalstruggle。
Inthebourgeoisiewehavetwophasestodistinguish:thatinwhichitconstituteditselfasaclassundertheregimeoffeudalismandabsolutemonarchy,andthatinwhich,alreadyconstitutedasaclass,itoverthrewfeudalismandmonarchytomakesocietyintoabourgeoissociety。
Thefirstofthesephaseswasthelongerandnecessitatedthegreaterefforts。
Thistoobeganbypartialcombinationsagainstthefeudallords。
Muchresearchhasbeencarriedouttotracethedifferenthistoricalphasesthatthebourgeoisiehaspassedthrough,fromthecommuneuptoitsconstitutionasaclass。
Butwhenitisaquestionofmakingaprecisestudyofstrikes,combinationsandotherformsinwhichtheproletarianscarryoutbeforeoureyestheirorganizationasaclass,someareseizedwithrealfearandothersdisplayatranscendentaldisdain。
Anoppressedclassisthevitalconditionforeverysocietyfoundedontheantagonismofclasses。Theemancipationoftheoppressedclassthusimpliesnecessarilythecreationofanewsociety。Fortheoppressedclasstobeabletoemancipateitself,itisnecessarythattheproductivepowersalreadyacquiredandtheexistingsocialrelationsshouldnolongerbecapableofexistingsidebyside。Ofalltheinstrumentsofproduction,thegreatestproductivepoweristherevolutionaryclassitself。Theorganizationofrevolutionaryelementsasaclasssupposestheexistenceofalltheproductiveforceswhichcouldbeengenderedinthebosomoftheoldsociety。
Doesthismeanthatafterthefalloftheoldsocietytherewillbeanewclassdominationculminatinginanewpoliticalpower?No。
Theconditionfortheemancipationoftheworkingclassistheabolitionofeveryclass,justastheconditionfortheliberationofthethirdestate,ofthebourgeoisorder,wastheabolitionofallestatesandallorders。[Estateshereinthehistoricalsenseoftheestatesoffeudalism,estateswithdefiniteandlimitedprivileges。Therevolutionofthebourgeoisieabolishedtheestatesandtheirprivileges。Bourgeoissocietyknowsonlyclasses。Itwas,therefore,absolutelyincontradictionwithhistorytodescribetheproletariatasthe\"fourthestate\"——Engels,1885Germanedition。]
Theworkingclass,inthecourseofitsdevelopment,willsubstitutefortheoldcivilsocietyanassociationwhichwillexcludeclassesandtheirantagonism,andtherewillbenomorepoliticalpowerproperlyso—called,sincepoliticalpowerispreciselytheofficialexpressionofantagonismincivilsociety。
Meanwhiletheantagonismbetweentheproletariatandthebourgeoisieisastruggleofclassagainstclass,astrugglewhichcarriedtoitshighestexpressionisatotalrevolution。Indeed,isitatallsurprisingthatasocietyfoundedontheoppositionofclassesshouldculminateinbrutalcontradiction,theshockofbodyagainstbody,asitsfinaldenouement?
Donotsaythatsocialmovementexcludespoliticalmovement。Thereisneverapoliticalmovementwhichisnotatthesametimesocial。
Itisonlyinanorderofthingsinwhichtherearenomoreclassesandclassantagonismsthatsocialevolutionswillceasetobepoliticalrevolutions。Tillthen,ontheeveofeverygeneralreshufflingofsociety,thelastwordofsocialsciencewillalwaysbe:
\"Lecombatonlamort;laluttesanguinaireouleneant。C’estainsiquelaquestionestinvinciblementposee。\"
GeorgeSand[FromthenovelJeanSiska:\"CombatorDeath:bloodystruggleorextinction。Itisthusthatthequestionisinexorablyput。\"]