Theonlydrawbacktothismethodisthatwhenhecomestoexamineasingleoneofthesephases,M。Proudhoncannotexplainitwithouthavingrecoursetoalltheotherrelationsofsociety;whichrelations,however,hehasnotyetmadehisdialecticmovementengender。When,afterthat,M。Proudhon,bemeansofpurereason,proceedstogivebirthtotheseotherphases,hetreatsthemasiftheywerenew—bornbabes。Heforgetsthattheyareofthesameageasthefirst。
Thus,toarriveattheconstitutionofvalue,whichforhimisthebasisofalleconomicevolutions,hecouldnotdowithoutdivisionoflabor,competition,etc。Yetintheseries,intheunderstandofM。
Proudhon,inthelogicalsequence,theserelationsdidnotexist。
Inconstructingtheedificeofanideologicalsystembymeansofthecategoriesofpoliticaleconomy,thelimbsofthesocialsystemaredislocated。Thedifferentlimbsofsocietyareconvertedintosomanyseparatesocieties,followingoneupontheother。How,indeed,couldthesinglelogicalformulaofmovement,ofsequence,oftime,explainthestructureofsociety,inwhichallrelationscoexistsimultaneouslyandsupportoneanother?
FourthObservationLetusseenowtowhatmodificationsM。ProudhonsubjectsHegel’sdialecticswhenheappliesittopoliticaleconomy。
Forhim,M。Proudhon,everyeconomiccategoryhastwosides——
onegood,theotherbad。Helooksuponthesecategoriesasthepettybourgeoislooksuponthegreatmenofhistory:Napoleonwasagreatman;hedidalotofgood;healsodidalotofharm。
Thegoodsideandthebadside,theadvantagesanddrawbacks,takentogetherformforM。Proudhonthecontradictionineveryeconomiccategory。
Theproblemtobesolved:tokeepthegoodside,whileeliminatingthebad。
Slaveryisaneconomiccategorylikeanyother。Thusitalsohasitstwosides。letusleavealonethebadsideandtalkaboutthegoodsideofslavery。Needlesstosay,wearedealingonlywithdirectslavery,withNegroslaveryinSurinam,inBrazil,intheSouthernStatesofNorthAmerica。
Directslaveryisjustasmuchthepivotofbourgeoisindustryasmachinery,credits,etc。Withoutslaveryyouhavenocotton;withoutcottonyouhavenomodernindustry。Itisslaverythatgavethecoloniestheirvalue;itisthecoloniesthatcreatedworldtrade,anditisworldtradethatisthepreconditionoflarge—scaleindustry。Thusslaveryisaneconomiccategoryofthegreatestimportance。
WithoutslaveryNorthAmerica,themostprogressiveofcountries,wouldbetransformedintoapatriarchalcountry。WipeNorthAmericaoffthemapoftheworld,andyouwillhaveanarchy——thecompletedecayofmoderncommerceandcivilization。CauseslaverytodisappearandyouwillhavewipedAmericaoffthemapofnations。
[NOTEbyEngelsto1885Germanedition:Thiswasperfectlycorrectfortheyear1847[whenMarxwrotetheselines]。AtthattimetheworldtradeoftheUnitedStatewaslimitedmainlytoimportofimmigrantsandindustrialproducts,andexportofcottonandtobacco,i。e。,oftheproductsofsouthernslavelabor。TheNorthernStatesproducedmainlycornandmeatfortheslavestates。ItwasonlywhentheNorthproducedcornandmeatforexportandalsobecameanindustrialcountry,andwhentheAmericancottonmonopolyhadtofacepowerfulcompetition,inIndia,Egypt,Brazil,etc。,thattheabolitionofslaverybecamepossible。AndeventhenthisledtotheruinoftheSouth,whichdidnotsucceedinreplacingtheopenNegroslaverybythedisguisedslaveryisIndianandChinesecoolies。]
Thusslavery,becauseitisaneconomiccategory,hasalwaysexistedamongtheinstitutionsofthepeoples。Modernnationshavebeenableonlytodisguiseslaveryintheirowncountries,buttheyhaveimposeditwithoutdisguiseupontheNewWorld。
WhatwouldM。Proudhondotosaveslavery?Hewouldformulatetheproblemthus:preservethegoodsideofthiseconomiccategory,eliminatethebad。
Hegelhasnoproblemstoformulate。Hehasonlydialectics。M。
ProudhonhasnothingofHegel’sdialecticsbutthelanguage。forhimthedialecticmovementisthedogmaticdistinctionbetweengoodandbad。
LetusforamomentconsiderM。Proudhonhimselfasacategory。
Letusexaminehisgoodandbadside,hisadvantagesandhisdrawbacks。
IfhehastheadvantageoverHegelofsettingproblemswhichhereservestherightofsolvingforthegreatergoodofhumanity,hehasthedrawbackofbeingstrickenwithsterilitywhenitisaquestionofengenderinganewcategorybydialecticalbirth—throes。Whatconstitutesdialecticalmovementisthecoexistenceoftwocontradictorysides,theirconflictandtheirfusionintoanewcategory。Theverysettingoftheproblemofeliminatingthebadsidecutsshortthedialecticmovement。
Itisnotthecategorywhichisposedandopposedtoitself,byitscontradictorynature,itisM。Proudhonwhogetsexcited,perplexedandfretsandfumesbetweenthetwosidesofthecategory。
Caughtthusinablindalley,fromwhichitisdifficulttoescapebylegalmeans,M。Proudhontakesarealflyingleapwhichtransportshimatoneboundintoanewcategory。Thenitisthat,tohisastonishedgaze,isrevealedtheserialrelationintheunderstanding。
Hetakesthefirstcategorythatcomeshandyandattributestoitarbitrarilythequalityofsupplyingaremedyforthedrawbacksofthecategorytobepurified。Thus,ifwearetobelieveM。Proudhon,taxesremedythedrawbacksofmonopoly;thebalanceoftrade,thedrawbacksoftaxes;landedproperty,thedrawbacksofcredit。
Bytakingtheeconomiccategoriesthussuccessively,onebyone,andmakingonetheantidotetotheother,M。Proudhonmanagestomakewiththismixtureofcontradictionsandantidotestocontradictions,twovolumesofcontradictions,whichherightlyentitles:TheSystemofEconomicContradictions。
FifthObservation\"Intheabsolutereasonalltheseideas……areequallysimple,andgeneral……Infact,weattainknowledgeonlybyasortofscaffoldingofourideas。Buttruthinitselfisindependentofthesedialecticalsymbolsandfreedfromthecombinationsofourminds。\"
(Proudhon,Vol。II,p。97)
Hereallofasudden,byakindofswitch—overofwhichwenowknowthesecret,themetaphysicsofpoliticaleconomyhasbecomeanillusion!NeverhasM。Proudhonspokenmoretruly。Indeed,fromthemomenttheprocessofthedialecticmovementisreducedtothesimpleprocessofopposinggoodtobad,andofadministeringonecategoryasanantidotetoanother,thecategoriesaredeprivedofallspontaneity;theidea\"ceasestofunction\";
thereisnolifeleftinit。Itisnolongerposedordecomposedintocategories。
Thesequenceofcategorieshasbecomeasortofscaffolding。Dialecticshasceasedtobethemovementofabsolutereason。Thereisnolongeranydialecticsbutonly,atthemost,absolutelypuremorality。
WhenM。Proudhonspokeoftheseriesintheunderstanding,ofthelogicalsequenceofcategories,hedeclaredpositivelythathedidnotwanttogivehistoryaccordingtotheorderintime,thatis,inM。
Proudhon’sview,thehistoricalsequenceinwhichthecategorieshavemanifestedthemselves。Thusforhimeverythinghappenedinthepureetherofreason。
Everythingwastobederivedfromthisetherbymeansofdialectics。Nowthathehastoputthisdialecticsintopractice,hisreasonisindefault。
M。Proudhon’sdialecticsrunscountertoHegel’sdialectics,andnowwehaveM。Proudhonreducedtosayingthattheorderinwhichhegivestheeconomiccategoriesisnolongertheorderinwhichtheyengenderoneanother。Economicevolutionsarenolongertheevolutionsofreasonitself。
WhatthendoesM。Proudhongiveus?Realhistory,whichis,accordingtoM。Proudhon’sunderstanding,thesequenceinwhichthecategorieshavemanifestedthemselvesinorderoftime?No!Historyasittakeplaceintheideaitself?Stillless!Thatis,neithertheprofanehistoryofcategories,northeirsacredhistory!Whathistorydoeshegiveusthen?Thehistoryofhisowncontradictions。Letusseehowtheygo,andhowtheydragM。
Proudhonintheirtrain。
Beforeenteringuponthisexamination,whichgivesrisetothesixthimportantobservation,wehaveyetanother,lessimportantobservationtomake。
LetusadmitwithM。Proudhonthatrealhistory,historyaccordingtotheorderintime,isthehistoricalsequenceinwhichideas,categoriesandprincipleshavemanifestedthemselves。
Eachprinciplehashaditsowncenturyinwhichtomanifestitself。
Theprincipleofauthority,forexample,hadthe11thcentury,justastheprincipleofindividualismhadthe18thcentury。Inlogicalsequence,itwasthecenturythatbelongedtotheprinciple,andnottheprinciplewhichbelongedtothecentury。When,consequently,inordertosaveprinciplesasmuchastosavehistory,weaskourselveswhyaparticularprinciplewasmanifestedinthe11thcenturyorinthe18thcenturyratherthaninanyother,wearenecessarilyforcedtoexamineminutelywhatmenwerelikeinthe11thcentury,whattheywerelikeinthe18th,whatweretheirrespectiveneeds,theirproductiveforces,theirmodeofproduction,therawmaterialsoftheirproduction——inshort,whatweretherelationsbetweenmanandmanwhichresultedfromalltheseconditionsofexistence。
Togettothebottomofallthesequestions——whatisthisbuttodrawupthereal,profanehistoryofmenineverycenturyandtopresentthesemenasboththeauthorsandtheactorsoftheirowndrama?Butthemomentyoupresentmenastheactorsandauthorsoftheirownhistory,youarrive——bydetour——attherealstartingpoint,becauseyouhaveabandonedthoseeternalprinciplesofwhichyouspokeattheoutset。
M。Proudhonhasnotevengonefarenoughalongthecrossroadwhichanideologisttakestoreachthemainroadofhistory。
SixthObservationLetustakethecrossroadwithM。Proudhon。
Weshallconcedethateconomicrelations,viewedasimmutablelaws,eternalprinciples,idealcategories,existedbeforeactiveandenergeticmendid;weshallconcedefurtherthattheselaws,principlesandcategorieshad,sincethebeginningoftime,slumbered\"intheimpersonalreasonofhumanity\"。Wehavealreadyseenthat,withallthesechangelessandmotionlesseternities,thereisnohistoryleft;thereisatmosthistoryintheidea,thatis,historyreflectedinthedialecticmovementofpurereason。M。
Proudhon,bysayingthat,inthedialecticmovementideasarenolongerdifferentiated,hasdoneawaywithboththeshadowofmovementandthemovementofshadows,bymeansofwhichonecouldstillhavecreatedatleastasemblanceofhistory。Insteadofthat,heimputestohistoryhisownimpotence。Helaystheblameoneverything,eventheFrenchlanguage。
\"Itisnotcorrectthen,\"saysM。Proudhon,thephilosopher,\"tosaythatsomethingappears,thatsomethingisproduced:incivilizationasintheuniverse,everythinghasexisted,hasacted,frometernity。Thisappliestothewholeofsocialeconomy。\"
(Vol。II,p。102)
SogreatistheproductiveforceofthecontradictionswhichfunctionandwhichmadeM。Proudhonfunction,that,intryingtoexplainhistory,heisforcedtodenyit;intryingtoexplainthesuccessiveappearanceofsocialrelations,hedeniesthatanythingcanappear:intryingtoexplainproduction,withallitsphases,hequestionswhetheranythingcanbeproduced!
Thus,forM。Proudhon,thereisnolongeranyhistory:nolongeranysequenceofideas。Andyethisbooktillexists;anditispreciselythatbookwhichis,tousehisownexpression,\"historyaccordingtothesequenceofideas\"。Howshallwefindaformula,forM。Proudhonisamanofformulas,tohelphimtoclearallthesecontradictionsinoneleap?
Tothisendhehasinventedanewreason,whichisneitherthepureandvirginabsolutereason,northecommonreasonofmenlivingandactingindifferentperiods,butareasonquiteapart——thereasonoftheperson,Society——ofthesubject,Humanity——whichunderthepenofM。Proudhonfiguresattimesalsoassocialgenius,generalreason,orfinallyashumanreason。Thisreason,deckedoutundersomanynames,betraysitselfnevertheless,ateverymoment,astheindividualreasonofM。Proudhon,withitsgoodanditsbadside,itsantidotesanditsproblems。
\"Humanreasondoesnotcreatetruth\",hiddeninthedepthsofabsolute,eternalreason。Itcanonlyunveilit。Butsuchtruthsasithasunveileduptonowareincomplete,insufficient,andconsequentlycontradictory。
Hence,economiccategories,beingthemselvestruthsdiscovered,revealedbyhumanreason,bysocialgenius,areequallyincompleteandcontainwithinthemselvesthegermofcontradictions。beforeM。Proudhon,socialgeniussawonlytheantagonisticelements,andnotthesyntheticformula,bothhiddensimultaneouslyinabsolutereason。Economicrelations,whichmerelyrealizeonearththeseinsufficienttruths,theseincompleteideas,areconsequentlycontradictoryinthemselves,andpresenttwosides,onegood,theotherbad。
Tofindcompletetruth,theidea,inallitsfullness,thesyntheticformulathatistoannihilatethecontradiction,thisistheproblemofsocialgenius。Thisagainiswhy,inM。Proudhon’sillusion,thissamesocialgeniushasbeenharriedfromonecategorytoanotherwithouteverhavingbeenable,despiteallitsbatteryofcategories,tosnatchfromGodorfromabsolutereason,asyntheticformula。
\"Atfirst,society(socialgenius)statesaprimaryfact,putsforwardahypothesis……averitableantinomy,whoseantagonisticresultsdevelopinthesocialeconomyinthesamewayasitsconsequencescouldhavebeendeducedinthemind;sothatindustrialmovement,followinginallthingsthedeductionofideas,splitsupintotwocurrents,oneofusefuleffects,theotherofsubversiveresults。Tobringharmonyintotheconstitutionofthistwo—sideprinciple,andtosolvethisantinomy,societygivesrisetoasecond,whichwillsoonbefollowedbyathird;andprogressofsocialgeniuswilltakeplaceinthismanner,until,havingexhaustedallitscontradictions——Isuppose,butitisnotprovedthatthereisalimittohumancontradictions——itreturnsinoneleaptoallitsformerpositionsandwithasingleformulasolvesallitsproblems。\"
(Vol。Ip。133)
Justtheasantithesiswasbeforeturnedintoanantidote,sonowthethesisbecomesahypothesis。Thischangeofterms,comingfromM。Proudhon,hasnolongeranythingsurprisingforus!Humanreason,whichisanythingbutpure,havingonlyincompletevision,encountersateverystepnewproblemstobesolved。Everynewthesiswhichitdiscoversinabsolutereasonandwhichisthenegationofthefirstthesis,becomesforitasynthesis,whichitacceptsrathernaivelyasthesolutionoftheprobleminquestion。
Itisthusthatthisreasonfretsandfumesineverrenewingcontradictionsuntil,comingtotheendofthecontradictions,itperceivesthatallitsthesesandsynthesesaremerelycontradictoryhypotheses。Initsperplexity,\"humanreason,socialgenius,returnsinoneleaptoallitsformerpositions,andinasingleformula,solvesallitsproblems\"。Thisuniqueformula,bytheway,constitutesM。Proudhon’struediscovery。Itisconstitutedvalue。
HypothesesaremadeonlyinviewofacertainaiM。Theaimthatsocialgenius,speakingthroughthemouthofM。Proudhon,setitselfinthefirstplace,wastoeliminatethebadineveryeconomiccategory,inordertohavenothingleftbutthegood。Forit,thegood,thesupremewell—being,therealpracticalaim,isequality。Andwhydidthesocialgeniusaimatequalityratherthaninequality,fraternity,catholicism,oranyotherprinciple?Because\"humanityhassuccessivelyrealizedsomanyseparatehypothesesonlyinviewofasuperiorhypothesis\",whichpreciselyisequality。Inotherwords:becauseequalityisM。Proudhon’sideal。Heimaginesthatthedivisionoflabor,credit,theworkshop——
alleconomicrelations——wereinventedmerelyforthebenefitofequality,andyettheyalwaysendedupbyturningagainstit。SincehistoryandthefictionofM。Proudhoncontradicteachotherateverystep,thelatterconcludesthatthereisacontradiction。Ifthereisacontradiction,itexistsonlybetweenhisfixedideaandrealmovement。
Henceforth,thegoodsideofaneconomicrelationisthatwhichaffirmsequality;thebadside,thatwhichnegatesitandaffirmsinequality。
Everynewcategoryisahypothesisofthesocialgeniustoeliminatetheinequalityengenderedbytheprecedinghypothesis。Inshort,equalityistheprimordialintention,themysticaltendency,theprovidentialaimthatthesocialgeniushasconstantlybeforeitseyesasitwhirlsinthecircleofeconomiccontradictions。Thus,ProvidenceisthelocomotivewhichmakesthewholeofM。Proudhon’seconomicbaggagemovebetterthanhispureandvolatizedreason。HehasdevotedtoProvidenceawholechapter,whichfollowstheoneontaxes。
Providence,providentialaim,thisisthegreatwordusedtodaytoexplainthemovementofhistory。Infact,thiswordexplainsnothing。
Itisatmostarhetoricalform,oneofthevariouswaysofparaphrasingfacts。
ItisafactthatinScotlandlandedpropertyacquiredanewvaluebythedevelopmentofEnglishindustry。Thisindustryopenedupnewoutletsforwool。Inordertoproducewoolonalargescale,arablelandhadtobetransformedintopasturage。Toeffectthistransformation,theestateshadtobeconcentrated。Toconcentratetheestates,smallholdingshadfirsttobeabolished,thousandsoftenantshadtobedrivenfromtheirnativesoilandafewshepherdsinchargeofmillionsofsheeptobeinstalledintheirplace。Thus,bysuccessivetransformations,landedpropertyinScotlandhasresultedinthedrivingoutofmenbysheep。NowsaythattheprovidentialaimoftheinstitutionoflandedpropertyinScotlandwastohavemendrivenoutbysheep,andyouwillhavemadeprovidentialhistory。
Ofcourse,thetendencytowardsequalitybelongstoourcentury。
Tosaynowthatallformercenturies,withentirelydifferentneeds,meansofproduction,etc。,workedprovidentiallyfortherealizationofequalityis,firstly,tosubstitutethemeansandthemenofourcenturyforthemenandthemeansofearliercenturiesandtomisunderstandthehistoricalmovementbywhichthesuccessivegenerationstransformedtheresultsacquiredbythegenerationsthatprecededtheM。Economistsknowverywellthattheverythingthatwasfortheoneafinishedproductwasfortheotherbuttherawmaterialfornewproduction。
Suppose,asM。Proudhondoes,thatsocialgeniusproduced,orratherimprovised,thefeudallordswiththeprovidentialaimoftransformingthesettlersintoresponsibleandequally—placedworkers:andyouwillhaveeffectedasubstitutionofaimsandofpersonsworthyoftheProvidencethatinstitutedlandedpropertyinScotland,inordertogiveitselfthemaliciouspleasureofdrivingoutmenbysheep。
ButsinceM。ProudhontakessuchatenderinterestinProvidence,wereferhimtotheHistoiredel’economiepolitiqueofM。deVilleneuve—Bargemont,wholikewisegoesinpursuitofaprovidentialaiM。Thisaim,however,isnotequality,butcatholicism。
SeventhandLastObservationEconomistshaveasingularmethodofprocedure。Thereareonlytwokindsofinstitutionsforthem,artificialandnatural。Theinstitutionsoffeudalismareartificialinstitutions,thoseofthebourgeoisiearenaturalinstitutions。
Inthis,theyresemblethetheologians,wholikewiseestablishtwokindsofreligion。Everyreligionwhichisnottheirsisaninventionofmen,whiletheirownisanemanationfromGod。Whentheeconomistssaythatpresent—dayrelations——therelationsofbourgeoisproduction——arenatural,theyimplythatthesearetherelationsinwhichwealthiscreatedandproductiveforcesdevelopedinconformitywiththelawsofnature。Theserelationsthereforearethemselvesnaturallawsindependentoftheinfluenceoftime。Theyareeternallawswhichmustalwaysgovernsociety。Thus,therehasbeenhistory,butthereisnolongerany。Therehasbeenhistory,sincethereweretheinstitutionsoffeudalism,andintheseinstitutionsoffeudalismwefindquitedifferentrelationsofproductionfromthoseofbourgeoissociety,whichtheeconomiststrytopassoffasnaturalandassuch,eternal。
Feudalismalsohaditsproletariat——serfdom,whichcontinuedallthegermsofthebourgeoisie。Feudalproductionalsohadtwoantagonisticelementswhicharelikewisedesignatedbythenameofthegoodsideandthebadsideoffeudalism,irrespectiveofthefactthatitisalwaysthebadsidethatintheendtriumphsoverthegoodside。Itisthebadsidethatproducesthemovementwhichmakeshistory,byprovidingastruggle。If,duringtheepochofthedominationoffeudalism,theeconomists,enthusiasticovertheknightlyvirtues,thebeautifulharmonybetweenrightsandduties,thepatriarchallifeofthetowns,theprosperousconditionofdomesticindustryinthecountryside,thedevelopmentofindustryorganizedintocorporations,guildsandfraternities,inshort,everythingthatconstitutesthegoodsideoffeudalism,hadsetthemselvestheproblemofeliminatingeverythingthatcastashadowonthepicture——serfdom,privileges,anarchy——whatwouldhavehappened?Alltheelementswhichcalledforththestrugglewouldhavebeendestroyed,andthedevelopmentofthebourgeoisienippedinthebud。Onewouldhavesetoneselftheabsurdproblemofeliminatinghistory。
Afterthetriumphofthebourgeoisie,therewasnolongeranyquestionofthegoodorthebadsideoffeudalisM。Thebourgeoisietookpossessionoftheproductiveforcesithaddevelopedunderfeudalism。Alltheoldeconomicforms,thecorrespondingcivilrelations,thepoliticalstatewhichwastheofficialexpressionoftheoldcivilsociety,weresmashed。
Thus,feudalproduction,tobejudgedproperly,mustbeconsideredasamodeofproductionfoundedonantagonisM。Itmustbeshownhowwealthwasproducedwithinthisantagonism,howtheproductiveforcesweredevelopedatthesametimeasclassantagonisms,howoneoftheclasses,thebadside,thedrawbackofsociety,wentongrowinguntilthematerialconditionsforitsemancipationhadattainedfullmaturity。Isnotthisasgoodassayingthatthemodeofproduction,therelationsinwhichproductiveforcesaredeveloped,areanythingbuteternallaws,butthattheycorrespondtoadefinitedevelopmentofmenandoftheirproductiveforces,andthatachangeinmen’sproductiveforcesnecessarilybringsaboutachangeintheirrelationsofproduction?Asthemainthingisnottobedeprivedofthefruitsofcivilization,oftheacquiredproductiveforces,thetraditionalformsinwhichtheywereproducedmustbesmashed。Fromthismoment,therevolutionaryclassbecomesconservative。
Thebourgeoisiebeginswithaproletariatwhichisitselfarelicoftheproletariat[Marxwrotehere\"workingclass\"inthecopyhegaveN。Utina]offeudaltimes。Inthecourseofitshistoricaldevelopment,thebourgeoisienecessarilydevelopsitsantagonisticcharacter,whichatfirstismoreorlessdisguised,existingonlyinalatentstate。Asthebourgeoisiedevelops,theredevelopsinitsbosomanewproletariat,amodernproletariat;theredevelopsastrugglebetweentheproletarianclassandthebourgeoisieclass,astrugglewhich,beforebeingfelt,perceived,appreciated,understood,avowed,andproclaimedaloudbybothsides,expressesitself,tostartwith,merelyinpartialandmomentaryconflicts,insubversiveacts。Ontheotherhand,ifallthemembersofthemodernbourgeoisiehavethesameinterestsinasmuchastheyformaclassasagainstanotherclass,theyhaveopposite,antagonisticinterestsinasmuchastheystandface—to—facewithoneanother。Thisoppositionofinterestsresultsfromtheeconomicconditionsoftheirbourgeoislife。Fromdaytodayithasbecomesclearerthattheproductionrelationsinwhichthebourgeoisiemoveshavenotasimple,uniformcharacter,butadualcharacter;thatintheselfsamerelationsinwhichwealthisproduced,povertyisalsoproduced;thatintheselfsamerelationsinwhichthereisadevelopmentoftheproductiveforces,thereisalsoaforceproducingrepression;thattheserelationsproducebourgeoiswealth——i。e。,thewealthofthebourgeoisclass——onlybycontinuallyannihilatingthewealthoftheindividualmembersofthisclassandbyproducinganever—growingproletariat。
Themoretheantagonisticcharactercomestolight,themoretheeconomists,thescientificrepresentativesofbourgeoisproduction,findthemselvesinconflictwiththeirowntheory;anddifferentschoolsarise。
WehavetheFATALISTeconomists,whointheirtheoryareasindifferenttowhattheycallthedrawbacksofbourgeoisproductionasthebourgeoisthemselvesareinpracticetothesufferingsoftheproletarianswhohelpthemtoacquirewealth。Inthisfatalistschool,thereareClassicsandRomantics。TheClassics,likeAdamSmithandRicardo,representabourgeoisiewhich,whilestillstrugglingwiththerelicsoffeudalsociety,worksonlytopurgeeconomicrelationsoffeudaltaints,toincreasetheproductiveforcesandtogiveanewupsurgetoindustryandcommerce。Theproletariatthattakespartinthisstruggleandisabsorbedinthisfeverishlaborexperiencesonlypassing,accidentalsufferings,anditselfregardsthemassuch。EconomistslikeAdamSmithandRicardo,whoarethehistoriansofthisepoch,havenoothermissionthanthatofshowinghowwealthisacquiredinbourgeoisproductionrelations,offormulatingtheserelationsintocategories,intolaws,andofshowinghowsuperiortheselaws,thesecategories,arefortheproductionofwealthtothelawsandcategoriesoffeudalsociety。Povertyisintheireyesmerelythepangwhichaccompanieseverychildbirth,innatureasinindustry。
TheROMANTICSbelongtoourownage,inwhichthebourgeoisieisindirectappositiontotheproletariat;inwhichpovertyisengenderedinasgreatabundanceaswealth。Theeconomistsnowposeasblasefatalists,who,fromtheirelevatedposition,castaproudlydisdainfulglanceatthehumanmachineswhomanufacturewealth。Theycopyallthedevelopmentsgivenbytheirpredecessors,andtheindifferencewhichinthelatterwasmerelynaivetebecomesinthemcoquetry。
NextcomestheHUMANITARIANschool,whichsympathizeswiththebadsideofpresent—dayproductionrelations。Itseeks,bywayofeasingitsconscience,topalliateevenifslightlytherealcontrasts;itsincerelydeploresthedistressoftheproletariat,theunbridledcompetitionofthebourgeoisamongthemselves;itcounselstheworkerstobesober,toworkhardandtohavefewchildren;itadvisesthebourgeoistoputareasonedardorintoproduction。Thewholetheoryofthisschoolrestsoninterminabledistinctionsbetweentheoryandpractice,betweenprinciplesandresults,betweenideasandapplication,betweenformandcontent,betweenessenceandreality,betweenrightandfact,betweenthegoodsideandthebadside。
ThePHILANTHROPICschoolisthehumanitarianschoolcarriedtoperfection。Itdeniesthenecessityofantagonism;itwantstoturnallmenintobourgeois;itwantstorealizetheoryinsofarasitisdistinguishedfrompracticeandcontainsnoantagonisM。Itgoeswithoutsayingthat,intheory,itiseasytomakeanabstractionofthecontradictionsthataremetwithateverymomentinactualreality。Thistheorywouldthereforebecomeidealizedreality。Thephilanthropists,then,wanttoretainthecategorieswhichexpressbourgeoisrelations,withouttheantagonismwhichconstitutesthemandisinseparablefromtheM。Theythinktheyareseriouslyfightingbourgeoispractice,andtheyaremorebourgeoisthantheothers。
Justastheeconomistsarethescientificrepresentativesofthebourgeoisclass,sotheSocialistsandCommunistsarethetheoreticiansoftheproletarianclass。Solongastheproletariatisnotyetsufficientlydevelopedtoconstituteitselfasaclass,andconsequentlysolongasthestruggleitselfoftheproletariatwiththebourgeoisiehasnotyetassumedapoliticalcharacter,andtheproductiveforcesarenotyetsufficientlydevelopedinthebosomofthebourgeoisieitselftoenableustocatchaglimpseofthematerialconditionsnecessaryfortheemancipationoftheproletariatandfortheformationofanewsociety,thesetheoreticiansaremerelyutopianswho,tomeetthewantsoftheoppressedclasses,improvisesystemsandgoinsearchofaregeneratingscience。Butinthemeasurethathistorymovesforward,andwithitthestruggleoftheproletariatassumescleareroutlines,theynolongerneedtoseekscienceintheirminds;theyhaveonlytotakenoteofwhatishappeningbeforetheireyesandtobecomeitsmouthpiece。Solongastheylookforscienceandmerelymakesystems,solongastheyareatthebeginningofthestruggle,theyseeinpovertynothingbutpoverty,withoutseeinginittherevolutionary,subversiveside,whichwilloverthrowtheoldsociety。Fromthismoment,science,whichisaproductofthehistoricalmovement,hasassociateditselfconsciouslywithit,hasceasedtobedoctrinaireandhasbecomerevolutionary。
LetusreturntoM。Proudhon。
Everyeconomicrelationhasagoodandabadside;itistheonepointonwhichM。Proudhondoesnotgivehimselfthelie。Heseesthegoodsideexpoundedbytheeconomists;thebadsideheseesdenouncedbytheSocialists。Heborrowsfromtheeconomiststhenecessityofeternalrelations;
heborrowsfromtheSocialiststheillusionofseeinginpovertynothingbutpoverty。Heisinagreementwithbothinwantingtofallbackupontheauthorityofscience。Scienceforhimreducesitselftotheslenderproportionsofascientificformula;heisthemaninsearchofformulas。
ThusitisthatM。Proudhonflattershimselfonhavinggivenacriticismofbothpoliticaleconomyandcommunism:heisbeneaththemboth。Beneaththeeconomists,since,asaphilosopherwhohasathiselbowamagicformula,hethoughthecoulddispensewithgoingintopurelyeconomicdetails;beneaththesocialists,becausehehasneithercourageenoughnorinsightenoughtorise,beitevenspeculatively,abovethebourgeoishorizon。
Hewantstobethesynthesis——heisacompositeerror。
Hewantstosoarasthemanofscienceabovethebourgeoisandproletarians;heismerelythepettybourgeois,continuallytossedbackandforthbetweencapitalandlabor,politicaleconomyandcommunism。
2。
DIVISIONOFLABORANDMACHINERY
Thedivisionoflabor,accordingtoM。Proudhon,openstheseriesofeconomicevolutions。
\"Consideredinitsessence,thedivisionoflaboristhemannerinwhichequalityofconditionsandintelligenceisrealized。\"
Goodsideofthe(Vol。I,p。93)
divisionoflabor
\"Thedivisionoflaborhasbecomeforusaninstrumentofpoverty。\"
(Vol。I,p。94)
Variant
\"Labor,bydividingitselfaccordingtothelawwhichispeculiartoit,andwhichistheBadsideoftheprimaryconditionsofitsfruit—
divisionoflaborfulness,endsinthenegationofitsaimsanddestroysitself。\"
(Vol。I,p。94)
Tofindthe\"recompositionProblemtobesolvedwhichwipesoutthedrawbacksofthedivision,whileretainingitsusefuleffects。\"
(Vol。I,p。97)Thedivisionoflaboris,accordingtoM。Proudhon,aneternallaw,asimple,abstractcategory。Thereforetheabstraction,theidea,thewordmustsufficeforhimtoexplainthedivisionoflaboratdifferenthistoricalepochs。
Castes,corporations,manufacture,large—scaleindustry,mustbeexplainedbythesingleworddivide。Firststudycarefullythemeaningof\"divide\",andyouwillhavenoneedtostudythenumerousinfluenceswhichgivethedivisionoflaboradefintivecharacterineveryepoch。
Certainly,thingswouldbemademuchtooeasyiftheywerereducedtoM。Proudhon’scategories。Historydoesnotproceedsocategorically。
IttookthreewholecenturiesinGermanytoestablishthefirstbigdivisionoflabor,theseparationofthetownsfromthecountry。Inproportion,asthisonerelationoftownandcountrywasmodified,thewholeofsocietywasmodified。Totakeonlythisoneaspectofthedivisionoflabor,youhavetheoldrepublics,andyouhaveChristianfeudalism;youhaveoldEnglandwithitsbaronsandyouhavemodernEnglandwithitscottonlords。
Inthe14thand15thcenturies,whentherewereasyetnocolonies,whenAmericadidnotyetexistforEurope,whenAsiaexistedonlythroughtheintermediaryofConstantinople,whentheMediterraneanwasthecentreofcommercialactivity,thedivisionoflaborhadaverydifferentform,averydifferentaspectfromthatofthe17thcentury,whentheSpanish,thePortuguese,theDutch,theEnglish,andtheFrenchhadcoloniesestablishedinallpartsoftheworld。Theextentofthemarket,itsphysiognomy,givetothedivisionoflaboratdifferentperiodsaphysiognomy,acharacter,whichitwouldbedifficulttodeducefromthesingleworddivide,fromtheidea,fromthecategory。
\"AlleconomistssinceAdamSmith,\"saysM。Proudhon,\"havepointedouttheadvantagesanddrawbacksofthelawofdiv—ision,butinsistmuchmoreonthefirstthanonthesecond,becausethatwasmoreserviceablefortheiroptimism,andnoneofthemhaseverwonderedwhatcouldbethedrawbackstoalaw……Howdoesthesameprinciple,pursuedvigor—ouslytoitsconsequences,leadtodiametricallyoppositeresults?NotoneeconomistbeforeorsinceA。Smithhasevenperceivedthatherewasaproblemtoelucidate。Saygoestothelengthofrecognizingthatinthedivisionoflaborthesamecausethatproducesthegoodengendersthebad。\"
[I95—96]
AdamSmithgoesfurtherthanM。Proudhonthinks。Hesawclearlythat\"thedifferenceofnaturaltalentsindifferentmenis,inreality,muchlessthanweareawareof;andtheverydif—ferentgeniuswhichappearstodistinguishmenofdifferentprofessions,whengrownuptomaturity,isnotsomuchthecauseastheeffectofthedivisionoflabor。\"
[I20]
Inprinciple,aporterdifferslessfromaphilosopherthanamastifffromagreyhound。ItisthedivisionoflaborwhichhassetagulfbetweentheM。
AllthisdoesnotpreventM。ProudhonfromsayingelsewherethatAdamSmithhasnottheslightestideaofthedrawbacksproducedbythedivisionoflabor。itisthisagainthatmakeshimsaythatJ。B。Saywasthefirsttorecognize\"thatinthedivisionoflaborthesamecausethatproducesthegoodengendersthebad。\"[I96]
ButletuslistentoLemontey;Suumcuique。[34]
\"M。J。B。SayhasdonemethehonorofadoptinginhisexcellenttreatiseonpoliticaleconomytheprinciplethatIbroughttolightinthisfragmentonthemoralinfluenceofthedivisionoflabor。Thesomewhatfrivoloustitleofmybook[35]doubtlesspreventedhimfromcitingme。ItisonlytothismotivethatIcanattributethesilenceofawritertoorichinhisownstocktodisavowsomodestaload。\"
(Lemontey,OEuvrescompletes,Vol。I,p。245,Paris1840)
Letusdohimthisjustice:Lemonteywittilyexposedtheunpleasantconsequencesofthedivisionoflaborasitisconstitutedtoday,andM。Proudhonfoundnothingtoaddtoit。Butnowthat,throughthefaultofM。Proudhon,wehavebeendrawnintothisquestionofpriority,letussayagain,inpassing,thatlongbeforeM。Lemontey,and17yearsbeforeAdamSmith,whowasapupilofA。Ferguson,thelast—namedgaveaclearexpositionofthesubjectinachapterwhichdealsspecificallywiththedivisionoflabor。
\"Itmayevenbedoubted,whetherthemeasureofnationalcapacityincreaseswiththeadvancementofarts。Manymech—anicalarts……succeedbestunderatotalsuppressionofsentimentandreason;andignoranceisthemotherofindus—tryaswellassuperstition。Reflectionandfancyaresub—jecttoerr;butahabitofmovingthehand,orthefoot,isindependentofeither。Manufactures,accordingly,prospermost,wherethemindisleastconsulted,andwherethework—shopmay,withoutanygreateffortofimagination,beconsideredasanengine,thepartsofwhicharemen……
\"Thegeneralofficermaybeagreatproficientintheknowledgeofwar,whiletheskillofthesoldierisconfinedtoafewmotionsofthehandandthefoot。Theformermayhavegainedwhatthelatterhaslost……
\"Andthinkingitself,inthisageofseparations,maybecomeapeculiarcraft。\"
(A。Ferguson,AnEssayontheHistoryofofCivilSociety,Edinburgh1783[II108,109,110])
Tobringthisliterarysurveytoaclose,weexpresslydenythat\"alleconomistshaveinsistedfarmoreontheadvantagesthanonthedrawbacksofthedivisionoflabor\"。ItsufficestomentionSismondi。
Thus,asfarastheadvantagesofthedivisionoflaborareconcerned,M。Proudhonhadnothingfurthertodothantoparaphrasethegeneralphrasesknowntoeverybody。
Letusnowseehowhederivesfromthedivisionoflabor,takenasagenerallaw,asacategory,asathought,thedrawbackswhichcareattachedtoit。Howisitthatthiscategory,thislawimpliesanunequaldistributionoflabortothedetrimentofM。Proudhon’sequalitariansystem?
\"Atthissolemnhourofthedivisionoflabor,thestormwindsbegintoblowoverhumanity。Progressdoesnottakeplaceforallinanequalanduniformmanner……Itbeginsbytakingpossessionofasmallnumberoftheprivileged……Itisthispreferenceforpersononthepartofprogressthathasforsolongkeptupthebeliefinthenaturalandprovidentialinequalityofconditions,hasgivenrisetocastes,andhierarchicallyconstitutedallsocieties。\"
(Proudhon,Vol。I,p。94)
Thedivisionoflaborcreatedcastes。Now,castesarethedrawbacksofthedivisionoflabor;thus,itisthedivisionoflaborthathasengenderedthedrawbacks。QuoderotdemonstranduM。[\"Whichwasthethingtobeproved。\"]
Willyougofurtherandaskwhatmadethedivisionoflaborcreatecastes。
hierarchicalconstitutionsandprivilegedpersons?M。Proudhonwilltellyou:Progress。Andwhatmadeprogress?Limitation。Limitation,forM。Proudhon,isacceptanceofpersonsonthepartofprogress。
Afterphilosophycomeshistory。Itisnolongereitherdescriptivehistoryordialecticalhistory,itiscomparativehistory。M。Proudhonestablishesaparallelbetweenthepresent—dayprintingworkerandtheprintingworkeroftheMiddleAges;betweenthemanoflettersoftodayandthemanoflettersoftheMiddleAges,andheweighsdownthebalanceonthesideofthosewhobelongmoreorlesstothedivisionoflaborastheMiddleAgesconstitutedortransmittedit。Heopposesthedivisionoflaborofonehistoricalepoch。WasthatwhatM。Proudhonhadtoprove?
No。Heshouldhaveshownusthedrawbacksofthedivisionoflaboringeneral,ofthedivisionoflaborasacategory。Besides,whystressthispartofM。Proudhon’swork,sincealittlelaterweshallseehimformallyretractalltheseallegeddevelopments?
\"Thefirsteffectoffractionallabor,\"continuesM。Proudhon,\"afterthedepravationofthesoul,isthepro—longationoftheshifts,whichgrowininverseratiotothesumtotalofintelligenceexpended……Butasthelengthoftheshiftscannotexceed16to18hoursperday,themomentthecompensationcannotbetakenoutofthetime,itwillbetakenoutoftheprice,andthewageswilldiminish……Whatiscertain,andtheonlythingforustonote,isthattheuniversalconsciencedoesnotassessatthesameratetheworkofaforemanandthelaborofamechanic’sassist—
ant。Itisthereforenecessarytoreducethepriceoftheday’swork;sothattheworker,afterhavingbeenafflictedinhissoulbyadegradingfunction,cannotescapebeingstruckinhisbodybythemeagrenessofhisremuneration。\"
[I97—98]
Wepassoverthelogicalvalueofthesesyllogisms,whichKantwouldcallparalogismswhichleadastray。
Thisisthesubstanceofit:
Thedivisionoflaborreducestheworkertoadegradingfunction;
tothisdegradingfunctioncorrespondsadepravedsoul;tothedepravationofthesoulisbefittinganever—increasingwagereduction。Andtoprovethatthisreductionisbefittingtoadepravedsoul,M。Proudhonsays,torelievehisconscience,thattheuniversalconsciencewillsitthus。
IsM。Proudhon’ssoultobereckonedasapartoftheuniversalconscience?
Machineryis,forM。Proudhon,\"thelogicalantithesisofthedivisionoflabor\",andwiththehelpofhisdialectics,hebeginsbytransformingmachineryintotheworkshop。
Afterpresupposingthemodernworkshop,inordertomakepovertytheoutcomeofthedivisionoflabor,M。Proudhonpresupposespovertyengenderedbythedivisionoflabor,inordertocometotheworkshopandbeabletorepresentitasthedialecticalnegationofthatpoverty。Afterstrikingtheworkermorallybyadegradingfunction,physicallybythemeagrenessofthewage;afterputtingtheworkerunderthedependenceoftheforeman,anddebasinghisworktothelaborofamechanic’sassistant,helaystheblameagainontheworkshopandthemachineryfordegradingtheworker\"bygivinghimamaster\",andhecompleteshisabasementbymakinghim\"sinkfromtherankofartisantothatofcommonlaborer\"。Excellentdialectics!
Andifheonlystoppedthere!Butno,hehastohaveanewhistoryofthedivisionoflabor,notanylongertoderivethecontradictionsfromit,buttoreconstructtheworkshopafterhisownfashion。Toattainthisendhefindshimselfcompelledtoforgetallhehasjustsaidaboutdivision。
Laborisorganized,isdivideddifferentlyaccordingtotheinstrumentsitdisposesover。Thehand—millpresupposesadifferentdivisionoflaborfromthesteam—mill。Thus,itisslappinghistoryinthefacetowanttobeginbythedivisionoflaboringeneral,inordertogetsubsequentlytoaspecificinstrumentofproduction,machinery。
Machineryisnomoreaneconomiccategorythanthebullockthatdragstheplough。Machineryismerelyaproductiveforce。Themodernworkshop,whichdependsontheapplicationofmachinery,isasocialproductionrelation,aneconomiccategory。
LetusseenowhowthingshappeninM。Proudhon’sbrilliantimagination。
\"Insociety,theincessantappearanceofmachineryistheantithesis,theinverseformulaofthedivisionoflabor:itistheprotestoftheindustrialgeniusagainstfractionalandhomicallabor。What,actually,isamachine?Awayofunitingdifferentportionsoflaborwhichhadbeenseparatedbythedivisionoflabor。Everymachinecanbedefinedasasummaryofseveraloperations……Thus,throughthemachinetherewillbearestorationoftheworker……machinery,whichinpoliticaleconomyplacesitselfincontradictiontothedivisionoflabor,representssynthesis,whichinthehumanmindisopposedtoanalysis……Divisionmerelyseparatedthedifferentpartsoflabor,lettingeachonedevotehimselftothespecialitywhichmostsuitedhim;theworkshopgroupstheworkersaccordingtotherelationofeachparttothewhole……Itintroducestheprincipleofauthorityinlabor……Butthisisnotall;themachineortheworkshop,afterdegradingtheworkerbygivinghimamaster,completeshisabasementbymakinghimsinkfromtherankofartisantothatofcommonlaborer……Theperiodwearegoingthrougharthemoment,thatofmachinery,isdistinguishedbyaspecialcharacteristic,thewageworker。Thewageworkerissubsequenttothedivisionoflaborandtoexchange。\"
[I135,136,161]
JustasimpleremarktoM。Proudhon。Theseparationofthedifferentpartsoflabor,leavingtoeachonetheopportunityofdevotinghimselftothespecialitybestsuitedtohim——aseparationwhichM。Proudhondatesfromthebeginningoftheworld——existsonlyinmodernindustryundertheruleofcompetition。
M。Proudhongoesontogiveusamost\"interestinggenealogy\",toshowhowtheworkshoparosefromthedivisionoflaborandthewageworkerfromtheworkshop。
Hesupposesamanwho\"noticedthatbydividingupproductionintoitsdifferentpartsandhavingeachoneperformedbyaseparateworker\",theforcesofproductionwouldbemultiplied。
Thisman,\"graspingthethreadofthisidea,tellshimselfthat,byformingapermanentgroupofworkersselectedforthespecialpurposehesetshimself,hewillobtainamoresustainedproduction,etc。\"[I161]
Thismanmakesaproposaltoothermen,tomakethemgrasphisideaandthethreadofhisidea。
Thisman,atthebeginningofindustry,dealsontermsofequalitywithhiscompanionswholaterbecomeshisworkmen。
\"Onerealizes,infact,thatthisoriginalequalityhadrapidlytodisappearinviewoftheadvantageouspositionofthemasterandthedependenceofthewage—earner。\"[I163]
ThatisanotherexampleofM。Proudhon’shistoricalanddescriptivemethod。
Letusnowexamine,fromthehistoricalandeconomicpointofview,whethertheworkshopofthemachinereallyintroducedtheprincipleofauthorityinsocietysubsequentlytothedivisionoflabor;whetheritrehabilitatedtheworkerontheonehand,whilesubmittinghimtoauthorityontheother;whetherthemachineistherecompositionofdividedlabor,thesynthesisoflaborasopposedtoitsanalysis。
Societyasawholehasthisincommonwiththeinteriorofaworkshop,thatittoohasitsdivisionoflabor。Ifonetookasamodelthedivisionoflaborinamodernworkshop,inordertoapplyittoawholesociety,thesocietybestorganizedfortheproductionofwealthwouldundoubtedlybethatwhichhadasinglechiefemployer,distributingtaskstodifferentmembersofthecommunityaccordingtoapreviouslyfixedrule。Butthisisbynomeansthecase。Whileinsidethemodernworkshopthedivisionoflaborismeticulouslyregulatedbytheauthorityoftheemployer,modernsocietyhasnootherrule,nootherauthorityforthedistributionoflaborthanfreecompetition。
Underthepatriarchalsystem,underthecastesystem,underthefeudalandcorporativesystem,therewasdivisionoflaborinthewholeofsocietyaccordingtofixedrules。Weretheserulesestablishedbyalegislator?No。Originallybornoftheconditionsofmaterialproduction,theywereraisedtothestatusoflawsonlymuchlater。Inthisway,thesedifferentformsofthedivisionoflaborbecamesomanybasesofsocialorganization。Asforthedivisionintheworkshop,itwasverylittledevelopedinalltheseformsofsociety。
Itcanevenbelaiddownasageneralrulethatthelessauthoritypresidesoverthedivisionoflaborinsidesociety,themorethedivisionoflabordevelopsinsidetheworkshop,andthemoreitissubjectedtheretotheauthorityofasingleperson。Thusauthorityintheworkshopandauthorityinsociety,inrelationtothedivisionoflabor,areininverseratiotoeachother。
Thequestionnowiswhatkindofworkshopitisinwhichtheoccupationsareverymuchseparated,whereeachworker’staskisreducedtoaverysimpleoperation,andwheretheauthority,capital,groupsanddirectsthework。Howwasthisworkshopbroughtintoexistence?Inordertoanswerthisquestion,weshallhavetoexaminehowmanufacturingindustry,properlyso—called,hasdeveloped。Iamspeakinghereofthatindustrywhichisnotyetindustry,withitsmachinery,butwhichisalreadynolongertheindustryoftheartisansoftheMiddleAges,nordomesticindustry。Weshallnotgointogreatdetail:weshallmerelygiveafewmainpointstoshowthathistoryisnottobemadewithformulas。
Oneofthemostindispensableconditionsfortheformationofmanufacturingindustrywastheaccumulationofcapital,facilitatedbythediscoveryofAmericaandtheimportofitspreciousmetals。
Itissufficientlyprovedthattheincreaseinthemeansofexchangeresultedinthedepreciationofwagesandlandrents,ontheonehand,andthegrowthofindustrialprofitsontheother。Inotherwords:totheextentthatthepropertiedclassandtheworkingclass,thefeudallordsandthepeople,sank,tothatextentthecapitalistclass,thebourgeoisie,rose。
Therewereyetothercircumstanceswhichcontributedsimultaneouslytothedevelopmentofmanufacturingindustry:theincreaseofcommoditiesputintocirculationfromthemomentthattradehadpenetratedtotheEastIndiesbywayoftheCapeofGoodHope;thecolonialsystem;thedevelopmentofmaritimetrade。
Anotherpointwhichhasnotyetbeensufficientlyappreciatedinthehistoryofmanufacturingindustryisthedisbandingofthenumerousretinuesoffeudallords,whosesubordinateranksbecamevagrantsbeforeenteringtheworkshop。Thecreationoftheworkshopwasprecededbyanalmostuniversalvagrancyinthe15thand16thcenturies。Theworkshopfound,besides,apowerfulsupportinthemanypeasantswho,continuallydrivenfromthecountryowingtothetransformationofthefieldsintopasturesandtotheprogressinagriculturewhichnecessitatedfewerhandsforthetillageofthesoil,wentoncongregatinginthetownsduringwholecenturies。
Thegrowthofthemarket,theaccumulationofcapital,themodificationinthesocialpositionoftheclasses,alargenumberofpersonsbeingdeprivedoftheirsourcesofincome,allthesearehistoricalpreconditionsfortheformationofmanufacture。Itwasnot,asM。Proudhonsays,friendlyagreementsbetweenequalsthatbroughtmenintotheworkshop。Itwasnoteveninthebosomoftheoldguildsthatmanufacturewasborn。Itwasthemerchantthatbecameheadofthemodernworkshop,andnottheoldguildmaster。
Almosteverywheretherewasadesperatestrugglebetweenmanufactureandcrafts。
Theaccumulationandconcentrationofinstrumentsandworkersprecededthedevelopmentofthedivisionoflaborinsidetheworkshop。
Manufactureconsistedmuchmoreinthebringingtogetherofmanyworkersandmanycraftsinoneplace,inoneroomunderthecommandofonecapital,thanintheanalysisoflaborandtheadaptationofaspecialworkertoaverysimpletask。
Theutilityofaworkshopconsistedmuchlessinthedivisionoflaborassuchthaninthecircumstancesthatworkwasdoneonamuchlargerscale,thatmanyunnecessaryexpensesweresaved,etc。Attheendofthe16thandatthebeginningofthe17thcentury,Dutchmanufacturescarcelyknewanydivisionoflabor。
Thedevelopmentofthedivisionoflaborsupposestheassemblageofworkersinaworkshop。Thereisnotonesingleexample,whetherinthe16thorinthe17thcentury,ofthedifferentbranchesofoneandthesamecraftbeingexploitedseparatelytosuchanextentthatitwouldhavesufficedtoassemblethemallinoneplacesoastoobtainacomplete,ready—madeworkshop。Butoncethemenandtheinstrumentshadbeenbroughttogether,thedivisionoflabor,suchasithadexistedintheformoftheguilds,wasreproduced,necessarilyreflectedinsidetheworkshop。
ForM。Proudhon,whoseesthingsupsidedown,ifheseesthematall,thedivisionoflabor,inAdamSmith’ssense,precedestheworkshop,whichisaconditionofitsexistence。
Machinery,properlyso—called,datesfromtheendofthe18thcentury。Nothingismoreabsurdthantoseeinmachinerytheantithesisofthedivisionoflabor,thesynthesisrestoringunitytodividedlabor。
Themachineisaunificationoftheinstrumentsoflabor,andbynomeansacombinationofdifferentoperationsfortheworkerhimself。
\"When,bythedivisionoflabor,eachparticularoperationhasbeensimplifiedtotheuseofasingleinstrument,thelinkingupofalltheseinstruments,setinmotionbyasingleengine,constitutes——amachine。\"
(Babbage,Traitesurl’economiedesmachines[etdesmanufactures],Paris1833[p。230])
Simpletools;accumulationtools;compositetools;settinginmotionofacompositetoolbyasinglehandengine,byman;settinginmotionoftheseinstrumentsbynaturalforces,machines;systemofmachineshavingonemotor;systemofmachineshavingoneautomaticmotor——thisistheprogressofmachinery。
Theconcentrationoftheinstrumentsofproductionandthedivisionoflaborareasinseparableonefromtheotherasare,inthepoliticalsphere,theconcentrationofpublicauthorityandthedivisionofprivateinterests。England,withtheconcentrationoftheland,thisinstrumentofagriculturallabor,hasatthesametimedivisionofagriculturallaborandtheapplicationofmachinerytotheexploitationofthesoil。France,whichhasthedivisionoftheinstruments,thesmallholdingssystem,has,ingeneral,neitherdivisionofagriculturallabornorapplicationofmachinerytothesoil。
ForM。Proudhontheconcentrationoftheinstrumentsoflaboristhenegationofthedivisionoflabor。Inreality,wefindagainthereverse。Astheconcentrationofinstrumentsdevelops,thedivisiondevelopsalso,andviceversa。Thisiswhyeverybigmechanicalinventionisfollowedbyagreaterdivisionoflabor,andeachincreaseinthedivisionoflaborgivesriseinturntonewmechanicalinventions。
WeneednotrecallthefactthatthegreatprogressofthedivisionoflaborbeganinEnglandaftertheinventionofmachinery。Thus,theweaversandspinnerswereforthemostpartpeasantslikethoseonestillmeetsinbackwardcountries。Theinventionofmachinerybroughtabouttheseparationofmanufacturingindustryfromagriculturalindustry。Theweaverandthespinner,unitedbutlatelyinasinglefamily,wereseparatedbythemachine。
Thankstothemachine,thespinnercanliveinEnglandwhiletheweaverresidesintheEastIndies。Beforetheinventionofmachinery,theindustryofacountrywascarriedonchieflywithrawmaterialsthatweretheproductsofitsownsoil;inEngland——wool,inGermany——flax,inFrance——silksandflax,intheEastIndiesandtheLevant——cottons,etc。Thankstotheapplicationofmachineryandofsteam,thedivisionoflaborwasabouttoassumesuchdimensionsthatlarge—scaleindustry,detachedfromthenationalsoil,dependsentirelyontheworldmarket,oninternationalexchange,onaninternationaldivisionoflabor。Inshort——themachinehassogreataninfluenceonthedivisionoflabor,thatwhen,inthemanufactureofsomeobject,ameanshasbeenfoundtoproducepartsofitmechanically,themanufacturesplitsupimmediatelyintotwoworksindependentofeachother。
NeedwespeakofthephilanthropicandprovidentialaimthatM。
Proudhondiscoversintheinventionandfirstapplicationofmachinery?
WheninEnglandthemarkethadbecomesofardevelopedthatmanuallaborwasnolongeradequate,theneedformachinerywasfelt。Thencametheideaoftheapplicationofmechanicalscience,alreadyquitedevelopedinthe18thcentury。
Theautomaticworkshopopeneditscareerwithactswhichwereanythingbutphilanthropic。Childrenwerekeptatworkatthewhip’send;
theyweremadeanobjectoftrafficandcontractswereundertakenwiththeorphanages。Allthelawsontheapprenticeshipofworkerswererepealed,because,touseM。Proudhon’sphraseology,therewasnofurtherneedforsyntheticworkers。Finally,from1825onwards,almostallthenewinventionsweretheresultofcollisionsbetweentheworkerandtheemployerwhosoughtatallcoststodepreciatetheworker’sspecializedability。
Aftereachnewstrikeofanyimportance,thereappearedanewmachine。
Solittleindeeddidtheworkerseeintheapplicationofmachineryasortofrehabilitation,restoration——asM。Proudhonwouldsay——thatinthe18thcenturyhestoodoutforaverylongtimeagainsttheincipientdominationoftheautomation。
\"Wyatt,\"saysDoctorUre,\"inventedtheseriesofflutedrollers……
(thespinningfingersusuallyascribedtoAwkright)……
\"Themaindifficultydidnot,tomyapprehension,liesomuchintheinventionofaproperself—actingmechanism……asintraininghumanbeingstorenouncetheirdesultoryhabitsofwork,andtoidentifythemselveswiththeunvaryingregular—ityofthecomplexautomation。Buttodeviseandadministerasuccessfulcodeoffactorydiscipline,suitedtothenecessitiesoffactorydiligence,wastheHerculeanenter—prise,thenobleachievementofAwkright。\"
[I21—22,23]
Inshort,bytheintroductionofmachinery,thedivisionoflaborinsidesocietyhasgrownup,thetaskoftheworkerinsidetheworkshophasbeensimplified,capitalhasbeenconcentrated,humanbeingshavebeenfurtherdismembered。