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Iwassayingamomentagothatourdoctrinemakeshistoryobjectiveandinacertainsensenaturalizesit，goingfromtheexplanationofthedata，evidentatfirstsight，ofthepersonalitiesactingwithdesign，andoftheauxiliaryconceptionsoftheaction，tothecausesandthemotivesofthewillandtheaction，inordertofindthereupontheco-ordinationofthesecausesandofthesemotivesinthepre-elementaryprocessusoftheproductionoftheimmediatemeansofexistence。
Nowthisterm\"naturalizing\"hasledmorethanonemindintoconfusingthisorderofproblemswithanotherorderofproblems，thatistosay，intoextendingtohistorythelawsandthemannersofthinkingwhichhavealreadyappearedsuitabletothestudyandexplanationofthematerialworldingeneralandoftheanimalworldinparticular。AndbecauseDarwinismsucceededincarrying，thankstotheprincipleofthetransformationofspecies，thelastcitadelofthemetaphysicalfixityofthings，andindiscerning，intheorganisms，phases，asitwere，andmomentsofarealandpropernaturalhistory，ithasbeenimaginedthatitwasacommonplaceandsimpleenterprisetoborrowforanexplanationofthefutureandthehistoryofhumanlifetheconcepts，theprinciplesandthemethodsofexaminationtowhichthatanimallifeissubjectedwhichinconsequenceoftheimmediateconditionsofthestruggleforexistenceisunfoldingtotopographicalenvironmentsnotmodifiedbytheactionoflabor。Darwinism，politicalandsocial，has，likeanepidemic，formanyyearsinvadedthemindofmorethanonethinker，andmanymoreoftheadvocatesanddeclaimersofsociology，andithasbeenreflectedasafashionablehabitandaphraseologicalcurrenteveninthedailylanguageofthepoliticians。
Itseemsatfirstsightthatthereissomethingimmediatelyevidentandinstinctivelyplausibleinthisfashionofreasoning，whichitmaybesaidisprincipallydistinguishedbyitsabuseofanalogyandbyitshasteindrawingconclusions。Maniswithoutdoubtananimal，andheislinkedbyconnectionsofdescentandaffinitytootheranimals。Hehasnoprivilegesoforiginorofelementarystructure，andhisorganismismerelyoneparticularcaseofgeneralphysiology。Hisfirstimmediatefieldwasthatofsimplenaturenotmodifiedbywork，andfromthencearederivedtheimperiousandinevitableconditionsofthestruggleforexistence，withtheconsequentformsofadaptation。Thencearebornracesinthetrueandauthenticsenseoftheword；thatistosay，insofarastheyareimmediatedeterminationsofblack，white，yellow，woolly-haired，straight-haired，etc。，andnotsecondaryhistorico-socialformations，thatistosay，peoplesandnations。Thenceareborntheprimitiveinstinctsofsociabilityandinlifeinpromiscuityarisethefirstrudimentsofsexualselection。
Butifwecanreconstructinimaginationtheprimitivesavage，bycombiningourconjectures，itisnotgivenustohaveanempiricalintuitionofhim，justasitisnotgivenustodeterminethegenesisofthathiatus，thatistosay，thatbreakincontinuity，thankstowhichhumanlifeisfounddetachedfromanimallifetorise，inthesequel，toaneverhigherlevel。
Allmenwholiveatthismomentontheearth’ssurfaceandallthosewho，havinglivedinthepast，weretheobjectsofanytrustworthyobservation，arefound，andwerefound，alreadysufficientlyremovedfromthemomentwhenpurelyanimallifehadceased。Acertainsociallifewithcustomsandinstitutions，evenifitbeofthemostelementaryformthatweknow，thatistosay，oftheAustraliantribes，dividedintoclassesandpractisingthemarriageofallthemenofoneclasswithallthewomenofanotherclass，separateshumanlifebyagreatintervalfromanimallife。Ifweconsiderthematernalgens，ofwhichtheclassictype，theIroquoistype，has，thankstoMorgan’swork，revolutionizedprehistoricscience，whilegivingusatthesametimethekeytotheoriginsofhistoryproperlysocalled，wehaveaformofsocietyalreadymuchadvancedbythecomplexityofitsrelations。Atthatstageofsociallifewhich，accordingtoourknowledge，seemsveryelementary，thatistosay，intheAustraliansociety，notonlydoesaverycomplicatedlanguagedifferentiatemenfromallotheranimals（andlanguageisaconditionandaninstrument，acauseandaneffectofsociability），butthespecializationofhumanlife，apartfromthediscoveryoffire，ismanifestedbytheuseofmanyotherartificialmeansbywhichtheneedsoflifearesatisfied。
Acertainterritoryacquiredforthecommonuseofatribe，acertainartofhunting——theuseofcertaininstrumentsofdefenseandattackandthepossessionofcertainutensilsforpreservingthethingsacquired——andthentheornamentationofthebody，etc。，allthismeansthatatbottomthisliferestsuponanartificial，althoughveryelementary，basis，uponwhichmenendeavortofixthemselvesandadaptthemselves——uponabasiswhichisafteralltheconditionofallfurtherprogress。Accordingasthisartificialbasisismoreorlessformed，themenwhohaveproduceditandwholiveinitareconsideredmoreorlesssavageorbarbarous。Thisfirstformationconstituteswhatwemaycallpre-history。
History，accordingtotheliteraryuseoftheword，namely，thatpartofthehumanprocessuswhosetraditionsarefixedinthememory，beginsatamomentwhentheartificialbasishasbeenformedforaconsiderablelengthoftime。Forexample，thecanalizationofMesopotamiagivesustheancientpre-SemiticBabylonianstate，whiletheextremelyancientEgyptiancivilizationrestsupontheapplicationoftheNiletoagriculture。Uponthisartificialbasis，whichappearsintheextremehorizonofknownhistory，lived，asnow，notshapelessmassesofindividuals，butorganizedgroupswhoseorganizationwasfixedbyacertaindistributionoftasks，thatistosay，oflaborandbyconsecutivemethodsofco-ordinationandsubordination。Theserelations，theseconnections，thesewaysoflivingwerenotandarenottheresultofthecrystallizationofcustomsundertheimmediateactionoftheanimalstruggleforexistence。Whatismore，theypresupposethediscoveryofcertaininstruments，and，forexample，thedomesticationofcertainanimals，theworkingofmineralsandevenofiron，theintroductionofslavery，etc。，instrumentsandmethodsofeconomywhichhavefirstdifferentiatedcommunitiesfromeachotherandhavesubsequentlydifferentiatedthecomponentpartsofthesecommunitiesthemselves。Inotherwords，theworksofmeninsofarastheylivetogetherreactuponthementhemselves。Theirdiscoveries，andtheirinventions，bycreatingartificialwaysofliving，haveproducednotonlyhabitsandcustoms（clothing，cookingoffood，etc。），butrelationsandbondsofcoexistenceproportionedandadaptedtothemodeofproductionandreproductionofthemeansofimmediatelife。
Atthedawnoftraditionalhistoryeconomicsisalreadyoperating。Menareworkingtolive，onafoundationwhichhasbeeningreatpartmodifiedbytheirworkandwithtoolswhicharecompletelytheirwork。Andfromthatmomenttheyhavestruggledamongthemselvestoconquereachfromtheotherasuperiorpositionintheuseoftheseartificialmeans；thatistosay，theyhavestruggledamongthemselveswhetherasserfsandmasters，subjectsandlords，conqueredandconquerors，exploitedandexploiters，bothwheretheyhaveprogressedandwheretheyhaveretrogradedandwheretheyhavehaltedinaformwhichtheyhavenotbeencapableofoutgrowing，butneverhavetheyreturnedtotheanimallifebythecompletelossoftheirartificialfoundation。
Historicalsciencehas，then，asitsfirstandprincipalobjectthedeterminationandtheinvestigationofthisartificialfoundation，itsorigin，itscomposition，itschangesanditstransformations。Tosaythatallthisisonlyapartandaprolongationofnature，istosayathingwhichbyitstooabstractandtoogenericcharacterhasnolongeranymeaning。
Thehumanrace，infact，livesonlyinearthlyconditions，andwecannotsupposeittobetransplantedelsewhere。Undertheseconditionsithasfoundfromitsveryfirstbeginningsdowntothepresentdaytheimmediatemeansnecessaryforthedevelopmentoflabor，thatistosay，foritsmaterialprogressasforitsinnerformation。Thesenaturalconditionswereandtheyarealwaysindispensabletothesporadicagricultureofthenomads，whosometimescultivatedtheearthmerelyforthepasturageofanimals，aswellasfortherefinedproductsofintensivemodernhorticulture。Theseearthlyconditions，preciselyastheyhavefurnishedthedifferentsortsofstonessuitedforthefabricationofthefirstweapons，furnishnowalso，withcoal，theelementsofthegreatindustry；preciselyastheygavethefirstlaborersosiersandwillowstoplait，theygivenowallthematerialsnecessarytothecomplicatedtechniqueofelectricity。
Itisnot，however，thenaturalmaterialsthemselveswhichhaveprogressed。
Onthecontrary，itisonlymenwhoprogress，throughdiscoveringlittlebylittleinnaturetheconditionswhichpermitthemtoproduceinmoreandmorecomplexforms，thankstothelaboraccumulatedinexperience。Thisprogressdoesnotconsistmerelyinthesortofprogresswithwhichsubjectivepsychologyisconcernedthatistosay，theinnermodificationswhichwouldbetheproperanddirectdevelopmentoftheintellect，thereasoningandthethought。Moreover，thisinnerprogressisbutasecondaryandderivedproduct，inproportionasthereisalreadyaprogressrealizedintheartificialfoundationwhichisthesumofthesocialrelationsresultingfromtheformsandthedistributionsoflabor。Itis，then，ameaninglessaffirmationtosaythatallthisisbutasimpleprolongationofnature，unlessonewishestoemploythiswordinsogenericasensethatitnolongerindicatesanythingpreciseanddistinct；
thatwhichisnotrealizedbytheworkofman。
Historyistheworkofmaninsofarasmancancreateandimprovehisinstrumentsoflabor，andwiththeseinstrumentscancreateanartificialenvironmentwhosecomplicatedeffectsreactlateruponhimself，andwhichbyitspresentstateanditssuccessivemodificationsistheoccasionandtheconditionofhisdevelopment。Thereare，then，noreasonsforcarryingbackthatworkofmanwhichishistorytothesimplestruggleforexistence。
Ifthisstrugglemodifiesandimprovestheorgansofanimals，andifingivencircumstancesandmethodsitproducesanddevelopsneworgans，itstilldoesnotproducethatcontinuous，perfectedandtraditionalmovementwhichisthehumanprocessus。OurdoctrinemustnotbeconfoundedwithDarwinism，anditneednotinvokeanewtheconceptionofamythical，mysticalormetaphoricalformoffatalism。Ifitistrueineffectthathistoryrests，beforeallelse，uponthedevelopmentoftechnique，thatistosay，ifitistruethatthesuccessivediscoveryoftoolsgivesrisetothesuccessivedistributionsoflabor，andtherewithtotheinequalitieswhosesumtotal，moreorlessstable，formsthesocialorganism，itisequallytruethatthediscoveryoftheseinstrumentsisatoncethecauseandtheeffectoftheseconditionsandofthoseformsoftheinnerlifetowhich，isolatingthembypsychologicalabstraction，wegivethenameofimagination，intellect，reason，thought，etc。Byproducingsuccessivelythedifferentsocialenvironment，thatistosay，thesuccessiveartificialfoundations，manhasproducedhimself，andinthisconsiststheseriouskernel，theconcretereason，thepositivefoundationofthatwhichbyvariousfantasticcombinationsandbyavariedlogicalarchitecturehassuggestedtotheideologiststhenotionoftheprogressofthehumanmind。
Nevertheless，thisexpressionofnaturalizinghistory，which，understoodintoobroadandtoogenericasense，maybetheoccasionoftheequivocationsofwhichwehavespoken，whenitis，onthecontrary，employedwithproperprecautionandinatentativefashion，sumsupbrieflythecriticismofalltheideologicalviewswhich，intheinterpretationofhistory，startfromthishypothesis，thathumanworkoractivityareoneandthesamewithfreewill，freechoiceandvoluntarydesigns。
Itwaseasyandconvenientforthetheologianstocarrybackthecourseofhumaneventstoapreconceivedplanordesign，becausetheypasseddirectlyfromthefactsofexperiencetoanassumedmindwhichruledtheuniverse。
Thejurists，whofirsthadoccasiontodiscoverintheinstitutionswhichformedtheobjectoftheirstudiesacertainguidingthreadthroughtheformswhichmanifestlysucceededeachother，carriedover，astheystillcarryoverascheerfully，thereasoningfacultywhichistheirownduality，toserveasanexplanationforthewholevastsocialfabric，howevercomplicated。
Themenofpolitics，whonaturallytaketheirpointofdepartureinthisdatumofexperience，thattheofficersofthestate，whetherbytheacquiescenceofthesubjectmassesorprofitingbytheantithesesofinterestsofthedifferentsocialgroups，maysetaimsforthemselvesandrealizethemvoluntarilyandindeliberatefashion——thesemenarebroughttoseeinthesuccessionofhumaneventsonlyavariationofthesedesigns，theseprojectsandtheseintentions。Nowourconception，whilerevolutionizingintheirfoundationsthehypothesesofthetheologians，thejuristsandthepoliticians，terminatesinthisaffirmation，thathumanlaborandactivityingeneralarenotalwaysoneandthesamethinginthecourseofhistorywiththewillwhichactswithdesign，withpreconceivedplansandwithitsfreechoiceofmeans；thatistosay，thattheyarenotoneandthesamethingwiththereasoningfaculty。
Allthathashappenedinhistoryistheworkofman，butitwasnot，andisnot，withrareexceptions，theresultofacriticalchoiceorofareasoningdesire。Moreover，itwasandisthroughnecessitythat，determinedbyexternalneedsandoccasions，thisactivityengendersanexperienceandadevelopmentofinternalandexternalorgans。Amongtheseorganswemustincludeintelligenceandreasonwhichalsoaretheresultandconsequenceofrepeatedandaccumulatedexperience。Theintegralformationofmaninhishistoricaldevelopmentishenceforthnolongerahypotheticaldatumnorasimpleconjecture。Itisanintuitiveandpalpabletruth。Theconditionsoftheprocessuswhichengendersastepofprogressarehenceforthreducibleintoaseriesofexplanations；
anduptoacertainpointwehaveunderoureyesthescheduleofallhistoricaldevelopments，morphologicallyconceived。Thisdoctrineistheclearanddefinitenegationofallideology，becauseitistheexplicitnegationofeveryformofrationalism，understandingbythiswordthisconcept，thatthingsintheirexistenceandtheirdevelopmentanswertoanorm，anideal，ameasure，anend，inanimplicitorexplicitfashion。Thewholecourseofhumaneventsisasum，asuccessionofseriesofconditionswhichmenhavemadeandlaiddownforthemselvesthroughtheexperienceaccumulatedintheirchangingsociallife，butitrepresentsneitherthetendencytorealizeapredeterminedendnorthedeviationofafirstprinciplefromperfectionandfelicity。
Progressitselfimpliesmerelythatempiricalandcircumstantialnotionofathingwhichisatpresentdefinedinourmind，because，thankstothedevelopmentthusfarrealized，weareinapositiontoestimatethepastandtoforesee，atleastinacertainsenseandinacertainmeasure，thefuture。
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Inthisfashionaseriousambiguityisdissolvedandtheerrorscarriedwithitareremoved。Reasonableandwellfoundedisthetendencyofthosewhoaimtosubordinatethesumtotalofhumaneventsintheircoursetotherigorousconceptionofdeterminism。Thereis，onthecontrary，noreasonforconfusingthisderived，reflexandcomplexdeterminismwiththedeterminismoftheimmediatestruggleforexistencewhichisproducedanddevelopedonafieldnotmodifiedbythecontinuedactionoflabor。Legitimateandwellfounded，inanabsolutefashion，isthehistoricalexplanationwhichproceedsinitscoursefromthevolitionswhichhavevoluntarilyregulatedthedifferentphasesoflife，tothemotivesandobjectivecausesofeverychoice，discoveredintheconditionsofenvironment，territory，accessiblemeansofexistenceandconditionsofexperience。Butthereis，onthecontrary，nofoundationforthatopinionwhichtendstothenegationofeveryvolitionbyconsequenceofatheoreticalviewwhichwouldsubstituteautomatismforvoluntarism。
Thereisnothinginit，asamatteroffact，butapureandsimpleconceit。
Whereverthemeansofproductionhavedeveloped，toacertainpoint，wherevertheartificialfoundationhasacquiredacertainconsistency，andwhereverthesocialdifferentiationsandtheirresultingantitheseshavecreatedtheneed，thepossibilityandtheconditionsofanorganizationmoreorlessstableorunstable，there，alwaysandnecessarily，appearpremeditateddesigns，politicalviews，plansofconduct，systemsoflawandfinallymaximsandgeneralandabstractprinciples。Inthecircleoftheseproducts，andofthesederivedandcomplexdevelopmentsoftheseconddegree，springupalsothesciencesandarts，philosophyandlearning，andhistoryasaliteraryfashionofproduction。Thiscircleiswhattherationalistsandtheideologists，ignorantofitsrealfoundations，havecalled，andcall，inanexclusivefashion，civilization。And，infact，ithashappened，andithappens，thatsomemen，andespeciallyprofessionalscientists，layorclerical，havefound，andfind，themeansofintellectuallivelihoodintheclosedcircleofthereflexandsecondaryproductsofcivilization，andthattheyhavebeenableandareableconsequentlytosubmitalltheresttothesubjectiveviewwhichtheyhaveelaboratedundertheseconditions；thatis，theoriginandexplanationofalltheideologies。Ourdoctrinehasdefinitelyoutgrownthevisualangleofideology。Thepremeditateddesigns，thepoliticalviews，sciences，systemsoflaw，etc。，insteadofbeingthemeansandtheinstrumentoftheexplanationofhistory，arepreciselywhatrequiretobeexplained，becausetheyarederivedfromdeterminedconditionsandsituations。Butthatdoesnotmeanthattheyarepureappearances，soapbubbles。Iftheyarethingswhichhavebeendevelopedandderived，thatdoesnotimplythattheyarenotrealthings；
andthatissotruethattheyhavebeen，forcenturies，totheunscientificconsciousness，andtothescientificconsciousnessstillonthewaytowardsitsformation，theonlyoneswhichreallyexisted。
Butthatisnotall。
Ourdoctrine，likeothers，mayleadtoreverieandofferanoccasionandathemeforanewinvertedideology。Itwasbornonthebattlefieldofcommunism。
Itassumestheappearanceofthemodernproletariatonthepoliticalstage，anditassumesthatalignmentupontheoriginsofourpresentsocietywhichhaspermittedustoreconstructinacriticalmannerthewholegenesisofthebourgeoisie。Itisadoctrinerevolutionaryfromtwopointsofview：
becauseithasfoundthereasonsandthemethodsofdevelopmentoftheproletarianrevolutionwhichisinthemaking，andbecauseitproposestofindthecausesandtheconditionsofdevelopmentofallothersocialrevolutionswhichhavetakenplaceinthepast，intheclassantagonismswhicharrivedatacertaincriticalpoint，byreasonofthecontradictionbetweentheformsofproductionandthedevelopmentoftheproducingforces。Andthisisnotall。Inthelightofthisdoctrinewhatisessentialinhistoryissummedupinthesecriticalmoments，anditabandons，momentarilyatleast，whatunitesthesedifferentmomentstothelearnedministrationsoftheprofessionalnarrators。
Asarevolutionarydoctrineitis，beforeallelse，theintellectualconsciousnessoftheactualproletarianmovementinwhich，accordingtoourassertion，thefutureofcommunismispreparinglongbeforehand；somuchsothattheopenadversariesofsocialismrejectitasanopinion，which，underascientificmask，isonlyworkingoutanotherutopia。
Thusitmayhappen，andthathasalreadyresulted，thattheimaginationofpeopleunfamiliarwiththedifficultiesofhistoricresearch，andthezealoffanatics，findastimulusandanopportunityeveninhistoricmaterialismforforminganewideologyanddrawingfromitanewphilosophyofsystematichistory，thatistosay，historyconceivedasschemesortendenciesanddesigns。
Andnoprecautioncansuffice。Ourintellectisrarelycontentedwithpurelycriticalresearch；itisalwaysattemptingtoconvertintoanelementofpedantryandintoanewscholasticismeverydiscoveryofthought。Inaword，eventhematerialisticconceptionofhistorymaybeconvertedintoaformofargumentationforathesisandservetomakenewfashionswiththeancientprejudiceslikethatofahistorybasedonsyllogisms，demonstrationsanddeductions。
Toguardagainstthis，andespeciallytoavoidthereappearanceinanindirectanddisguisedfashionofanyformwhateveroffinality，itisnecessarytoresolvepositivelyupontwothings：First，thatallknownhistoricconditionsarecircumstanced，andsecond，thatprogresshasthusfarbeencircumscribedbyvariousobstaclesandthatforthisreasonithasalwaysbeenpartialandlimited。
Onlyapart，and，untilrecenttimes，onlyasmallpartofthehumanrace，hastraversedcompletelyallthestagesoftheprocessusbytheeffectofwhichthemostadvancednationshavearrivedatmoderncivilsociety，withtheadvancedtechnicalformsfoundeduponthediscoveriesofscienceandwithalltheconsequences，political，intellectual，moral，etc。，whichcorrespondtothisdevelopment。BythesideoftheEnglish——totakethemoststrikingexample——who，transportingEuropeanmannerswiththemtoNewHolland，havecreatedthereacenterofproductionwhichalreadyholdsanotableplaceinthecompetitionoftheworld’smarket，therestilllive，likefossilsofprehistorictimes，theAustralianaborigines，capableonlyofdisappearing，butincapableofadaptingthemselvestoacivilizationwhichwasnotimportedamongthem，butnexttothem。InAmerica，andespeciallyinNorthAmerica，theseriesofeventswhichhavebroughtonthedevelopmentofmodernsocietybeganwiththeimportationfromEuropeofdomesticanimalsandagriculturaltools，theuseofwhichinancienttimesgavebirthtotheslowmovingcivilizationoftheMediterranean；butthismovementremainedentirelyinsidethecircleofthosedescendedfromtheconquerorsandcolonists，whiletheaboriginesarelostinthemassthroughtheinterminglingofracesorperishanddisappearcompletely。WesternAsiaandEgypt，whichalreadyinveryancienttimes，asthefirstcradleofallourcivilization，gavebirthtothegreatsemi-politicalformationswhichmarkedthefirstphasesofcertainandpositivehistory，haveappearedtousforcenturiesascrystallizationsofsocialformsincapableofmovingonofthemselvestonewphasesofdevelopment。Uponthemistheage-longweightofthebarbariccamp——thedominionoftheTurk。Intothisstiffenedmassisintroducedbysecretwaysamodernadministration，andinthenameofbusinessintereststherailroadsandthetelegraphspushin——boldoutpostsoftheconqueringEuropeanbank。Allthisstiffenedmasshasnohopeofresuminglife，heatandmotionexceptbytheruinoftheTurkishdominion，forwhicharebeingsubstitutedinthedifferentmethodsofdirectandindirectconquestthedominionandtheprotectorateoftheEuropeanbourgeoisie。
Thataprocessoftransformationofbackwardnationsorofnationsarrestedintheirmarch，canberealizedandhastenedunderexternalinfluences，Indiastandsasaproof。Thiscountry，withitsownlifestillsurvivingre-entersvigorouslyundertheactionofEnglandintothecirculationofinternationalactivityevenwithitsintellectualproducts。Thesearenottheonlycontrastsinthehistoricphysiognomyofourcontemporaries。AndwhileinJapan，byanacuteandspontaneousphenomenonofimitation，therehasdeveloped，inlessthanthirtyyears，acertainassimilationofwesterncivilizationwhichisalreadymovingnormallythecountry’sownenergies，theforciblelawofRussianconquestisdraggingintothecircleofmodernindustry，andevenintogreatindustry，certainnotableportionsofthecountrybeyondtheCaspian，asanoutpostoftheapproachingacquisitiontothesphereofcapitalismofCentralAsiaandUpperAsia。ThegiganticmassofChinaappearedtousbutafewyearsagoasmotionlessinthehereditaryorganizationofitsinstitutions，soslowiseverymovementthere，whileforethnicandgeographicalreasonsalmostallAfricaremainedimpenetrable，and，itseemed，evenuptothelastattemptsatconquestandcolonization，thatitwasdestinedtoofferonlyitsborderstotheprocessofcivilization，asifwewerestillinthetimesnotevenofthePortuguese，butoftheGreeksandCarthaginians。
Thesedifferentiationsofmenonthetrackofwrittenandunwrittenhistoryseemtouseasilyexplicablewhentheycanbereferredtothenaturalandimmediateconditionswhichimposelimitsuponthedevelopmentoflabor。ThisisthecasewithAmerica，whichuptothearrivaloftheEuropeanshadbutonecereal，maize，andbutonedomesticanimalforlabor，thellama，andwecanrejoicethattheEuropeansimportedwiththemselvesandtheirtoolstheox，theassandthehorse，corn，cotton，sugarcane，coffeeandfinallythevineandtheorangetree，creatingthereanewworldofthatglorioussocietywhichproducesmerchandiseandwhichwithanextraordinaryswiftnessofmovementhasalreadytraversedthetwophasesoftheblackestslaveryandthemostdemocraticwagesystem。Butwherethereisarealhaltandevenanattestedretrogression，asinWesternAsia，inEgypt，intheBalkanPeninsulaandinNorthernAfrica——andthisarrestcannotbeattributedtothechangeofnaturalconditions——wefindtheproblembeforeuswhichisawaitingitssolutionfromthedirectandexplicitstudyofthesocialstructurestudiedintheinternalmodesofitsdevelopment，asintheinterlacingsandcomplicationsofthedifferentnationsuponthatfieldwhichisordinarilycalledthesceneofhistoricstruggles。
ThissamecivilizedEurope，whichbythecontinuityofitstradition，presentsthemostcompletediagramofitsprocessus，somuchsothatuponthismodelhavebeenconceivedandconstructed，thusfar，allthesystemsofhistoricalphilosophy，thisWesternandCentralEurope，whichproducedtheepochofthebourgeoisieandhassoughtandisseekingtoimposethatformofsocietyuponthewholeworldbydifferentmodesofconquest，directorindirect——thisEuropeisnotcompletelyuniforminthedegreeofitsdevelopment，anditsvariousagglomerations，national，localandpolitical，appeardisturbed，asitwere，overadecidedlyslopingladder。Uponthesedifferencesdependtheconditionsofrelativesuperiorityandinferiorityofonecountrytoanotherandthereasons，moreorlessadvantageousordisadvantageous，foreconomicexchange；andthereonhavedepended，andstilldepend，notonlythefrictionsandthestruggles，thetreatiesandthewars，butalsoeverythingthatwithmoreorlessprecisionthepoliticalwritershavebeenabletorelatetoussincetheRenaissance，andcertainlywithincreasingevidence，fromLouisXIVandColberttoourowntime。
ThisEuropeinitselfishighlyvariegated。Hereistheconsummateflowerofindustrialandcapitalistproduction，namely，England，whileatotherpointssurvivestheartisan，vigorousorrickety，atParisandatNaples，tograspthefactinitsextremepoints。Herethelandisalmostindustrialized，asinEnglandandelsewherevegetates，invarioustraditionalforms，thestupidpeasant，asinItalyandinAustria，andinthelattercountrymorethanintheformer。Inonecountrythepoliticallifeofthestate——suitedtotheprosaicconsciousnessofabourgeoisiewhichknowsitsbusinessbecauseithasconqueredthespacethatitoccupies——isexertedinthesurestandmostopenfashionofanexplicitclassdomination（itwillbeunderstoodthatIamspeakingofFrance）。Elsewhere，andparticularlyinGermany，theoldfeudalcustoms，thehypocrisyofProtestantismandthecowardiceofabourgeoisiewhichexploitsfavorableeconomiccircumstanceswithoutbringingtothemeitherintelligenceorrevolutionarycourage，strengthentheexistingstatebypreservingthelyingappearancesofanethicalmissiontobeaccomplished。
（Withhowmanyunpalatablesaucesthisstateethics，Prussianintothebargain，hasbeenservedupbytheheavyandpedanticGermanprofessors！）Hereandtheremoderncapitalistproductionisedgingitswayintocountrieswhichfromotherpointsofviewdonotenterintoourmovementandespeciallyintoitspoliticalside，asisthecasewithunhappyPoland；oragainthisformonlypenetratesindirectly，asintheSlavoniccountries。Butnowcomesthesharpestcontrast，whichseemsdestinedtoputunderoureyes，asinanepitome，allthephrases，eventhemostextreme，ofourhistory。
Russiacouldnothaveadvanced，asitisnowadvancing，towardthegreatindustry，withoutdrawingfromWesternEurope，andespeciallyfromourcharmingFrenchChauvinsim，thatmoneywhichshewouldinvainhavesoughtwithinherownborders，thatistosay，fromtheconditionsofherobeseterritorialmass，wherevegetateinancienteconomicformsfiftymillionpeasants。Russia，inordertobecomeaneconomicmodernsocietyripeningtheconditionsofacorrespondingpoliticalrevolution，andpreparingthemeanswhichwillfacilitatetheadditionofalargepartofAsiatothecapitalistmovement，hasbeenledtodestroythelastrelicsofagrariancommunism（whetheritsoriginsbeprimitiveorsecondary）whichhadbeenpreservedwithinherselfuptothispointinsuchcharacteristicformsandonsolargeascale。Russiamustcapitalizeherself，andtothisendshemust，tostartwith，convertlandintomerchandisecapableofproducingmerchandise，andatthesametimetransformintomiserableproletarianstheex-communistsoftheland。
And，onthecontrary，inWesternandCentralEuropewefindourselvesattheoppositepointoftheseriesofdevelopmentwhichhasscarcelybeguninRussia。Here，withus，wherethebourgeoisie，withvariedfortunesandtriumphingoversuchavarietyofdifficulties，hasalreadytraversedsomanystagesofitsdevelopment，itisnottherecollectionofprimitiveorsecondarycommunism，whichscarcelysurvivesthroughlearnedcombinationsintheheadsofscholars，buttheveryformofbourgeoisproduction，whichengendersintheproletariansthetendencytosocialism，whichpresentsitselfinitsgeneraloutlinesasanindicationofanewphaseofhistoryandnotastherepetitionofwhatisinevitablyperishingintheSlavoniccountriesunderoureyes。
Whocouldfailtoseeintheseillustrations，whichIhavenotsoughtout，butwhichhavecomealmostbychance，andwhichcanbeindefinitelyprolongedinavolumeofeconomic-politicalgeographyofthepresentworld，theevidentproofofthemannerinwhichhistoricconditionsareallcircumstancedintheformsoftheirdevelopment。Notonlyracesandpeoples，nationsandstates，butpartsofnationsandvariousregionsofstates，evenordersandclasses，arefound，asitwere，uponsomanyroundsofaverylongladder，or，rather，uponthevariouspointsofacomplicatedandslowlydevelopingcurve。Historictimehasnotmarcheduniformlyforallmen。Thesimplesuccessionofgenerationshasneverbeentheindexoftheconstancyandintensityoftheprocessus。Timeasanabstractmeasureofchronologyandthegenerationswhichsucceedoneanotherinapproximateperiodsgivenocriterionandfurnishnoindicationoflaworofprocess。Thedevelopmentsthusfarhavebeenvariedbecausethethingsaccomplishedinoneandthesameunitoftimewerevaried。
Betweenthesevariedformsofdevelopmentthereisanaffinityorratherasimilarityofmovements，thatis，ananalogyoftype，oragainanidentityofform；thustheadvancedformsmaybysimplecontactorbyviolenceacceleratethedevelopmentofbackwardforms。Buttheimportantthingistocomprehendthatprogress，ournotionofwhichisnotmerelyempirical，butalwayscircumstancedandthuslimited，isnotsuspendedoverthecourseofhumaneventslikeadestinyorafate，norlikeacommandment。Andforthisreasonourdoctrinecannotservetorepresentthewholehistoryofthehumanraceinaunifiedperspectivewhichrepeats，mutatismutandis，thehistoricphilosophyfromthesistoconclusion，fromSt。AugustinetoHegel，or，better，fromtheprophetDanieltoM。DeRougemont。
Ourdoctrinedoesnotpretendtobetheintellectualvisionofagreatplanorofadesign，butitismerelyamethodofresearchandofconception。
ItisnotbyaccidentthatMarxspokeofhisdiscoveryasaguidingthread，anditispreciselyforthisreasonthatitisanalogoustoDarwinism，whichalsoisamethod，andisnotandcannotbeamodernrepetitionoftheconstructedorconstructivenaturalphilosophyasusedbyShellingandhisschool。
ThefirsttodiscoverinthenotionofprogressanindicationofsomethingcircumstantialandrelativewasthegenialSaintSimon，whoopposedhiswayofseeingtothedoctrineoftheeighteenthcenturyrepresentedbythepartyofCondorcet。Tothatdoctrine，whichmaybecalledunitary，equalitarian，formal，becauseitregardsthehumanraceasdevelopingupononelineofprocess，SaintSimonopposestheconceptionofthefacultiesandoftheaptitudeswhichsubstitutethemselvesandcompensateforeachother，andthusheremainsanideologist。
Topenetratethetruereasonsfortherelativityofprogressanotherthingwasnecessary。Itwasnecessary，firstofall，torenouncethoseprejudiceswhichareinvolvedinthebeliefthattheobstaclestotheuniformityofhumandevelopmentrestexclusivelyuponnaturalandimmediatecauses。Thesenaturalobstaclesareeithersufficientlyproblematical，asisthecasewithraces，nooneofwhichshowstheprivilegeofbirthinitshistory，ortheyare，asisthecaseingeographicaldifferences，insufficienttoexplainthedevelopmentofthecompletelydifferenthistorico-socialconditionsononeandthesamegeographicalfield。Andasthehistoricmovementdatespreciselyfromthetimewhenthenaturalobstacleshavealreadybeeningreatparteithervanquishedornotablycircumscribed，thankstothecreationofanartificialfielduponwhichithasbeengiventomentodevelopthemselvesfurther，itisevidentthatthesuccessiveobstaclestotheuniformityofprogressmustbesoughtintheproperandintrinsicconditionsofthesocialstructureitself。
Thisstructurehasthusfarstartedinformsofpoliticalorganization，theobjectofwhichistotrytoholdinequilibriumtheeconomicinequalities；
consequentlythisorganization，asIhavesaidmorethanonceisconstantlyunstable。Fromthepointwherethereisaknownhistory，itisthehistoryofsocietytendingtoformthestate，orhavingalreadyconstructeditcompletely。
Andthestateisthisstruggle，withinandwithout，becauseitis，aboveall，theorganandtheinstrumentofalargerorsmallerpartofsocietyagainstalltherestofsocietyitself，insofarasthelatterrestsupontheeconomicdominationofmanovermaninamoreorlessdirectandexplicitfashion，accordingasthedifferentdegreeofthedevelopmentofproduction，ofitsnaturalmeansanditsartificialinstruments，requireseitherchattelslavery，ortheserfdomofthesoil，orthe\"free\"wagesystem。
Thissocietyofantitheses，whichformsastate，isalways，althoughindifferentformsandvariousmodes，theoppositionofthecitytothecountry，oftheartisantothepeasant，oftheproletariantotheemployer，ofthecapitalisttothelaborer，andsoonadinfinitum，anditalwaysends，withvariouscomplicationsandvariousmethods，inanhierarchy，whetheritbeinafixedscaffoldingofprivilege，asintheMiddleAges，orwhether，underthedisguisedformsofsupposedequalrightsforall，itbeproducedbytheautomaticactionofeconomiccompetition，asinourtime。
Tothiseconomichierarchycorresponds，accordingtovariousmodes，indifferentcountries，indifferenttimes，indifferentplaces，whatImaycallalmostahierarchyofsouls，ofintellects，ofminds。Thatistosay，thatculture，which，fortheidealists，constitutesthesumofprogress，hasbeenandisbythenecessitiesofthecaseveryunequallydistributed。
Thegreaterportionofmankind，bythequalityoftheiroccupations，arecomposedofindividualswhoaredisintegrated，brokenintofragmentsandrenderedincapableofacompleteandnormaldevelopment。Totheeconomicsofclassesandtothehierarchyofsocialpositionscorrespondsthepsychologyofclasses。Therelativityofprogressisthenforustheinevitableconsequenceofclassdistinctions。Thesedistinctionsconstitutetheobstacleswhichexplainthepossibilityofrelativeretrogression，uptothepointofdegeneracyandofthedissolutionofanentiresociety。Themachines，whichmarkthetriumphofscience，become，byreasonoftheantitheticconditionsofthesocialplexus，instrumentswhichimpoverishmillionsandmillionsofartisansandfreepeasants。Theprogressoftechnique，whichfillsthetownswithmerchandise，makesmoremiserableandabjecttheconditionofthepeasants，andinthecitiesthemselvesitfurtherhumblestheconditionofthehumble。
Alltheprogressofsciencehasservedthusfartodifferentiateaclassofscientistsandtokeepeverfurtherfromculturethemasseswho，attachedtotheirceaselessdailytoil，arethusfeedingthewholeofsociety。
Progresshasbeenandis，uptothepresenttime，partialandone-sided。
Theminoritieswhichshareinitcallthishumanprogress；andtheproudevolutionistscallthishumannaturewhichisdeveloping。Allthispartialprogress，whichhasthusfardevelopedupontheoppressionofmanbyman，hasitsfoundationintheconditionsofopposition，bywhicheconomicdistinctionshaveengenderedallthesocialdistinctions；fromtherelativelibertyofthefewisborntheservitudeofthegreaternumber，andlawhasbeentheprotectorofinjustice。Progress，thusseenandclearlyappreciated，appearstousasthemoralandintellectualepitomeofallhumanmiseriesandofallmaterialinequalities。
Todiscoverthisinevitablerelativityitwasnecessarythatcommunism，bornatfirstasaninstinctivemovementinthesouloftheoppressed，shouldbecomeascienceandapoliticalparty。Itwasthennecessarythatourdoctrineshouldgivethemeasureofvalueforallpasthistory，bydiscoveringineveryformofsocialorganization，antitheticalinitsoriginandorganization，astheyhaveallbeenuptothistime，theinnateincapacityforproducingtheconditionsofauniversalanduniformhumanprogress，thatistosay，bydiscoveringthefetterswhichturneachbenefitintoaninjury。
VI
Thereisonequestionwhichwecannotevade：Whathasgivenbirthtothebeliefinhistoricfactors？
Thatisanexpressionfamiliartomanyandoftenfoundinthewritingsofmanyscholars，scientistsandphilosophers，andofthosecommentatorswho，bytheirreasoningsorbytheircombinations，addalittletosimplehistoricnarrationandutilizethisopinionasanhypothesistofindastartingpointintheimmensemassofhumanfacts，which，atfirstsightandafterfirstexamination，appearsoconfusedandirreducible。Thisbelief，thiscurrentopinion，hasbecomeforreasoninghistorians，orevenforrationalists，asemi-doctrine，whichhasrecentlybeenurgedseveraltimes，asadecisiveargument，againsttheunitarytheoryofthematerialisticconception。Andindeed，thisbeliefissodeeplyrootedandthisopinionsowidespread，ofhistorybeingonlyintelligibleasthejunctureandthemeetingofvariousfactors，that，inconsequence，manyofthosewhospeakofsocialmaterialism，whethertheybeitspartisansoradversaries，believethattheysavethemselvesfromembarrassmentbyaffirmingthatthiswholedoctrineconsistsinthefactthatitattributesthepreponderanceorthedecisiveactiontotheeconomicfactor。
Itisveryimportanttotakeaccountofthefashioninwhichthisbelief，thisopinion，orthissemi-doctrinetakesitsrise，becauserealandfruitfulcriticismconsistsprincipallyinknowingandunderstandingthemotiveofwhatwedeclareanerror。Itdoesnotsufficetorejectanopinionbycharacterizingitasfalsedoctrine。Erroralwaysarisesfromsomeill-understoodsideofanincompleteexperience，orfromsomesubjectiveimperfection。Itdoesnotsufficetorejecttheerror；wemustovercomeit，explainitandoutgrowit。
Everyhistorian，atthebeginningofhiswork，performs，sotospeak，anactofelimination。First，hemakeserasures，asitwere，inacontinuousseriesofevents；thenhedispenseswithnumerousandvariedsuppositionsandprecedents；morethanthis，hetearsupanddecomposesacomplicatedtissue。Thus，tobeginwith，hemustfixapoint，aline，aboundary，ashechooses；hemustsay，forexample：IwishtorelatethebeginningofthewarbetweentheGreeksandthePersians，ortoinquirehowLouisXVI。wasbroughttoconvenetheStatesGeneral。Thenarratorfindshimself，inaword，confrontedwithacomplexusofaccomplishedfactsandoffactsonthepointofbeingproduced，whichintheirtotalitypresentacertainaspect。Upontheattitudewhichhetakesdependstheformandthestyleofeverynarration，becausetocomposeithemusttakehispointofdeparturefromthingsalreadyaccomplished，inordertoseehenceforthhowtheyhavecontinuedtodevelop。
Yetintothiscomplexushemustintroduceacertaindegreeofanalysis，resolvingitintogroupsandintoaspectsoffacts，orintoconcurrentelements，whichafterwardsappearatacertainmomentasindependentcategories。Itisthestateinacertainformandwithcertainpowers；itisthelaws，whichdetermine，bywhattheycommandorwhattheyprohibit，certainrelations；
itisthemannersandcustomswhichrevealtoustendencies，needs，waysofthinking，ofbelieving，ofimagining；altogetheritisamultitudeofmenlivingandworkingtogether，withacertaindistributionoftasksandoccupations；heobservesthenthethoughts，theideas，theinclinations，thepassions，thedesires，theaspirationswhichariseanddevelopfromthisvariedmodeofcoexistenceandfromitsfrictions。Letachangebeproduced，anditwillshowitselfinoneofthesidesoroneoftheaspectsoftheempiricalcomplexus，orinallofthesewithinalongerorashortertime；
forexample，thestateextendsitsboundaries，orchangesitsinternallimitsasregardssocietybyincreasingordiminishingitspowersanditsattributes，orbychangingthemodeofactionofoneortheother；or，again，thelawmodifiesitsdispositions，oritexpressesandaffirmsitselfthroughneworgans；or，again，finally，behindthechangeofexterioranddailyhabits，wediscoverachangeinthesentiments，thethoughtsandtheinclinationsofthemenvariouslydistributedinthedifferentsocialclasses，whomingle，change，replaceeachother，disappearorreappear。Allthismaybesufficientlyunderstood，initsexteriorformsandoutlines，throughtheusualendowmentsofnormalintelligencewhichisnotyetaided，correctedorcompletedbysciencestrictlyso-called。Assemblingwithinpreciselimitsaconceptionofsuchfactsisthetrueandproperobjectofnarration，whichissomuchtheclearer，morevividandmoreexact，asittakestheformofamonograph；
witnessThucydidesinthePeloponnesianwar。
Societyalreadyevolvedinacertainfashion，societyalreadyarrivedatacertaindegreeofdevelopment，societyalreadysocomplicatedthatitconcealstheeconomicsubstructurewhichsupportsalltherest，hasnotrevealeditselftothesimplenarrators，exceptinthesevisiblefacts，inthesemostapparentresults，andinthesemostsignificantsymptomswhicharethepoliticalforms，thelegaldispositionsandthepartisanpassions。Thenarrator，bothbecausehelacksanytheoreticaldoctrineregardingthetruesourcesofthehistoricmovement，andbytheveryattitudewhichhetakesonthesubjectofthethingswhichheunitesaccordingtotheappearanceswhichtheyhavecometoassume，cannotreducethemtounity，unlessitbeasaresultofasingle，immediateintuition，andifheisanartist，thisintuitiontakesonacolorinhismindandtransformsitselfthereintodramaticaction。
Histaskisfinishedifhesucceedsinmassingacertainnumberoffactsandeventsincertainlimitsandconfinesoverwhichtheobservermaylookasonaclearperspective；inthesameway，purelydescriptivegeographyhasaccomplisheditstask，ifitsumsupinavividandcleardesignaconcourseofphysicalcauseswhichdeterminetheimmediateaspectoftheGulfofNaples，forexample，withoutgoingbacktoitsgenesis。
Itisinthisneedofgraphicnarrationthatarisesthefirstintuitive，palpable，and，Imightalmostsay，estheticandartisticoccasionforallthoseabstractionsandthosegeneralizations，whicharefinallysummedupinthesemi-doctrineoftheso-calledfactors。
Herearetwonotablemen，theGracchi，whowishedtoputanendtotheprocessofappropriationofthepubliclandandtopreventtheagglomerationofthelatifundium，whichwasdiminishingorcausingtocompletelydisappeartheclassofsmallproprietors，thatistosay，ofthefreemen，whoarethefoundationandtheconditionofthedemocraticlifeoftheancientcity。
Whatwerethecausesoftheirfailure。Theiraimisclear，theirspirit，theirorigin，theircharacter，theirheroismaremanifest。Theyhaveagainstthemothermenwithotherinterestsandwithotherdesigns。Thestruggleappearstothemindatfirstmerelyasastruggleofintentionsandpassions，whichunfoldsandcomestoanendbytheaidofmeanswhicharepermittedbythepoliticalformofthestateandbytheuseorabuseorthepublicpowers。Hereisthesituation：thecityrulingindifferentmannersoverothercitiesoroverterritorieswhichhavelostallcharacterofautonomy；
withinthiscityaverydecideddifferentiationbetweenrichandpoor；andfacingthecomparativelysmallgroupoftheoppressorsandtheall-powerful，standstheimmensemassoftheproletarians，whoareonthepointoflosingorwhohavealreadylosttheconsciousnessandthepoliticalstrengthofabodyofcitizens，themasswhichthereforesuffersitselftobedeceivedandcorrupted，andwhichwillsoondecaytillitisbutaservileaccessorytoitsaristocraticexploiters。Thereisthematerialofthenarrator，andhecannottakeaccountofthefactotherwisethanintheimmediateconditionsofthefactitself。Thecompletewholeisdirectlyseenandformsthestageonwhichtheeventsunfold，butifthenarrationistohavesolidity，vividnessandperspectivetheremustbepointsofdepartureandwaysofinterpretation。
Inthisconsiststhefirstoriginofthoseabstractions，whichlittlebylittletakeawayfromthedifferentpartsofagivensocialcomplexustheirqualityofsimplesidesoraspectsofawhole，anditistheirensuinggeneralizationwhichlittlebylittleleadstothedoctrineoffactors。
Thesefactors，toexpressitinanotherway，ariseinthemindasasequenceoftheabstractionandgeneralizationoftheimmediateaspectsoftheapparentmovement，andtheyhaveanequalvaluewiththatofallotherempiricalconcepts。
Whateverbethedomainofknowledgeinwhichtheyarise，theypersistuntiltheyarereducedandeliminatedbyanewexperience，oruntiltheyareabsorbedbyaconceptionmoregeneral，genetic，evolutionaryordialectic。Wasitnotnecessarythatintheempiricalanalysisandintheimmediatestudyofthecausesandtheeffectsofcertaindefinitephenomena，forexamplethephenomenaofheat，themindshouldfirststopatthispresumptionandthispersuasion，thatitcouldandshouldattributethemtoasubject，whichifitwasneverforanyphysicistatrueandsubstantialentity，wascertainlyconsideredasadefiniteandspecificforce，namely，heat。Nowweseethatatagivenmoment，asaresultofnewexperiences，thisheatisresolvedingivenconditionsintoacertainquantityofmotion。Stillfurther，ourthoughtisnowonthewaytowardresolvingallthesephysicalfactorsintothefluxofoneuniversalenergy，inwhichthehypothesesoftheatoms，intheextenttowhichitisnecessary，losesallresidueofmetaphysicalsurvival。
Wasitnotinevitable，asafirststepofknowledgeinwhatconcernstheproblemoflife，tospendaconsiderabletimeintheseparatestudyoftheorgansandtoreducethemtosystems？Withoutthisanatomy，whichseemstoomaterialandtoogross，noprogressinthesestudieswouldhavebeenpossible；
andnevertheless，abovetheunknowngenesisandco-ordinationofsuchananalyticmultiplicity，therewereevolving，uncertainandvague，thegenericconceptionsoflife，soul，etc。Inthesementalcreationshavelongbeenseenthatbiologicalunitywhichhasfinallyfounditsobjectinthecertainbeginningofthecellandinitsprocessofimmanentmultiplication。
Moredifficultcertainlywasthewaywhichthethoughthadtotraversetoreconstructthegenesisofallthefactsofpsychiclife，fromthemostelementarysuccessionsuptothemostcomplexderivedproducts。Notonlyforreasonsoftheoreticaldifficulties，butinconsequenceofpopularprejudices，theunityandcontinuityofpsychicphenomenaappeared，uptothetimeofHerbart，asseparatedanddividedintosomanyfactors，facultiesofthesoul。
Theinterpretationofthehistorico-socialprocessusmetthesamedifficulties；
italsowasobligedtostopatfirstintheprovisionalviewoffactors。
Andthatbeingso，itiseasyforusnowtofindagainthefirstoriginofthatopinioninthenecessitythatthehistorianshaveoffindinginthefactsthattheyrelatewithmoreorlessartistictalentandindifferentprofessionalviews，certainpointsofimmediateorientation，suchasmaybeofferedbythestudyoftheapparentmovementofhumanevents。
Butinthisapparentmovement，therearetheelementsofamoreexactview。Theseconcurrentfactors，whichabstractthoughtconceivesandthenisolates，haveneverbeenseenactingeachforitself。Onthecontrary，theyactinsuchamannerthatitgivesbirthtotheconceptofreciprocalaction。